World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, 2 (1): 10-18, 2012 ISSN 2225-0883 © IDOSI Publications, 2012

Young Muslim Women and Their Relation with Physical Education Lessons

11Muhammad Akbar Zahidi, Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali and 2 Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor

1Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Islamic History and Civilization, Academy of Islamic Studies, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract: Previous research suggests that Muslim women can experience particular problems when taking physical education (PE) lessons, for example with dress codes, mixed-teaching and exercise during Ramadan and they can face restrictions in extra-curricular activities for cultural and religious reasons. The area is under- researched and there is little evidence of comparative studies that explore similarities and differences in cross- national experiences, which is the aim of this paper. Two studies conducted in Greece and Britain that explored the views of Muslim women on school experiences of physical education are compared. Both studies focused on diaspora communities, Greek Turkish girls and British Asian women, living in predominantly non-Muslim countries. Physical education has national curriculum status and a similar rationale in both countries but with different cultures of formality and tradition, which impacted on pupils’ experiences. For the British women religious identity and consciousness of Islamic requirements were more evident than for the Greek women. Differences in stages of acculturation, historical and socio-cultural contexts contributed to less problematic encounters with physical education for Greek Muslims who appeared more closely assimilated into the dominant culture.

Key words: Young women Muslim Physical education Cultural Religious

INTRODUCTION polarisation of civilisations’ between Islam and the West, it is important to examine the experiences of similar groups According to the literature, predominantly generated in different diaspora communities [4]. The rationale and in England, young Muslim women can face particular value of comparative studies is “… to gain greater issues at school during secondary (11-18 years) physical awareness and a deeper understanding of social reality in education and sports activities as a result of either actual different national contexts” [5]. Thanks to the work of or perceived restrictions placed on them by their culture, scholars such as there is a wealth of evidence about the sex, religion and ethnicity. It seems that all these factors ‘macro’ picture of the ‘promises and realities’ of physical can be powerful forces that restrict female participation education provision in Europe and world-wide [6]. There rates [1]. The aim of this interpretive study was to examine is less cross-national research into ‘micro’ perspectives, similarities and differences in the perceptions of twenty- lived experiences and realities of students in physical four Greek and twenty British Muslim women of physical education and sport, which strengthens the need for the education, school experiences and extra curricular current study [7]. Insight into the experiences of Muslim sporting provision. students in different contexts can contribute to improved Islam is the fastest growing religion in the history of knowledge of how complex overlays of religion, gender, the world [2]. Diaspora communities of Muslims are culture and ethnicity impact on experience of the subject. growing in many Western countries and evidence There has been a shift in comparative research suggests that Muslim communities and Muslim women towards recognising the importance of interpretative in particular, face similar difficulties across national studies provided the societal contexts are acknowledged. boundaries [3]. As the world confronts increasing The complexities of any cross-national comparative work challenge in relation to growing media-fuelled are acknowledged, because while similarities will exist “… islamophobia in the West and a simmering discourse of there are also differences and variations based in politico-

