1 The food animals

HEALTH is a state of complete physical, mental and social All the above animals, including fish, are converters, well-being and not merely the absence of disease or that is, they utilise green vegetable material with varying infirmity. efficiency to produce protein. Even micro-organisms World Health Organisation chronicle (1978) can be classified as converters in that they use carbo- hydrates from plants to make protein from simple Meat is normally regarded as the edible parts (muscle nitrogenous compounds. Especially when an animal and offal) of the food animals which consume mainly eats something which is inedible for man or could not grass and other arable crops, namely, cattle, sheep, goats, easily be made into food for man, it is considered valua- pigs, horses, deer, reindeer, buffalo, musk oxen, moose, ble as a source of food; so when pigs and poultry, and caribou, yak, camel, alpaca, llama, guanaco, vicuna, etc. In even other animal species, are used as scavengers to eat addition, poultry have become a major meat-producing scraps, by-products, etc., they are very useful indeed. species, while rabbits, guinea pigs, capybara and various However, when food which could be utilised by human game animals and birds provide a substantial amount of beings is fed to livestock, the question of efficiency protein, particularly in localised areas. Fish and other becomes more problematic. Nevertheless, other factors, seafood have also been an important part of man’s diet such as the production of manure for fertiliser usage, since earliest times. variety in the human diet, etc., have to be borne in mind. Although, theoretically, hundreds of animals could Not only did the Creator command the earth to ‘bring supply meat for human consumption, in practice, only a forth grass, the herb yielding seed and the fruit tree relatively small number of species are used today. This is yielding fruit after his kind’ (Genesis 1:11). He also all the more remarkable since it represents in general the ‘made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after instruction of the Levitical law of the Old Testament, their kind, and everything that creepeth upon the earth most of which is in accord with modern sanitary science. after his kind’ (Genesis 1:25). For both plant and beast, The animals suitable for the food of man had to part the ‘God saw that it was good’ (Genesis 1:12 & 25). They hoof and chew the cud. Only those fish with fins and were both to be used as food for man. scales were wholesome. It is true that today we eat pig, In more recent times, efforts have been made to rabbit and hare, but it is recognisedCOPYRIGHTED that they are subject domesticate MATERIAL certain wild animals, although many of to parasitic infestation. There appears to be little doubt these have been used as food since ancient times. In that the dangers of trichinosis and of Cysticercus cel- Africa and Russia, elands are being domesticated, as well lulosae were recognised 1400 years before the birth of as antelope in the latter country. Kangaroos are being Christ. In many parts of the world, horseflesh forms kept for meat in Australia, and in South America, the an important article of human diet. The Danes reintro- large rodent capybara, which is a semi-aquatic vegetar- duced the consumption of horseflesh into Europe during ian, is being used as a source of meat, although it is not the siege of Copenhagen in 1807; slaughter of horses for especially palatable. There are probably many other wild human consumption is now well established in Denmark, species which could be utilised in meat production Belgium, Holland and Germany. and would have some advantages over the domesticated

Gracey’s Meat Hygiene, Eleventh Edition. Edited by David S. Collins and Robert J. Huey. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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­animals since they exist on less valuable land, need only provide customers with some assurance that the animals rough grazing, are more disease resistant and act as a have been reared in a manner which involves animal tourist attraction. Some problems, however, arise in con- ­welfare and environmental issues and are fit to produce nection with feeding, protection from predators, slaugh- wholesome, safe food products. This complements the ter and meat inspection. ‘farm-to-fork’ approach to meat production with control Recent innovations have included the breeding of over all the nutritional, welfare, housing and other man- wild boar in England and buffalo in Germany, France agement factors, as well as ensuring the traceability of the and Poland. Wild boars introduced from Germany and food product. Veterinarians have a pivotal role in this dis- Denmark into England are used to produce purebreds as cipline, both on the farm and at the meat plant. well as crosses with established breeds of pigs. Differences in quality and flavour are said to exist between the wild Dietary factors variety and the various crosses. Litter sizes average six piglets and only one litter is produced yearly. Slaughtered Concern about the amount of fat, especially saturated at 12–14 months, wild boar has a live weight of about fat, in the diet, has been given prominence in the Western 59 kg and a dead weight of around 45 kg. The meat is very world due to the adverse effects on human health. lean with an acceptable flavour, but stress is sometimes According to the Living Costs and Food Survey (2011), associated with abattoir slaughter, which may necessitate the amount of dietary energy derived from fat was 38.1% on-farm handling. In Great Britain, the keeping of wild for UK adults, with 14.2% of this energy being from satu- boar is subject to the Dangerous Wild Animals Act. rated fats. While these values are lower than 20–30 years Buffalo meat is said to be more tender, leaner and ago, the amount of fat in British diets is still higher than gamier than beef, with lower levels of cholesterol. current recommendations. The Scientific Advisory Although expensive in France, it is cheaper than beef in Committee on Nutrition (SACN) states that the amount Canada. The name buffalo is often applied to the bison of dietary energy derived from saturated fat should not (Bison bison) of North America, a different species of exceed 11%. the order Bovidae. There are several species; the Indian Steps have been taken to have legislation which require buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sometimes called the water total fat and saturated fatty acid content labelling on a buffalo or arna, is the only one to be domesticated. It is wide variety of foodstuffs. While much of the intake of found in many parts of the Old World, with significant fat is derived from milk and dairy products, meat and numbers in Hungary, Italy and France. meat products, margarine, cooking fat and salad oils, The future for meat and meat products will depend some comes from vegetable sources, where it is either mainly on consumer demand and the prices at which produced in a saturated form, for example, coconut oil, they can be profitably produced. As living standards rise, or converted into such during manufacture. An increase so also does the consumption of meat. Factors such as in dietary unsaturated fatty acids has been shown to the cost of production, feed conversion efficiency, land reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and use and availability, consumer taste, price to consumers, possibly some cancers, asthma and diabetes. It is possible diet, attitudes of people to meat production methods, to modify animal diets to increase the amount of unsatu- use of protein from non-animal sources, etc. will all play rated fatty acids in meat, milk and eggs and to decrease a part in determining future demands. the n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio (Woods and Fearon, 2009). Procedures such as genetic engineering, embryo The sources of fat in the average British diet are given transfer, sexed semen, cross-breeding and twinning will in Table 1.1. continue to be utilised in attempts to produce more pro- If people respond to the SACN recommendations and ductive livestock with improved milk and meat quality. there are indications that this is already the case, there But if close attention is not paid to the vital importance will be major changes in food consumption which will of disease resistance, we may well see the development inevitably have an impact on production methods in of stock susceptible to existing and novel conditions, agriculture, especially in milk and livestock production, some of which may have serious public health implica- despite the fact that not all is known about the aetiology tions. Consumer attitudes must always be borne in mind of the most common cause of death in most industrial- by research workers and those engaged in the agricul- ised countries. In the United Kingdom, in 2006, 30% of ture and food industries, which will only prosper in a all deaths in men and 22% of all deaths in women under climate of real consumer confidence in the quality and 75 were ascribed to CVD. Factors such as heredity, blood safety of food. pressure, obesity, blood haemostasis, physical inactivity, In order to address this point, much food from animals water hardness, smoking and alcohol consumption are is produced under ‘Farm Quality Assured Schemes’. These also involved in the causation of this serious condition.

