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A Global Election: Analyses of Chinese, Russian, and Saudi Arabian A GLOBAL ELECTION: ANALYSES OF CHINESE, RUSSIAN, AND SAUDI ARABIAN NEWS COVERAGE OF THE 2016 U.S. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION by ETHAN CHRISTOPHER STOKES KARLA GOWER, COMMITTEE CHAIR ANDREW BILLINGS MARGOT LAMME WILSON LOWREY JEFREY NAIDOO A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Graduate Studies in the College of Communication and Information Sciences of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2017 Copyright Ethan C Stokes 2017 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT This dissertation was designed to investigate how state-owned news media outlets from China, Russia, and Saudi Arabia covered the 2016 U.S. presidential election. More specifically, this study includes analyses of Chinese, Russian, and Saudi Arabian news stories from four major events throughout the 2016 election campaign: 1) the national conventions for the Republican and Democratic parties, 2) the first presidential debate, 3) Election Day, and 4) Inauguration Day. Drawing from the global news flow theoretical framework, this study examined the extent to which media dependency was present among the international news coverage. Furthermore, drawing from the nation branding theoretical framework, this study assessed how these state-owned news outlets presented the U.S. nation brand to their audiences. Using a content analysis methodological approach, the researcher coded 365 news stories into various quantitative coding categories and qualitative themes. The overall results show that the Chinese and Saudi Arabian sources favored Hillary Clinton and the Democratic Party, while the Russian sources favored Donald Trump and the Republican Party. Additionally, the results show that these news outlets cited U.S. news sources more often than non-U.S. news sources. Moreover, the overall results indicate that these news outlets’ coverage of the 2016 U.S. presidential election presented the U.S. nation brand negatively, and indicate perceptions of “gray zones” between the U.S. and other nations. This study’s theoretical implications, practical implications, and avenues for future research are discussed at length. ii DEDICATION To my family members and friends for their relentless encouragement of my research throughout my academic endeavors. I am forever grateful for your unending support. “If people in the media cannot decide whether they are in the business of reporting news or manufacturing propaganda, it is all the more important that the public understand that difference, and choose their news sources accordingly.” - Dr. Thomas Sowell (July 24, 2012) iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS α Cronbach’s alpha ANOVA Analysis of Variance statistical test df Degrees of freedom F F-statistic GZ Gray Zone K Cohen’s kappa statistic μ Arithmetic Mean MCC Model of Country Concept MGZ Media Gray Zone N Population size n Sample size NBI Nation Brands Index PD Public Diplomacy PR Public Relations rs Spearman rank correlation coefficient RNC/DNC 2016 Republican and Democratic National Conventions Data Pull SD Standard deviation t t-ratio TQI Translation Quality Index WST World Systems Theory X2 Chi-square statistical test iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It takes a village to raise a scholar, and I have many people to thank for helping me along the way. First, I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Karla Gower, for her invaluable insights and seemingly countless proofreads of this project. Secondly, I would like to thank my dissertation committee members (Dr. Andy Billings, Dr. Meg Lamme, Dr. Wilson Lowrey, and Dr. Jef Naidoo) for their vision and their support in developing this project. Thirdly, I would like to thank Dr. Skye Cooley for his unending support and encouragement throughout my academic endeavors. Lastly, I would like to thank Dr. Randy Kluver and the research team at Texas A&M University for allowing me to use their Multi-Media Monitoring System (M3S) for this project. It has been a pleasure working with you all, and I am forever grateful to call you all colleagues. v CONTENTS ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………... ii DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………… iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ………………………………………... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………… v LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………….. xi LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………… xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………. 1 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………. 6 Chinese, Russian, & Saudi Arabian News Media …………………………………… 6 Chinese News Media …………………………………………………………….. 6 Russian News Media …………………………………………………………….. 9 Saudi Arabian News Media ……………………………………………………… 11 Global News Flow …………………………………………………………………… 15 World Systems Theory & News Flow …………………………………………… 17 Press Types & News Flow ……………………………………………………….. 