Corresponding Author: Muhammad Akbar Zahidi, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: +60195635325, Fax: +60355132375. 10 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (1): 10-18, 2012 ideological, socio-cultural, economic values and norms Islam, Gender and Physical Education: Research into the and ecological settings” [8]. The pursuit is driven by a experiences of ethnic minority groups has accelerated commitment to the rights of all young people to since the late 1980’s. In 1988 Carrington and Williams participation in physical education and sport. In this case suggested that Muslim students face difficulties in the Greek and British backgrounds of the researchers physical education and that ethnicity heightens gender helped with sensitivities towards the linguistic, socio- differences and shapes different attitudes and beliefs, cultural and institutional contexts that can create with girls facing more problems than boys. According to obstacles in understanding ‘thought processes, values their study, these problems are due to religious and and ideologies’ when conducting such research [9]. cultural traditions, which assign particular roles to men Questions of cultural difference and complexities of and women and contain strict codes controlling behaviour multiple identities in the post-modern world, impact on and conduct, thereby restricting access to physical any interpretive comparative study. The Greek and British education [14]. Muslim women in this study share a global religion, but Islam and physical education share some common they exist in distinctive, predominantly non-Muslim concerns, the central issue being control of the body, in countries, where religion and education have developed time and space, in rituals and cleanliness, in dress, in the in different cultural contexts. The dynamic, fluid nature of control of diet and pursuit of a healthy body. Furthermore, cultures, influencing and being influenced by the cultures both perpetuate gender specific notions of masculinity of others, or ‘cultures of hybridity’, are a reality of the and femininity and have been described as male domains modern world and will be influential in this study [10]. in which there has been an imbalance of power between For example, the growth of the Muslim diaspora in Britain the sexes [15]. is much more recent than in Greece ensuring differences The Islamic requirements for modesty and privacy are not met in kit requirements for short skirts, shorts and in the inter-relationship of diaspora and host communities. tee-shirts, public changing and showering situations. Any research in this area needs to remain sensitive After puberty Muslim pupils are supposed to be sex- to the fact that individuals differentially negotiate their segregated and many secondary school environments do multiple and complex layers of identity. Processes of not permit this. During Ramadan many Muslims fast from globalisation and cultural assimilation add to the sunrise to sunset so energy levels and hydration are risk complexities of the comparative study on experiences of factors in physical education and sporting activities. Greek and British Muslim women. The problems of Swimming is sometimes problematic because of the mixed- deciphering religious requirements from pseudo religious sex public nature of swimming baths and there is no community practices also add to the challenge of any consensus in Islam about the educational value of some research in this area [11]. curriculum subjects like dance and music [16]. Such Islamic culture refers to the lived experience of being tensions can continue into adulthood [17]. The recent a Muslim. ‘The code of living is expressed through Islamic outcry against the French banning of religious symbols in laws laid down in the Shari’ah. These codes imbue Islamic state schools and the hijab for Muslim girls in particular, culture, giving meaning to the way in which Muslims raises awareness of tensions across Europe. Wider global make sense of their lives, behave, dress, eat and issues have been recognised for some Muslim women drink’[12]. The all-encompassing nature of Islam is well- wishing to participate in sport at a serious international described by Mawdudi: level [18]. The literature reviewed suggests there could be Islam is not a religion in the Western understanding of shared experiences for young Muslim women across the word. It is at once a faith and a way of life, a national boundaries, in relation to tensions at the interface religion and a social order, a doctrine and a code of physical education, sporting activities and Islam. In of conduct, a set of values and principles and a exploring these issues across British and Greek social movement to realize them in history. boundaries the significance of context: historical, geographical, political and educational, will be important It needs to be stated that Muslim females are not an in analysis and interpretation [19]. homogeneous group and that there are differences in how they choose to resolve religious and other cultural The World Muslim Context: There are no reliable figures demands. For example, some choose to adopt the hijab but it is thought there are approximately 1.5 million (head-scarf) and Islamic dress, others do not [13]. Muslims in Britain [19]. The Muslim ethnic minority group