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Table 1.1 Average British diet fat consumption (g/person/day) Table 1.2 Annual consumption of meat in the EU (kg/person/ (FAOSTAT) 2009 year) (FAOSTAT) 2009

Food group Consumption (g/person/day) Bovine Sheep Pig Poultry and goat meat Milk and dairy products 21 (excluding butter) Austria 16.4 1.1 65.6 17.9 Meat 36.5 Belgium 18.0 1.6 33.6 21.5 Fish 1.5 Bulgaria 4.9 1.7 23.4 21.4 Eggs 2.8 Cyprus 5.8 6.0 37.6 26.9 Total fats (including butter 60.3 Czech Republic 8.0 0.2 44.7 25.1 and vegetable oils) Denmark 26.0 1.1 48.3 18.9 Fruit 0.7 Estonia 12.5 0.6 26.8 19.4 Vegetables 0.5 Finland 18.2 0.5 35.5 18.8 Cereals 4 France 25.5 3.3 31.0 22.3 Germany 12.8 0.8 54.6 17.3 Source: Reproduced with permission from FAO (2011). © FAO. Greece 18.1 13.1 27.7 13.7 Hungary 4.6 0.1 43.8 26.4 Ireland 22.1 4.2 33.6 26.0 Consumer demand is now for leaner meat in smaller, Italy 23.6 1.3 42.8 17.3 waste-free cuts, which is easy and quick to prepare. On Latvia 6.5 0.3 34.8 19.5 the livestock breeding and rearing side, changes have Lithuania 4.6 0.2 50.6 22.6 Malta 20.7 1.5 30.5 26.0 taken place with emphasis on animals which produce The Netherlands 18.1 0.9 34.0 22.7 leaner carcases. Appropriate grading and certification Poland 4.9 0.1 50.4 21.4 standards are applied in meat plants. Quite apart from Portugal 18.3 2.4 42.9 28.7 the health aspect, overfat stock are too costly to produce, Romania 7.8 3.2 31.9 21.0 and farmers will have to realise that energetic competi- Slovakia 5.0 0.2 36.2 17.4 tion will have to be faced from vegetarians (sincere Slovenia 20.8 1.0 39.5 26.5 and insincere), ‘animal welfarists’ and a wide range of Spain 14.3 2.8 48.9 27.5 branded convenience and ‘health foods’, many not based Sweden 24.9 1.4 36.0 15.4 on a meat content. United Kingdom 19.8 5.29 26.2 32.2 In the United Kingdom, the annual consumption of meat and meat products, which represent about 26% of Source: Reproduced with permission from FAO (2011). © FAO. the total household expenditure on food, amounted to approximately £16 037 million in 2011. Many factors operate to determine levels of food It is estimated that only 60% of the world’s population animal populations, economics playing the principal eats 18 kg or more of meat per year, which is regarded as role, but disease outbreaks, weather conditions, over- the nutritional minimum. The remaining 40% repre- production, consumer preference, feed availability, etc. sents some 1500 million people who consume less than are also important reasons, along with trade barriers this amount. This stark fact is exemplified by countries imposed by individual states, often on ill-defined, even in equatorial Africa and OPEC where the average annual unjustified, grounds. consumption is only 10 kg per head and in the under- Beef production globally, in the next 20 years, is developed countries of Asia where it is as low as 3 kg. expected to rise by only by 6%: 61 million tonnes carcase Table 1.2 shows the average annual meat consumption weight in 2010 and 64.5 tonnes in 2025. per person in the European Union (EU) (FAOSTAT). Sheep meat production on a global basis is rising World livestock production slowly, primarily as a result of rising production in China. Expected improved world prospects for the wool In general, those countries with the highest meat con- trade had encouraged extra production in Australia. In sumption rates are also the major producers. Some parts eastern Europe and countries of the former Soviet Union, of the world such as Argentina, Australia, New Zealand production continues to contract. World pork consump- and Denmark are large exporters of meat and meat tion has increased by 27% from 1997 to 2005 with China products, while the United States, Britain and Germany being the largest producer (Orr and Shen, 2006). import large quantities, although the former also have a Poultry production continues to expand throughout considerable export trade as have many other countries. the world, but growth rate has slowed somewhat in the

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past year. Annual poultry meat production was reported duces almost 80% of its beef requirement, compared with to be 79.4 million tonnes in 2008 (FAOSTAT). about 50% just before the Second World War. The remain- ing 20% is imported mainly from Ireland and Argentina. UK meat plants and throughputs About 52% of the home-produced beef is derived from the dairy herd, that is, from calves reared for beef. Specialised In 2008, 28.8 million animals (cattle, sheep and pigs) beef cattle and their crosses provide 48% of the home kill. were slaughtered in the United Kingdom (Department of Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), 2008). Latest esti- mates indicate that there are approximately 360 abattoirs Breeds in the United Kingdom which is a significant reduction In Britain’s dairy herd, the Holstein/British Friesian is from the level of 2062 abattoirs, reported in Great Britain the dominant breed. About one-third of mature dairy alone in 1968 (see Table 1.3, Table 1.4 and Table 1.5). cows and almost half of the dairy heifers are mated with beef bulls, mostly Limousin and Angus and a smaller Cattle proportion with Belgian Blue due to concerns regarding In 2011, the world cattle population was 1399.9 million incidence of calving difficulties with the latter breed, in with 195 million buffaloes (Food and Agriculture order to increase the beef potential of calves not required Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), 2011). The as dairy herd replacements. numbers in the main countries are as follows (in mil- Exotic breeds have been introduced into the United lions): Brazil, 212.8; India, 210.8; United States, 92.7; Kingdom in an attempt to improve beef production. The China, 83; and Ethiopia, 53.4. first of these (in 1961) was the French Charolais, which In the United Kingdom, beef and milk account for about is typical of the large cattle breeds of western Europe one-third of the total agricultural output. Britain now pro- with their mature body size, rapid growth rate and lean carcases. Charolais and Belgian Blue, are, however, liable Table 1.3 Total throughputs (2008) in the United Kingdom to some difficulty in calving, often necessitating caesar- ean section, but this is apparently regarded as an accept- Animal group Number slaughtered (‘000) able risk by many farmers. British Charolais, through selective breeding, have easier calvings. Cattle Other breeds which have been imported include Prime cattle (steers, young bulls 2 028.4 Blonde d’Aquitaine, Brown Swiss, Limousin, Murray and heifers) Grey (which was developed in Australia but has been in Adult cattle (cows and adult bulls) 559.2 the United Kingdom for decades and is now widely con- Steers 999.2 Heifers 758.9 sidered to be British), Piedmontese, Romagnola, French Young bulls 270.3 Salers and Simmental. The Luing was evolved from Beef Cows 541.4 Shorthorn and Highland cattle on the island off the west Adult bulls 17.8 coast of Scotland. Calves 44.2 British breeds have been exported to many other Sheep countries to improve local strains, as live animals, frozen Ewes and rams 2 344.5 embryos or semen. Other sheep and lambs 14 352.4 Throughout the world, there are numerous breeds of Pigs domestic cattle used for meat and milk production and Sows and adult boars 235.0 also in some cases as draught animals (see Fig. 1.1, Clean pigs 9 191.8 Fig. 1.2, Fig. 1.3, Fig. 1.4, Fig. 1.5, Fig. 1.6 and Fig. 1.7 for cattle bred for beef). Most are humped Zebu cattle or Source: Reproduced with permission from DEFRA (2008). cross-breeds of these with cattle of European origin. In © DEFRA. addition, the domestic buffalo, the water buffalo of Asia,