19 Media Systems & News Flow …………………………………………………… 20 Media Model Comparisons ……………………………………………………… 21 Globalization, Glocalization, & News Flow …………………………………….. 24 U.S. International Relations & News Media ………………………………………… 26 The Gray Zone …………………………………………………………………… 26 vi The Media Gray Zone ……………………………………………………………. 29 Nation Branding ……………………………………………………………………… 32 Nation Branding & the Model of Country Concept ……………………………... 37 Public Relations & Nation Branding …………………………………………….. 39 Global Nation Branding …………………………………………………………. 42 Global News Coverage of Politics & Elections ……………………………………… 46 Coverage of International Politics & Elections ………………………………….. 46 Coverage of U.S. Politics & Elections …………………………………………… 49 Cross-National News Media Studies ………………………………………………… 51 Research Questions …………………………………………………………………... 53 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ………………………………………………………... 57 Content Analysis …………………………………………………………………….. 57 Database ……………………………………………………………………………… 60 Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………. 61 Data Collection Procedures ……………………………………………………… 63 Data Translations ………………………………………………………………… 63 Data Pulls & Sampling ………………………………………………………………. 64 Approaches to Multimedia Analysis ………………………………………………… 67 Coding Procedures & Measures ……………………………………………………... 69 Manual Holistic Approach to Coding ……………………………………………. 70 Quantitative Coding Categories & Strategies ……………………………………. 70 Statistical Analyses ………………………………………………………………. 74 Qualitative Coding Categories & Strategies ……………………………………... 76 vii Inter-Coder Reliability …………………………………………………………… 77 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS …………………………………………………………... 80 RNC/DNC Results ……………………………………………………………………... 80 RNC/DNC Quantitative Results ……………………………………………………... 80 RNC/DNC Qualitative Results ………………………………………………………. 93 RNC/DNC Sample News Content …………………………………………………… 95 Presentation of Key Search Terms ………………………………………………. 95 DNC Email Hack/Scandal ……………………………………………………….. 97 Khan Family’s DNC Speech …………………………………………………….. 98 Ted Cruz’s RNC Speech ………………………………………………………… 98 U.S. Race Relations ……………………………………………………………… 99 1st Debate Results ……………………………………………………………………… 101 1st Debate Quantitative Results ………………………………………………………. 101 1st Debate Qualitative Results ………………………………………………………... 112 1st Debate Sample News Content ……………………………………………………. 114 Pre-Debate News Coverage ……………………………………………………… 114 Debate Performances & Debate Winner ………………………………………… 115 Mocking the Debate ……………………………………………………………… 116 U.S. Media Biases ……………………………………………………………….. 117 Geopolitical Impacts …………………………………………………………….. 118 Election Day Results …………………………………………………………………… 120 Election Day Quantitative Results …………………………………………………… 120 Election Day Qualitative Results …………………………………………………….. 131 viii Election Day Sample News Content ………………………………………………… 133 U.S. Media Biases & Corrupt U.S. Democracy …………………………………. 133 Coverage of 2016 U.S. Election Results ………………………………………… 134 Global Markets React to Election Results ……………………………………….. 136 Anti-Trump Protests ……………………………………………………………... 137 Presidential Administrative Transition …………………………………………... 138 U.S. Foreign Relations …………………………………………………………… 141 Inauguration Day Results ……………………………………………………………… 144 Inauguration Day Quantitative Results ……………………………………………… 144 Inauguration Day Qualitative Results ……………………………………………….. 155 Inauguration Day Sample News Content ……………………………………………. 157 Trump’s Inauguration ……………………………………………………………. 157 Trump’s Policy Agendas ………………………………………………………… 159 Trump vs. the U.S. Media ……………………………………………………….. 161 Women’s March on Washington Protests ……………………………………….. 162 U.S. Foreign Relations …………………………………………………………… 163 Overall Results …………………………………………………………………………. 167 Overall Quantitative Results …………………………………………………………. 167 Overall Qualitative Results …………………………………………………………... 178 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………... 186 Summary of Results ………………………………………………………………….. 186 Theoretical Implications ……………………………………………………………... 192 Implications for Global News Flow ……………………………………………... 194 ix Implications for Nation Branding ………………………………………………... 196 Implications for the Gray Zone & Media Gray Zone ……………………………. 199 Practical Implications ………………………………………………………………... 200 Implications for U.S. Public Diplomacy …………………………………………. 201 Implications for U.S. Political Public Relations …………………………………. 202 Implications for U.S. Intelligence ………………………………………………... 202 Limitations & Future Research ………………………………………………………. 204 Theoretical Limitations …………………………………………………………... 204 Methodological Limitations ……………………………………………………… 205 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………… 207 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………... 209 APPENDIX A: DATA SAMPLING …………………………………………………….. 246 APPENDIX B: CODEBOOK ……………………………………………………………. 250
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