11 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (1): 10-18, 2012 in Britain is a relatively ‘new’ group. Although Muslims creativity and competitiveness, promoting positive have been in the country since the mid nineteenth century attitudes and active and healthy lifestyles [24]. Extra the largest migration has been post 1945, predominantly curricular provision has a similar long history as part of from South Asia, Pakistan and Bangladesh, in response to normal school provision, with variable success, demand for labour. Many arrived in the 1960’s before dependent on many factors. Increased centralised legislation curtailed entry. Numbers of Muslims arriving government focus on standards in education and in Britain declined in the 1970’s but have risen in the extending provision has meant increased funding and 1980’s and 1990’s with increased movement of refugees control over extra curriculum as well as curricular activities and asylum-seekers [20]. The majority of British Muslims in recent years. are still of South Asian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin. Mounting evidence of growing Islamophobia in Muslim Girls’ Experience in Physical Education: Britain that is a fear and intolerance of Islam and Muslim Much of the research into the experiences of Muslim girls people based on lack of knowledge and understanding and women in England indicates variable practice in about the religion. It is fuelled by the media through relation to accommodating the needs of Muslims. There reporting of events that links terrorism and are very recent signs of positive change. In conjunction fundamentalism to Islam and all Muslims [21]. Back-lash, with political shifts to a more ‘inclusive’ society many prejudice and discrimination are particularly vehement schools have adopted accommodating policies in physical against ‘visible Muslims’ who have adopted Islamic education. For example, some departments are allowing dress. track suits to be worn, increasing single-sex teaching Some examples of vast differences in the ways in where appropriate, making showers optional, ensuring which Muslim communities and individuals negotiate their new-build facilities have more privacy in space, cultural practices and identities, with both ‘fission changing/showering arrangements and adapting demands and fusion’ or polarisation and integration occurring during Ramadan, to engage pupils in less vigorous but simultaneously. Increasing numbers of British Muslims valuable ways in the lessons [25]. Most significantly, the are choosing to ‘privilege the religious component’ of growing political sensitivities towards ‘inclusion’ of their identity. The empowering effect of adopting Islamic marginalised groups, such as Muslim girls, was dress has been part of that trend for some Muslim women. encompassed in the latest National Curriculum for Education has been recognised as one of the few arenas physical education documentation. This stated that that have made positive changes in relation to the needs religious and cultural needs of pupils have to be met and of Muslims but there are continuing problems with low examples were given such as accommodation of dress achievement amongst some Muslim groups and alienation codes and modifying activities for Muslim pupils who fast from the education system [22]. Where Islamic religious during Ramadan [26]. requirements are not met in schools advice from some The indications are that policy and practice are sectors of the British community is for the exemption of moving in a more liberal and accommodating direction in Muslim children: ‘… head teachers should exempt their British education. Change appears to be patchy and the Muslim pupils from those areas where they cannot meet evidence suggests tensions and restrictions on young the Islamic requirements’ [23]. Physical education is at Muslim women persist. Increased plurality of the greater risk than most other subjects in meeting Islamic population has meant limited accommodation to religious requirements. difference. Approaches in other countries vary. For example in France, which has a secular education system, Physical Education and Sporting Activities Context: a law was passed in 2004 to ban all religious symbols, Physical education has been part of the formal curriculum including the hijab (Muslim headscarf). This was seen by for over one hundred years. When England and Wales many as an affront to human rights and as a adopted a National Curriculum for physical education in discriminatory policy [27]. the early 1990’s it reflected a willingness to improve consistency of provision and to offer a curriculum of Physical Education in Islamic Country: The twenty-four ‘entitlement’ through which all pupils had similar Greek respondents were from the northern part of Greece, experiences and opportunities. (Scotland and Ireland also which has the largest Muslim ethnic minority group of have a physical education curriculum but these are Turkish origin in the country. The ethnic community has independent). Emphasis is placed on developing pupils’ settled here since the Ottoman occupation. In contrast to physical competence and confidence, skilfulness, the recent diaspora of the British Muslim group the