Table 1.4 Throughputs in the United Kingdom by species in 2009

Species England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland Total

Cattle 1 467 185 499 811 144 856 453 726 2 565 578 Sheep 9 509 298 1 527 533 3 933 577 582 299 15 552 707 Pigs 7 025 834 592 898 30 198 1 354 767 9 003 697 Poultry 694 773 788 50 654 143 47 734 287 102 076 083 894 238 301

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Table 1.5 Numbers of approved red meat slaughterhouses (RSL) and poultry meat slaughterhouses (PSL) in the United Kingdom in 2009

Country England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland Total Type

RSL 207 37 25 13 282 PSL 74 5 4 7 90 Number of establishments 281 42 29 20 372

Source: Reproduced with permission from United Kingdom Food Standards Agency. © DEFRA.

Figure 1.1 Friesian bulls.

Figure 1.2 English Longhorn. Figure 1.3 Blonde D’Aquitaine.

is an animal of great importance mainly in the Far East buffalo, which has never been domesticated). Many (India and China) but is also found in the Caribbean, consider that the full potential of the water buffalo as Middle East and the former USSR (it has to be distin- a meat and milk producer has not yet been realised. guished from the buffalo of North America, which is not A breed of Droughtmaster cattle (Bos taurindicus) has a buffalo at all but a bison, and from the African wild been developed by cross-breeding the Zebu or Brahman

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Figure 1.4 Hereford.

Figure 1.7 Limousin.

and early maturity of the British breeds. Since 1974, Droughtmasters have been exported from Australia to many tropical countries including Nigeria, Ghana, Pakistan, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Taiwan. Systems of beef production Beef production systems vary from almost range condi- tions to semi-intensive and intensive units. The efficiency of animal production is the ratio of output to input: the main outputs are meat, milk, hides, fur and by-products, and the principal inputs are feed, land, labour, capital, energy and water. In the United Kingdom, consumer demand has Figure 1.5 Salers. ­dictated that meat be lean with a minimum of fat cover, ­tender, nutritious, palatable and, not least, relatively inexpensive. Accordingly, it is now the custom to slaugh- ter not only cattle but all animals and poultry at much earlier ages. The economically important beef produc- tion systems in Britain usually involve slaughter of cattle at between 15 and 24 months of age. Even lower slaugh- ter ages are adopted for certain specialist beef systems; for example, in the so-called barley beef system, calves are weaned early and fed concentrates ad lib to slaughter at 11 months of age and 400 kg, with an overall feed con- version ratio of 5.5:1. At the other extreme, there may be a high utilisation of grass with a lower overall live weight gain, with animals slaughtered at 2 or more years of age at carcase weights of 499 kg and over. A popular inter- mediate system is 18-month beef in which autumn-born calves are fed through the winter, kept on grass from 6 to Figure 1.6 Simmental. 12 months of age and then finished during their second winter on hay, silage and feed grains. (Bos indicus) of the tropics with British beef breeds, In Britain, the term ‘fatstock’ used to mean exactly notably Shorthorn and Hereford (Bos taurus). The what it said. The meat industry was traditionally based Droughtmaster is said to combine the hardiness and on well-finished animals with substantial fat depots. ­disease resistance of the Zebu with the productivity However, the term fatstock is no longer appropriate;

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‘leanstock’ or ‘meatstock’ is more suitable. Changes in to avoid pre-slaughter stress by gentle, efficient handling, the grades of fatness of livestock will probably be keeping social groups intact and providing for immedi- ­promoted by the production of intact males; use of bulls ate slaughter. Some of the other meat trade criticisms for larger, leaner, late-maturing breeds on the dairy can be ascribed to pure conservatism. In the United herd; and genetic selection of types with efficient feed Kingdom, full use is made of grassland and grass prod- conversion rates, rapid growth rates and less fat. ucts in cattle-rearing systems, unlike in certain EU coun- Most male cattle in Britain today are reared as cas- tries, for example, Germany, where bulls are housed for trates (steers or bullocks) (80% of male cattle are reared beef production. In the United Kingdom, prime stock as castrates), with the remaining 20% finished as young is 49.3% steers, 13.3% young bulls and 37.4% heifers. bulls, and these percentages have remained constant In Europe, over 50% of prime stock is young bulls. over the period 1998–2008 (DEFRA, 2008). The practice of castration was adopted to prevent indiscriminate Growth promoters breeding, to make animals more docile and less danger- Probiotics are benign bacteria which are administered by ous to man and to facilitate fattening. Only the latter fac- mouth to animals (calves, lambs and piglets) sometimes at tor can be regarded as significant today, since modern birth and/or after disease. The introduction of a probiotic husbandry methods for the most part eliminate the into the digestive tract is claimed to ensure more efficient breeding problem and present consumer demand is for feed conversion, earlier slaughter and a healthier animal. lean meat. While bulls are more dangerous to handle Unlike antibiotics, which often kill useful intestinal micro- than steers, experience has shown that the problem has organisms and create undesirable residues, probiotics are been over-emphasised. It has also been well demon- said to be natural products without any side effects. strated under experimental and practical farm condi- Prebiotics are ingredients that stimulate the growth tions that bulls grow faster (by 12%), convert food more and/or function of beneficial intestinal micro-organisms. efficiently (by 8%) and produce heavier (by 10%) and leaner carcases than steers. Bull beef production is much Definitions more important in Europe, especially in Italy, Germany Bull and eastern Europe, than it is currently in Britain. An uncastrated bovine. In Europe, bulls are reared in intensive feedlot sys- tems largely based on maize silage and also in grass-­ Heifer finishing systems with slaughter ages of 24–30 months. A female up to its first calf. The main breeds are Simmentals and Friesians. In New Zealand, grass-finishing systems have been used over Cow the last 25 years. A female which has had one or more calves. In the period from 1985 to 2005, the production of bull beef in the United Kingdom increased by 66%. However, Steer or bullock between 2005 and 2008, production has decreased by A castrated male (usually castrated at 6–12 weeks old). almost 40% (DEFRA, 2008). Some sections of the meat trade have considered bull beef to be of inferior confor- Stag mation and tenderness as well as being subject to dark, A male bovine castrated late in life, therefore presenting firm and dry (DFD) meat. However, trials have shown a more masculine conformation than the bullock. most of these objections to be ill judged. In fact, young bull carcases are heavier and leaner than steers of the same Sheep age. Careful handling of young bulls will obviate the DFD problem (which is not confined to bulls), and chilling effi- Figures produced by FAO (2011) indicate that there are ciency will offset any tendency to meat toughness, bull 1.04 billion sheep on a global scale. The principal sheep- beef being inclined to cool more rapidly than steer beef. producing countries in the world are the following (in Young bull beef must be distinguished from the infe- millions): China, 138.8; India, 74.5; Australia, 73; Sudan, rior product supplied by old cull bulls, which is much 52; Iran, 49; the United Kingdom, 31.6; New Zealand, darker in colour. Investigations by the UK Meat and 31.1; Pakistan, 28; Ethiopia, 25.5; South Africa, 24.3; Livestock Commission on groups of young bulls and Turkey, 23; and Spain, 17. steers transported and slaughtered under comparable Sheep were probably among the first animals to be commercial conditions have shown that bull flesh is only domesticated by man. They can be found under a wide marginally darker than that of the steers, and there are range of environments throughout the world, and, just only a few dark cutters among the bulls. The solution is like goats, their system of husbandry has changed very