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Muslims in Greece are descendants of an occupying Religious Requirements and Participation in Physical ‘elite’, a politically dominating presence which lasted for Education: In the British study, where there were some centuries. The Lausanne treaty in 1923, which facilitated difficulties in secondary physical education the exchange of Greek and Turkish nationals between the experiences that were related to school policies and two countries, did not include the Turkish population practices not accommodating the religious requirements living in the north part of Greece and the Greek population of Muslim adolescents. For example, some teachers living in Istanbul. Nowadays the Muslim ethnic minority made no concessions to their strict physical education group represents nearly 30% of the overall population in policy rules to wear a particular kit so the respondents Northern Greece. They represent working and middle found ‘coping strategies’ like “pulling our socks up and class sections of society and generally speak Turkish as skirts down to cover our legs.” Similarly, the issue of their first language, whereas the majority population needing ‘private’ spaces for changing meant many speaks Greek and is Christian Orthodox [28]. “changed in the toilets” and they found ways of The Muslim community in northern Greece has avoiding showers [32]. Tensions with the public nature of its own schools, which are single faith (Islam) and the swimming baths were encountered and were exacerbated languages of instruction are Greek and Turkish. at Ramadan when some did not want to swim because Turkish language, such as Religious Education, they were fasting: History and Language. However a large number of Muslim children attend Greek State primary and … swimming during Ramadan … my father had to go to secondary schools, where Greek is the only language of the school again to ask for me to be excluded - it instruction. Physical education is a compulsory subject was a struggle. I did think sometimes ‘why am I for all schools and physical education classes are battling with them? They are going to think I am a coeducational, with both boys and girls following the troublemaker with a problem with everything… but same curriculum [29]. I am not like that, I just want to have what the others have, as well as being Muslim. Objectives of Physical Education in Islam: In Greece the national curriculum for physical education in secondary Another student articulated her view of teachers’ lack of schools was introduced in 1990. The aim of physical awareness of their needs: “I am often surprised at the education is to enhance students’ psychological and lack of knowledge that teachers have about Islam and body strength so that each student reaches his and her Muslims.” Others found teachers willing to listen and full potential regardless of race, gender, religion and facilitate changes, which helped the Muslim students to culture. Alongside this, physical education contributes to participate. It was the open or closed attitudes of teachers the development of students’ personalities and their towards Islam and Muslims that contributed to the ability to live a harmonious and creative life [30]. An positive or negative experiences encountered by the additional goal is to introduce students to various aspects Muslim women [33]. Where they met ‘open views’ they of physical education and sports so they learn the value found teachers willing to listen and take positive action to of lifelong participation and the health benefits of being help them. physically active. During their adolescent years some of the British The physical education curriculum in Greece covers Muslim students recalled wanting to adopt the dress code the teaching of the skills of games such as football, of covering the body, participating only in same-sex basketball, volleyball, as well as athletics, gymnastics groupings and seeking privacy for changing, but often and dance. All physical education classes in schools did not make this possible. Reflecting on their secondary schools are co-educational and both genders experiences in school the students identified adolescence should be offered the same opportunities and taught the as a phase of growing awareness of Islam and what it same games and activities [31]. Extra-curriculum activities meant to be Muslim, within their families, communities and in Greek schools have a similar long history. They consist country. ability to participate in physical education. Some of competitive team sports such as football, basketball had chosen to study Islam to find ‘true’ meanings for and volleyball as well as athletics. Each school has its themselves [34]. The issues were not related to a own sports teams and is represented in county and willingness to take part in physical education but to a national championships. need for concessions on traditions and systems of

13 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (1): 10-18, 2012 organisation that were not conducive to Islamic Again the teacher was a significant influence on requirements. As they became more religious the participation [37]. The Greek students mentioned that their awareness of tensions increased: teachers were asking them before each physical education lesson during Ramadan if they wanted to be exempt with I went to a mixed secondary school and it was a no record of absence in the register. As two students nightmare … I did not take religion seriously then mentioned in their interviews: … it was only when I started becoming interested in religion that I recognised the requirements - around Our teacher is very understanding in cases where we do 16 - 17 - before that I’d adopt Islamic dress when I not feel fine (due to fasting). They allow us not to felt like it … the PE was segregated but it wasn’t participate, however, we participate, as we ought really because we did it in public spaces… to…… My teachers ask us before the lesson if anyone faces any problem and does not want to The growing influence of Islam on life experience is participate, if I feel weak I ask for permission not to clear in this statement. Awareness of religious participate and they allow me without any expectations on dress, social and behaviour patterns was problem… a gradual process for the women in the study. The lived experience of Islam appeared to be very different for the Greek students felt that teachers understood their students in Britain and Greece but whether or not greater religious and cultural needs. Where the teachers were religious consciousness would occur in the Greek Muslim themselves (where this occurred they were male students as they progressed into adulthood cannot be Muslim teachers) students recognised more flexible judged in this paper [35]. teaching plans with less strenuous and physically demanding activities during the religious festival of None of the students interviewed in the Greek schools Ramadan, which was helpful [38]. identified any cultural or religious issues that might have prevented them from participating in physical education [36]. In relation to Ramadan some fasted for a month, Literature Review of Muslims and Physical Education: others intermittently but this did not affect participation Greek and British principles underpinning the subject of in physical education for most students: physical education and its contribution to the development and welfare of children were similar. …It is a bit difficult to fast and do PE but it’s something Culturally the subject was less formal in Greece with more I learnt to do from an early age and I am used to it relaxed dress codes and varying degrees of now…I enjoy the lesson so much and often I do not implementation, for example provision in the Greek have the time to realise I am fasting… I don’t see it schools enabled one student to participate in just two as a problem (fasting and participating in PE)…I lessons a term which met the minimal criteria to ‘pass’ in eat a good breakfast so it keeps me full till the next the subject in that school. The recommendation and time I will eat, I might get a bit thirsty but this is not aspiration in all English State schools is for a minimum of a problem… two hours provision per week for every pupil [39]. In the Greek and British experience most Muslim Three negative cases mentioned that fasting and students perceived physical education as an enjoyable doing physical education could be problematic, ‘…I think subject, where they had fun. ‘Fun’ is an instrumental goal, it is (problematic) because you can not be energetic a means of attaining other valued goals of students’ without drinking or eating, but I think that we have engagement and compliance and this was seen as the key got used to it…’. Some mentioned that to avoid situations reason for students’ participation [40]. where they felt too weak to participate in physical There were differences in the ways in which religion education while fasting they fasted only during the impacted on experiences in physical education which is weekends or during the holidays. One respondent attributable to the different socio-historical contexts of the explained: ‘…well I am not fasting the whole month, just long established Greek Muslim population compared to some days, I fast only the days that I do not come to the relatively recent growth in British Muslims. The Greek school, that means weekends and holidays….’ students suggested that their religion and culture did not

14 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (1): 10-18, 2012 have any affect on their participation in physical requirements of pupils in physical education, as part of a education classes, even during the religious festival of stronger policy of inclusion [44]. Such action would Ramadan. The English students recognised growing include allowing pupils to wear track-suits that cover arms awareness of Islamic requirements for modesty, dress and legs, reducing activity demands during Ramadan and codes and single-sex environments during their being sensitive over gender groupings and issues of adolescence and some experienced tensions in physical privacy. education when some teachers’ traditionalist approaches Although both Greek and British students’ attitudes to the subject appeared inflexible and lacking in towards physical education were positive their recorded understanding of Islamic requirements [41]. Most of the participation in extra-curricular activities was very limited. British students experienced increasing religiosity during For the Greek students no religious or cultural factors adolescence that exacerbated tensions where religious were mentioned as reasons for non-participation. The requirements could not be met. British respondents mentioned cultural rather than It is interesting that the Greek schools and physical religious barriers to their participation, particularly in education lessons were co-educational and the physical relation to their gender. This supports the findings from education teachers were male. These factors did not cause a research in which students mentioned cultural reasons concern for the young Greek Muslim women or their as factors for non-participation in extra-curricular families. This indicates a more liberal and integrated, activities, for example ‘girls being needed in the home to modernist interpretation of being Muslim in the Greek help with jobs’ [45]. Lack of importance of physical context, which contrasted with a greater struggle to retain education and sporting extra-curricular activities in distinctiveness, religious and cultural values for many of comparison to other assessed subjects could also result the British Muslims. Such factors are complex and related in low participation rates in extra-curricular activities. This to different histories of arrival and integration of diaspora accentuates the importance of curriculum opportunities in communities in the host country, its politics, laws and physical education as the only route for many Muslim institutions. The relatively recent success of British girls to have access to exercise [46]. Muslim communities in having their rights acknowledged Some Greek schools lacked extra-curricular activities and in developing their own institutions, including for girls. The reason, according to the physical education Muslim schools, have only occurred since the 1980’s. teachers, was lack of sports facilities. In one case the head This was a period that saw a reawakening of interest teacher maintained that the creation of extra-curricular amongst young second generation British Muslims, in activities was school policy but conceded it depended on Islam and their Islamic heritage [42]. The distinctiveness the teacher’s commitment. School policies in British of diaspora communities and their histories in secondary schools could exclude Muslim girls from extra- different countries requires further research to curricular activities, for example where access is restricted improve understanding of similarities and differences in through type of activity, gender grouping or prohibitive the Muslim experience across national boundaries. timing of provision [47]. The Greek teachers were more empathetic to the Although there were many compatible facets to religious and cultural needs of those young Muslim comparing these two case studies the age differences of students who did adhere to practices such as fasting. the groups, one group being ‘in-school’ and the other ‘in Some teachers made allowances and changed teaching University reflecting on school’ was not ideal. It did plans to accommodate their needs. British students’ illuminate a key factor that is worthy of further research. perceptions of their teachers’ understanding of Muslim The process of ‘religiosity’ or gradual assumption of culture were negative. There was more ignorance on the stronger religious beliefs and values, happened slowly part of some British teachers in the current study and during the years of adolescence. As adults the British ‘closed’ views of Islam which were unhelpful [43]. Some students were able to reflect with maturity and ‘hindsight’ Muslim respondents had met informed, empathetic on changes in their identity and ways in which they teachers with open views of Islam (ibid). The direction of coped with these during their education [48]. It would be current policy and practice from government informs interesting to explore whether older Greek Muslim women National Curriculum legislation that provides teachers experienced the same transformation in their adolescent with clear statements to meet the religious and cultural years.