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little over the centuries in most countries. In the main, maturing, higher carcase weights and superior lambing this can be classed as an extensive grazing system, the percentages. most natural for the three main species of meat animals: True hill breeds include the North Country Cheviot, cattle, sheep and pigs. This system probably explains South Country Cheviot, Scottish Blackface, Swaledale, why sheep have the fewest lesions and condemnations Welsh Mountain, Exmoor Horn, Herdwick, Rough Fell, at post-mortem compared with cattle and pigs, at least Derbyshire Gritstone and Lonk. Hill flocks provide store under UK conditions. stock for fattening on lowland farms along with cast ewes Various breeds are adapted to living in areas of high which are retained for a year or two for further breeding. altitude where wind, rainfall, low temperatures and snow The famous Halfbred, which is the product of the Border are common. The hill ewe lives a very hazardous life Leicester ram and the Cheviot ewe, is one of the foremost exposed to these adverse elements, and with low food utility sheep in Britain. Although the flesh of the Border intake, especially during pregnancy, it is little wonder Leicester carries an excessive amount of fat, its prolificacy that up to one-third of body weight can be lost and that and milk yield potential when blended with the hardiness neonatal mortality is high. Indeed, of all the farm of the Cheviot make the resulting cross an excellent ani- ­animals, the relative mortality rate is highest in sheep. mal, the dams bred to Down rams being very popular for Other breeds can be found in desert or semi-desert fat lamb production in lowland areas. Another example regions where high temperatures or fluctuating high and of this close association between hill and lowland breeds low temperatures predominate, with arid conditions and is the use of the Border Leicester ram on Scottish Blackface sparse vegetation. With some breeds, such as those kept ewes, the cross being known as the Greyface. Another under lowland conditions in Britain, stocking rates can Halfbred, the Welsh Halfbred, results from the crossing be as high as 20 ewes and their lambs per hectare; under of the Border Leicester with Welsh Mountain ewes. The hill and other extensive systems, the rate may be as low Mule is a cross-bred ewe which has grown in popularity as one sheep to 20 hectares. in the United Kingdom; it now makes up 20% of the UK The quality of forage consumed by sheep varies from ewe flock. The term Mule covers a number of Blue- good grass under semi-intensive husbandry to low-quality faced × hill breed ewe crosses. The most common of these (high-cellulose) plants, such as thorn scrub, rushes and are the Blue-faced Leicester × Scottish Blackface cross and heather, where the stock are relatively few in number. the Blue-faced Leicester × (Welsh) Hardy Speckled Face. The ability of sheep to eat plants of little use to man and Reported prolificacy levels are higher in Mules than to survive in places which cannot easily be cultivated is Greyfaces. Where certain hill sheep, for example, Scottish very much in their favour. On the other hand, except for Blackface ewes, are grazed on lowland pastures, the good specialised breeds like the Finnish Landrace and Russian feeding can result in up to 200% lamb crops. Romanov, which can produce over three lambs per ewe a Lowland breeds are represented by the short-woolled year, low reproductive rates, difficulties with husbandry downland types (the Suffolk, Dorset Horn and Dorset (e.g. fencing and labour) and the disposition towards car- Down, Southdown, Oxford Down, Ryeland and cases of fairly high fat content are definite drawbacks. It Shropshire) and the long-woolled breeds of Leicester has been shown that with housing of ewes and subjecting (Lincoln Longwool, Kent or Romney Marsh, Wensleydale them to artificial photoperiods and hormone treatment, and the Blue-faced or Hexham Leicester). The three they can produce a lamb crop every 8 months and an most common terminal sires used in the industry at pre- average of 2.2 lambs per ewe yearly. Unless fecundity can sent are Suffolk, Texel and Charolais. be improved by suitable breeding methods and leaner The Dorset Horn, a white-faced short-woolled sheep, carcases ensured, it is possible that in many hill areas has a much-extended mating season and can produce sheep may be replaced by goats or deer. three crops of lambs in 2 years. In this way, it resem- In addition to meat, sheep produce wool and, in some bles the Merino. Breeds like these along with Finnish countries, milk, which is used in the making of cheese. Landrace (high prolificacy), East Friesland (good milk- In the United Kingdom, there are some 50 breeds ing potential) and the Île-de-France (excellent carcase of sheep classified by habitat and type of wool. They quality) could feature in cross-breeding programmes. It are kept mainly for meat production, with wool as an is possible that many of the present British breeds may important secondary product. Two major systems of disappear with the development of new hybrids: it is cer- sheep farming exist: hill sheep farming, by far the larger tain that some 50 breeds are unnecessary for successful of the two, where the sheep are hardy and thrifty, small sheep production. Indeed, this has already taken place in size, long of wool, late in maturity and low in fecun- with the appearance of the Colbred sheep, named after dity; and lowland sheep farming, in which short-woolled Oscar Colborn, a Cotswold farmer who crossed Cluns, breeds predominate, possessing characteristics of early Dorset Horns, Suffolks and East Frieslands in order to