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CONCLUSION education process is also crucial in shaping the transformation. The empathy between Islam and The two groups of students shared much in their physical education, in the pursuit of a healthy body, is physical education experiences. The subject of physical a positive factor that should underpin policies of education has National Curriculum status in both inclusion that enable Muslim pupils to participate and countries, with similar rationales, but different cultures experience the benefits of physical activity which they and traditions that shape attitudes and values of can sustain throughout their lives [56-58]. The religious participants. Students had both positive and negative needs of Muslim women can be met by education and experiences of the subject. The less formal approach sporting institutions and should not be a barrier to indicated in the Greek pupils’ experiences could participation in such an important and beneficial area of contribute to the less problematic experiences life [59, 60]. encountered. Although linked by their Muslim identities, differences in the Greek and British experiences are REFERENCES attributed to the different historical and socio-cultural contexts of the groups [48, 49]. The British students were 1. Spraks, W.G., K.L. Butt and M. Pahnos, 1996. more conscious of the potential tensions at the interface Multicultural Education in Physical Education: a of Islam and the subject. Study of Knowledge, Attitudes and Experiences. The Historical differences and stages of acculturation for Physical Educator, 53(2): 73-86. diaspora Muslim communities in the two countries help to 2. Rosekaola, E., 1997. Ethnic Minorities and explain contrasts in the lived experience of Islam. British Achievement: The Fog Clears. Part 1 (pre-16 Muslims are predominately part of a post 1960’s pattern Compulsory Education), Multicultural Teaching, of economic migration from Pakistan and Bangladesh, 15: 23-29. striving to find ways to keep their culture and religion 3. Papaioannou, A., 2000. Attitudes, Beliefs and alive and find a sense of belonging in British society. Behaviours. Athens: Greek Ministry of Education. Ensuring they uphold Islamic requirements of dress and 4. Parekh, B., 2002. The Parekh Report-The Future of behaviour is important to many, as is challenging systems Multi-ethnic Britain. London: Profile Books. that hinder their struggle for respect of differences, for 5. Benn, T., 1996. Muslim Women and Physical example the right to have Muslim schools [50, 51]. They Education in Initial Teacher Training. Sport are living through a period of ‘revivalist’ interest in Islam, Education and Society, 1(1): 5-21. which is not the same as the global terrorism conducted 6. Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), 2001. in the name of Islam. Turkish Muslims are descendants of University of Birmingham: Centre for the Study of Ottoman conquerors who have lived in Greece for over Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 300 years and have a different experience of Islam [52, 53]. 7. Ansari, H., 2004. ‘The Infidel Within’ Muslims in This might be described as modernist, assimilating more Britain Since 1800. London: Hurst Company. of the cultures and expectations around them, for example 8. Benn, T., 2000. Towards Inclusion in Education and finding mixed-sex physical education in State and Muslim Physical Education. In Primary School Physical schools unproblematic. Education, Research into Practice, Eds. Williams, A. The difference in ages of the respondents in both London: Routledge. pp: 118-135. studies could also account for the less problematic Greek 9. Ansari, H., 2002. Muslims in Britain, experience [54, 55]. Adolescence is a key period of London: Minority Rights Group International, identity transformation for Muslim women as Islamic www.minorityrights.org. requirements and responsibilities which shape their dress, 10. Cothran, D.J. and C.D. Ennis, 1998. Curricula of interactions and behaviour become important in the lives Mutual Worth: Comparisons of Students' and of those who choose to move in a more religious Teachers' Curricular Goals, J. Teaching in Physical direction. Individuals will negotiate this transformation in Education, 17(3): 307-326. relation to many factors such as their own views on being 11. Creswell, J.W., 1998. Qualitative Inquiry and Muslim in a non-Muslim country and the influence of Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. family, community and peers. What they learn from the Thousand Oaks: Sage.

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