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increase fecundity, mothering ability and carcase quality. out at the Meat Research Institute, Bristol, and in New More recently, French Texels, Beltex, Berrichon du Cher, Zealand has shown that carcases from entire ram lambs Rouge de l’Ouest and Charolais have been imported for grade about one fat class lower than those from ewes at crossing purposes. The Cambridge breed of sheep is the same weight without deterioration in eating quality. another recently developed breed which is very prolific. The entire ram lambs had lower values of subcutaneous British breeds of sheep are not found extensively in and intramuscular fat, and a higher proportion of the Europe, although Cheviots and some lowland types occur total fat in the rams was deposited subcutaneously where in Scandinavia, but many have found their way to other it can be removed by trimming – an important commer- parts of the world. In Australia, about 75% of the 126 mil- cial consideration. Some 30% of the New Zealand kill is lion sheep are Merinos, the remainder being crosses with now composed of entire ram lambs, non-castration certain British breeds. In New Zealand, the Romney being encouraged. Marsh predominates, followed by Corriedales, Merinos Research work on carcase and meat composition and and Southdowns and their crosses. In the United States, tenderness of meat from ram, wether and ewe Dorset the Rambouillet is the main representative of the Merino, Down-cross and Suffolk-cross lambs slaughtered at 20 and a lot of cross-breeding occurs, with larger sheep units weeks of age showed that differences in meat quality under confined systems of management becoming more were very small, tenderness of ram meat being ensured important. However, it is doubtful whether sheep grazing by efficient refrigeration control. The fact that the rams, in the United States will expand very much. In South especially the Suffolk crosses, grew faster, yielded larger Africa and the USSR, the most important breed is the joints and had good carcase conformation in addition to Merino. Fat-tailed and fat-rumped sheep are found in the meat tenderness would indicate potential for ram lamb Middle and Far East; the Awassi breed is an important production in the United Kingdom (Dransfield et al., coarse wool type in the eastern Mediterranean and Iraq, 1990). When the adverse aspects of castration – namely, where the wool is used mainly for making carpets. sepsis, which often leads to pyaemia and sometimes In some parts of Europe, milk or dairy sheep are of death – the improvement in welfare and labour and significance: the common breeds are East Friesland equipment costs are considered, the lead given by New (Holland), Cochurro, Lancha and Mancha (Portugal and Zealand would seem a good one to follow. Spain). The desirable features required by the butcher in both In recent years, more attention is being given to the lamb and mutton carcases of any breed are short stocky production of fine wools, cashmere and mohair which plump legs, thick full loin, broad full back, thick fleshy the textile industry needs and presently has to import. In ribs with a wide breast and shoulder, a good depth of addition to sheep, Angora goats and rabbits, alpacas and chest cavity, a short plump neck and overall lean content llamas also produce quality fibres. Judicious crossing of (Fig. 1.8, Fig. 1.9 and Fig. 1.10). British sheep with Merinos, for example, Merino de l’Ouest from France, produces sheep capable of high Definitions lambing percentages, good growth rates and carcase Lamb quality as well as fine fleeces. A sheep from birth to weaning time (generally at 3½–4½ In addition to better feeding methods, improvements months old). Butchers apply a more generous interpreta- in sheep production are currently centred on the use of tion to the term ‘lamb’ and use it to denote a sheep from hormones to increase the number of lambs born and birth until shearing time the following year; by this inter- out-of-season lambing, hybridisation to produce a supe- pretation, a sheep 13 months old is still classed as lamb. rior stock of leaner types, oestrous synchronisation, early weaning and artificial rearing of lambs. Intensification Hogget on grass and fodder is possible as long as farmers are aware of the problems involved. A ‘lamb’ in its second year, often with two permanent In the United Kingdom, the demand for young and incisors replacing the lamb teeth. small carcases means that lamb is the more important Tup or ram product. Lambs are usually slaughtered at between 36 and 50 kg live weight giving a dressed carcase of 17–23 kg. The uncastrated male. ‘Mutton’ is derived from lambs not attaining a finished condition before weaning and from ewes, wethers, hog- Wether gets and rams. The castrated male sheep (usually castrated before 1 week As in the case of cattle and pigs, use has been made of of age with a rubber ring or at 3 weeks to 3 months old entire ram lambs to produce leaner carcases. Work carried by other methods).

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Gimmer A female which has not yet borne a lamb. Ewe A female which has borne lambs. Cast ewe One which has been removed from the breeding flock.

Pigs According to the most recent world census data, 2011, there were 963 million pigs worldwide. The leading 12 pig-producing countries in order of numbers slaugh- tered are the following (in millions): Republic of China, Figure 1.8 A ewe and lambs. 672.3; United States, 111; Germany, 59.7; Vietnam, 44.2; Spain, 41.7; Brazil, 34.9; Russian Federation, 29; France, 24.8; Philippines, 24.3; Poland, 22; Denmark, 20.9; and Japan, 16.4. The number of pigs slaughtered worldwide was 1382.6 m (FAOSTAT). Over the past decade, pig production in China, the United States and Vietnam has grown significantly. In 1997, in the Netherlands, a severe outbreak of classical swine fever led to a major culling programme which removed 40% of the Dutch annual production (6% EU total annual output) during that year. Since then, the Dutch government has decided to introduce stringent new legislation which limits the size of the national herd to 80% of the 1996 herd size. Pig breeds A breed is defined as ‘A group of animals that has been selected by man to possess a uniform appearance that is Figure 1.9 A Blackface ram. inheritable and distinguishes it from other groups of

Figure 1.10 Sheep being moved into lairage.

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animals within the same species’. In essence, a breed relies on being recognisable because it possesses a num- ber or combination of features, for example, coat colour, body conformation, head shape, etc. As the pig was domesticated, it was selected for a variety of different characteristics such as fertility, moth- ering ability, muscle and fat deposition, durability and amenability to handling under a variety of husbandry systems. This process continues today on two distinct levels. There are those who breed pedigree pigs with the aim of preserving the ‘purity’ of their breed and the com- mercial pig-producing companies and pig farmers who use cross-bred varieties to utilise hybrid pigs to optimise production traits. Through selection, there are now esti- Figure 1.11 Middle White. mated to be some 300 different breeds of pigs. Unlike some species, the pig has suffered little from ‘maintain the purity and improve the breeds of swine in man’s selection to maximise production and appearance. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by the The most noted exception was the introduction of the means of livestock inspection and herdbook recording halothane gene following the introduction of the Piétrain all pedigree pure-bred pigs’. breed. This breed was chosen with the aim of increasing Today, the BPA recognises 14 pedigree pig breeds: Large muscle production via the double muscle gene carried White, Landrace, Welsh, Berkshire, British Hampshire, naturally by the Piétrain breed. However, pigs which carry British Saddleback, Duroc, Gloucester Old Spot, Large the double recessive halothane gene tend to drop dead if Black, Middle White, Tamworth, Mangalitza, Oxford stressed, and those that do survive and are slaughtered Sandy and Black and Piétrain (Fig. 1.11, Fig. 1.12, Fig. 1.13 express a high frequency of pale, soft and exudative (PSE) and Fig. 1.14). The main breeds used commercially are muscle tissue such that the meat appears pale and suffers Large White, Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire and Piétrain. from high drip loss, making it less suitable for processing Commercial breeding companies in the United and sale. For many years after this gene was introduced, Kingdom supply approximately three-quarters of all the the commercial breeding companies tested breeding stock replacement gilts bought by commercial pig farmers. by exposing all potential breeding pigs to the anaesthetic These companies use pedigree pigs at the top of their gas halothane because it was found that if 10-week-old breeding pyramids to produce cross-bred grandparent pigs which were double recessive for this gene were and parent pigs. exposed to this gas, they would become rigid; pigs not car- Increasingly, the force which has been driving the rying the gene retained a relaxed posture. Recently, a gene selection made by the breeding companies is coming probe has been developed which is cheaper and more wel- from the retail sector where the demand is for a leaner, fare acceptable. This new test has also made it possible for ‘healthier’ carcase which produces a tender, succulent the breeding companies to retain some of the benefits of meat not showing signs of PSE or excessive drip loss and this gene in terms of muscle production without the risk which has sufficient intramuscular fat to provide flavour. of pigs being stress susceptible and producing PSE meat. Added to this is a new demand which places emphasis More recently, breeding companies in the United on the production system used, with the requirement Kingdom and France have imported and experimented being for what are termed ‘high-welfare’ production sys- with genes introduced by crossing European breeds tems but which equate to loose housing systems. These with the Meishan breed which originates in China. The demands influenced the choice of breed used by the Meishan is a highly prolific breed with the potential of breeding companies in their breeding programmes. For producing up to 30 piglets per litter. The aim is to intro- example, although the traditional crosses of the White duce the genes for prolificacy while retaining the leaner breeds still account for 84% of all commercial indoor carcase characteristics of the European breeds. production, sales of Duroc crosses to produce hardier pigs, more suited to the more demanding outdoor envi- Pig breeds in the United Kingdom ronment, are on the increase. In the United Kingdom, pedigree pig breeding is care- Pig production fully recorded by the British Pig Association (BPA), which began keeping breeding records in 1884 when the The United Kingdom, with some 25% of its pigs out- association was known as the National Pig Breeders doors, has the highest percentage of outdoor production Association (NPBA). The aim of the NPBA was to in Europe. The availability of suitable outdoor sites will

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Figure 1.12 Gloucester Old Spot sow and litter.

Figure 1.14 Large Black.

This legislation was incorporated into UK law by SI 2126 ‘The Welfare of Livestock Regulations 1994’. However, the UK legislation not only implemented the European Directive but added the abolition of stalls and tethers by Figure 1.13 Saddleback. 1 January 1999. Some of the other European countries decided to address other aspects of production; for probably limit further development since pig welfare can example, in the Netherlands, fully slatted flooring sys- be severely compromised if pigs are put on to sites where tems were phased out by 2006. the rainfall exceeds 750 mm/year and the land is not free The imposition of legislation on production inevitably draining or relatively flat. In fact, much of the outdoor affects the way pigs are produced. European legislation rearing of pigs has now ceased in the United Kingdom has been passed in an attempt to reduce the environmen- since farmers have discovered that the environmental tal impact of agriculture: Integrated Pollution Prevention conditions were too severe and too difficult to manage. and Control Directive (IPPC Directive 96/61/EC) and European Council Directive 91/630/EEC set out the Nitrates Directive (Directive 91/676/EEC). The IPPC the ‘minimum standards for the protection of pigs’. Directive aims to reduce all pollution emissions to air,

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water and soil and to make more efficient use of Historically, pigs in the United Kingdom were sold resources. The Nitrates Directive aims to prevent pollu- as pork pigs, cutters, bacon pigs and heavy hogs. This tion of surface and groundwater by excess nitrate. Pig classification has largely disappeared and been replaced production in the future is likely to be even more tightly by three weight bands. According to the MLC Yearbook

controlled by legislation as pressure from welfare and 2006, in 2005, these weight bands, P2 measurements and other lobbying bodies mounts on governments. This, distribution of kill were: plus the change in the way world trade is changing, will inevitably affect the economics of pig production and Carcase Average carcase P2 % of accordingly the size and structure of the UK pig indus- weight (kg) weight (kg) GB kill try. The breeds of pigs used and the husbandry proce- dures adopted will continue to evolve. <60 54.8 9.3 5.3 60–80 72.1 10.7 69.1 Pig meat production >80 84.8 12.0 25.6 In 2011, the EU produced 23 million tonnes of pig meat (FAOSTAT), and the United Kingdom produced around Glossary of terms 1.3 million tonnes. When compared with other European countries, the UK consumer eats less pig meat, with the The following definitions are those used in EU total consumption figures being 803 000 tonnes for pork legislation: and 488 000 tonnes for bacon. The UK pig industry is about 104% self-sufficient for pork but only 52% for Boar A male pig after puberty, intended for bacon. The balance of bacon production comes from breeding Denmark, Holland and France. The UK industry is unu- Gilt A female pig intended for breeding, after sual in that it produces pig meat from uncastrated males, puberty and before farrowing which means that in order to avoid boar taint, pigs are Pig An animal of the porcine species of any slaughtered at lighter weights in that country. The aver- age, kept for breeding or fattening age slaughter weight has however risen in recent years Piglet A pig from birth to weaning and is now over 80 kg (BPEX 2009). However, as a result, Rearing pig A pig from 10 weeks to slaughter or service Sow A female pig after the first farrowing fat content as measured by P has also increased. This has 2 Weaner A pig from weaning to the age of 10 weeks had a negative influence on grading, which in the United Kingdom is now done using the EU grades as follows: Additional facts Grade Lean meat (%) In Europe, piglets must not be weaned from the sow at S 60 or more an age of less than 4 weeks unless the welfare or health E 55–59 of the sow or piglets would otherwise be adversely U 50–54 affected. This is not the case in the United States where R 45–49 it is not unusual to find piglets weaned between 16 and O 40–44 19 days of age. P <40 On average, UK producers weaning at 4 weeks of Z Partially condemned or age will achieve between 2.3 and 2.44 litters/sow/year, with soft fat or pale muscle with between 22 and 25 piglets born/sow/year and in the C Poor conformation region of 18–22 slaughter pigs sold per sow per year. Feed conversion is around 2.5:1. Producers using out- door systems tend now to produce only one pig less per Carcase dressing can be different in the United sow per year than those using indoor systems. Kingdom when compared with the rest of Europe; in the United Kingdom, if the tongue, flare fat, kidneys and Goats diaphragm remain with the carcase, adjustments to pay- ment are made to take this into account. The lean meat The principal goat-producing countries of the world percentage is calculated using the back fat measured at are the following (in millions): India, 157; China,

the P1, P2 and P3 positions which are 4.5, 6.5 and 8 cm, 142.2; Pakistan, 61.4; Bangladesh, 50.5; and Sudan, 43.4 respectively, from the dorsal midline, level with the head (FAO, 2011).

of the last rib. Payment is based on back fat at the P2 Consumer demand for meat with a low saturated fat position and on carcass weight. content and an alternative to traditional dairy products

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has seen an increase in the numbers of those species under the most modern systems of management. The which are naturally lean and/or provide a source of milk major part of the poultry industry consists of domestic other than cow’s milk, for example, goats and deer. In the fowls, but turkeys, ducks, geese and guinea fowl are also United Kingdom, there are now over 88 000 goats, with reared, turkeys being especially common in the United approximately 33 000 milk-producing goats in England States and Britain. While it is still not unusual for meat and Wales (DEFRA 2003). Goat milk can be utilised in and egg production to go hand in hand on small enter- the production of many commercial products including prises, they are mostly separate activities with the larger hard and soft cheeses and yoghurt. Meat is a by-product, concerns. Indeed, the early 1950s saw the commence- as are skins and goat hair. Steps were recently taken in ment of the broiler industry, which in the United Britain to produce home-bred mohair and cashmere Kingdom now has an annual production of 820 million from imported Angora goats. broilers and combines in most instances breeding, Domesticated goats, descended from native breeds in hatching, rearing, slaughter, processing, packing and the East, probably Iran, are found throughout the world, marketing; efficiency and competition are the moti- even in torrid and frigid zones where they are superior to vating forces. This operation is said to be ‘vertically cows for milk production. Besides milk, some breeds are integrated’. kept for their hair, for example, Angora and Cashmere, The rapid trend towards larger enterprises is exempli- while young goats are a source of kid leather. They are fied by the broiler industry in the United Kingdom, especially useful for small-scale milk production and where some 75% of the whole industry is controlled by can be maintained in buildings and on pasture where it six companies. While in the early years only a few hun- would not be possible to keep cattle or sheep. dred birds were reared on one holding, nowadays, it is Breeds can be roughly classified into two main not uncommon for 1 million birds to be housed on a groups: Swiss, which are prick eared and include Alpine single poultry farm, as many as 40 000 birds being kept and Toggenburg; and Nubian, which are African in in one house. In the United Kingdom, house size gener- ­origin, chiefly Egyptian, and have long drooping ears ally varies from 12 000 to 35 000 birds, and there may be and Roman noses, for example, Angora, Cashmere and 1–10 houses on each individual site rather than in huge Maltese. integrated units, this trend being dictated by disease While the market for goat meat in Britain has not yet control and welfare considerations. assumed much importance, in France, there are now Concentrated efforts have been put into the breeding some 121 000 goat farmers. Many of these have devel- of poultry for both egg and meat production, not only to oped broiler goat units in which 3–7-day-old kids are enhance productivity but also to control disease, which reared on high-vitamin milk powder to a live weight of could be devastating to the industry. Instead of pure 10 kg at 1 month of age, when they are slaughtered. The breeds, commercial poultry are now represented by average carcase dead weight is 6.3 kg. The carcases are hybrids. split and the meat is exported, mainly to Italy, skins being Poultry meat production in the United Kingdom is utilised for shoemaking. provided in the main by broilers, turkeys and ducks, together with geese, poussins and end-of-lay hens, Poultry guinea fowl and some game species such as grouse, par- tridges, pheasants and quail. Ostrich farming for meat The main poultry-producing regions of the world production and leather is a significant enterprise in include the following (in 1000 metric tonnes ready to South Africa. cook equivalent, 2011): the United States, 17.11; China, 12.08; Brazil, 11; Mexico, 7.7; Russia, 2.9; India, 2.2; Definitions Turkey, 1.6; and the United Kingdom, 1.3 (FAOSTAT). It is probably true to say that no other farm enter- Broilers prise is as widespread throughout the world as is that of Slaughtered normally at around 42 days at live weight poultry farming. Certainly, no other farming activity of about 2.3 kg. Food conversion rate is 1.75:1 with a has made such vast strides in recent years as the pro- kill-out of 69%. Broilers are housed in environmentally duction of meat and eggs for table use. In many coun- controlled buildings. tries, it is regarded as the most important sector of the agricultural industry. While many farmers keep a few Poussins poultry for their own use to provide meat and eggs, Young birds, 23–28 days old, with an average live weight the other extreme is represented by large commercial of 0.5 kg. Oven-ready, they weigh 0.25–5 kg. Poussins are organisations in which thousands of birds are kept mainly sold to the retail trade.

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End-of-lay hens weight gains, attaining 3.6 kg in 49 days at a food conver- sion of 2.3:1. The kill-out percentage is 72%. In the Birds at the end of their laying life, sometimes called United Kingdom, 90% of ducks are Pekin. Small special- boiling fowl, and weighing around 2 kg, form a substan- ist producers use other breeds such as Barberi. Generally, tial trade in meat for processing. Some live, fat hens are Pekin ducks are considered a cold-weather duck and are required for Halal slaughter in Britain. predominant in northern Europe, and Barberi are pre- Nearly all the broilers in the major production areas in dominant in southern Europe and warmer countries. the world are reared on deep litter on the floor. Using Compared with domestic fowls and turkeys, geese and modern strains of fast-growing birds, the majority are ducks are of minor importance. Sales of geese are usually raised until they are approximately 6 weeks of age, when confined to the Christmas period. They are generally they are harvested, that is, caught, crated, loaded and regarded as being a specialised product in that they have transported to the processing plant. Nowhere is intensiv- a high feed conversion ratio, 5:1, and are expensive to ism more evident than in broiler production, where the produce. A female can produce 50–60 offspring which health of the breeding stock and the growing birds is are killed normally at 18–22 weeks weighing around essential for economic and welfare reasons. Breeding 10 kg live weight with a kill-out of about 75%. Nowadays, flocks have a detailed vaccination programme which owing to hybridisation, the meat content of the carcase is gives protection against respiratory diseases such as much higher. In Denmark, Germany, Austria, Poland infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease as well as and parts of France, commercial geese production is an Marek’s disease, egg drop syndrome, avian epidemic important enterprise; in some instances, force-feeding tremor and infectious bursal disease (IBD). The broilers with noodles or other foods is carried out to produce themselves may be vaccinated against Gumboro disease enlargement of the liver, from which the delicacy paté de and other infections and in addition will have a coccidi- foie gras is prepared. ostat in the ration to prevent coccidiosis. In England, the keeping of geese and ducks is subject The keeping of large numbers of birds together makes to the terms of the Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) it essential that nutrition, ventilation and temperature, Regulations 2007 and other legislations, as is all livestock stocking densities and management are optimal. Very farming, so that geese and ducks have the same welfare close supervision of the birds is essential, and correct protection as other animals. Their force-feeding might, treatment/management changes must be prompt. It is therefore, be regarded as causing unnecessary stress, vital that detailed records are kept since it is usually from depending on the professional assessment of the inspect- these that early signs of disease are detected, for example, ing veterinary officer, and would not be allowed in the water consumption, reduced food intake, weight gain United Kingdom. and egg production in layers. Guinea fowl can be reared intensively and kept Two aspects of management help birds keep free from indoors, the first part of their life under brooders. They disease. Biosecurity – safety from transmissible infec- are killed at 8–9 weeks of age and have a food conversion tious diseases, parasites and pests – is a term that embod- ratio of 3:1. France and Italy produce large numbers. ies all the measures that can or should be taken to prevent There is no doubt that poultry is Britain’s favourite viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, parasites, insects, meat at the moment, its market continuing to grow at rodents and wild birds from entering or surviving and the expense of red meat. Chicken has a 78% share of the infecting or endangering the well-being of the poultry retail market, while turkey now stands at 19%. The major flock. An ‘all-in/all-out’ policy operates where the birds growth sector in the poultry industry in recent years has on a unit are approximately the same age and all are been that of value-added products, now estimated to be slaughtered; the unit is then thoroughly cleaned and dis- worth over £600 million for chicken. Altogether, poultry infected prior to the arrival of a new batch of birds. are worth some £2000 million. Most of the retail sales of Turkeys are nowadays not confined to the Christmas chicken (87%) go to the multiples, only 6% going to period. A wide range of weights is produced, depending butchers. The trade is divided into fresh chilled and fro- on the particular trade, and these may be as low as 4 kg zen birds and portions. and as high as 9 kg or more. Some large cocks can be as heavy as 18 kg. The popular weight of bird for the aver- Rabbits age family in Britain is between 5 and 6 kg. Ducks are produced both oven-ready frozen – used Under commercial rabbit-rearing conditions in the mainly in the catering trade – and oven-ready fresh United Kingdom, only 2 of the 40 breeds of rabbit are chilled – sold mainly retail – and are available in weights used for meat production. These are the Commercial from 2 kg upwards. Table ducks can make very fast live White and Californian.

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Rabbits have high fertility rates (some breeds can pro- Deer duce 60 offspring per year), fast growth rates (1.75 kg at 8 weeks of age) and a food conversion efficiency of 2.5:1. The farming of red deer has now become firmly estab- A killing-out percentage of around 50 head-off, hot car- lished in the United Kingdom and other European case weight can be achieved. A measure of the potential countries and on a much larger scale in New Zealand. In of the rabbit as a meat-producing animal can be gauged the latter country, the emphasis is on the production of by comparing it with a breeding ewe. A 70 kg ewe is antler in velvet for the lucrative oriental trade, a practice capable of producing 40 kg of lamb carcase per year, prohibited by law in the United Kingdom. whereas a 4.5 kg doe is able to produce 75 kg of rabbit There are three different kinds of pasture land which, meat in the same time. taken together with the system of livestock production Rabbit meat is low in fat (3.8%) and high in protein practised, provide a basis for the classifying of farm units (20.7%), which compares favourably with chicken (2.5% into hill farms, upland farms and lowland farms. Hill fat and 21.5% protein), beef forequarter (18.9% fat and deer farms produce weaned calves which are sold to 18.3% protein), lamb leg (17.5% fat and 18.7% protein) upland and lowland farms, where they grow much faster and pork ham (19.6% fat and 19.7% protein). to breeding or slaughter live weights. Upland farms breed Rearing is often a large-scale enterprise in Europe, stags which may be suitable for use on hill farms and sell where farms of several thousand does can be found, breeding stock and store calves to lowland farms; they but rabbits are mainly kept on small farms where can also produce prime venison. Some upland farms will labour costs are low. The average size of a rabbit farm also export breeding stock and import new bloodlines in the United Kingdom is a 40–50 doe unit. For the from abroad. Lowland farms sell breeding stags to the industry to be successful, it must develop on the same upland farmer and can import and export livestock as lines as the poultry industry, that is, highly organised well as being a major producer of prime venison. with specialist attention to the cost of labour, food, It was estimated by the British Deer Farmers equipment, breeding, nutrition, disease prevention and Association from the Agricultural Census in 2005 that housing. 300 deer farms operated within the United Kingdom The optimum weight for slaughter lies around 2.7 kg, farming 33 000 deer. Park deer are also increasingly which is achieved at about 12–14 weeks of age, although being used for venison production. Estimates made in this depends on factors such as breed, feeding systems 2005 show that Scotland had at least 300 000 wild red and management but mainly the environment. deer with an estimate of approximately 500 000–600 000 Rabbit-processing plants have to conform to EC roe deer across Britain. standards. Integrated premises have facilities for rearing, While most of the deer farmed in Britain are red slaughter, refrigeration and packing, the end products deer, smaller numbers of fallow, roe, sika and wapiti are consisting of whole fresh rabbits, sausages and burgers, also kept. stewpacks and cooked and coated portions as in the New Zealand’s 1.5 million farmed deer graze on poultry industry. approximately 4000 farms. Average herd size is about Stunning is by electricity, as opposed to home killing 375, although the largest herds comprise several thou- where animals are stunned by a blow to the head, which sands. Deer are processed in specialist plants. Revenue is immediately removed, or the spinal cord is broken in a from New Zealand venison exports is known to fluctu- manner similar to that for poultry. ate widely with the amount of venison exported rising Imports of Chinese rabbits have been a serious source from 16 000 to 27 000 tonnes between 2002 and 2006; of competition for the British industry, but they are not however, due to a reduction in price the value of these of the same standard as British supplies. exports only increased marginally from US $210 to US While the rabbit is an animal which can utilise many $250 million (Deer and deer farming – Venison exports, types of feedingstuffs unsuitable for human consump- Te Ara – The Encyclopaedia of New Zealand). The major tion, it is susceptible to certain conditions such as the market group was Europe, with Germany the main enteritis complex, which may be a form of nutri- importer, followed by Scandinavia and France. tional deficiency allied to an infection caused by micro- Consumer demand for lean meat is fully met in veni- organisms. Respiratory diseases are also common, and son, which has a low fat content (5–10%) compared with these, along with the above, represent important areas levels of 25–40% found in some traditional cuts of beef for research as well as good husbandry. Labour input is and lamb. very high for rabbit breeding, and one person can only Husbandry mainly centres round the red deer (Cervus manage a maximum of 250–300 does. elaphus) because of its ease of handling compared with

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hills to 12–16 hinds with their calves, per hectare, on good lowland pasture. Handling of deer Because of their relatively sensitive nature, aggression at times and powers of agility, it is essential that they are handled efficiently and with care. Housing has been shown to be of value, especially for calves, but care has to be taken with dominant types (which must be removed) and to allow sufficient trough space. Good handling systems are necessary for collection of deer for tuberculin testing, blood sampling, weighing, anthelmintic and other treatments, etc. Drugs such as etorphine hydrochloride (Immobilon) and diprenor- phine (Revivon) are frequently used to immobilise ani- mals humanely, projectile syringes being fired from rifles or blowpipes into the hindquarter or shoulder.

References Figure 1.15 A red deer stag. Department of Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). (2008) United Kingdom Slaughter Statistics 2008, https://statistics.defra.gov.uk/ the other species, some of which can be aggressive, for esg/slaughterns.htm (accessed 8 April 2014). example, wapiti (Cervus canadensis). Dransfield, E., Nute, G.R., Hogg, B.W. and Walters, B.R. (1990) Animal Production, 50, 291. The calves are weaned in September. Housed calves Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) appear to thrive much better than those out-wintered (2011) FAOSTAT, Statistics/Production/Livestock Primary/Cattle/ unless very good shelter is available. The principal prob- Animals Slaughtered Products Quantity. lem in housing deer is bullying, and it is important to Living Costs and Food Survey (2011) Department of the Environment, separate deer into groups of similar size and to quickly Food and Rural Affairs, Office of National Statistics, London. identify and remove either aggressive deer or those being Orr, D.E. Jr. and Shen, Y. (2006). World pig production: opportunity or threat? Midwest Swine Nutrition Conference, 7 September 2006, bullied. Where there is abundant fenced rough pasture Indianapolis. and forest to provide shelter, adult deer are best out-win- Woods, V.B. and Fearon, A.M. (2009) Livestock Science, 126, 1–20. tered because of bullying indoors. The most suitable areas for deer farming are good, Further reading well-sheltered grassland with good fencing and shelter because of the lower subcutaneous fat content than in Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (1988) The Management cattle and sheep and the consequent poorer insulation. of Farm Animals, Ballière-Tindall, London. Alexander, T.L. and Buxton, D. (eds) (1994) Management and Diseases Rutting (the annual sexual display in the male) occurs of Deer, Veterinary Deer Society, London. in the autumn and is accompanied by increased aggres- Elblex Meat and Livestock UK Yearbook, 2011. sion, vocalisation, testicular activity, shedding of velvet and a strong urine odour. The rut lasts for 2–5 weeks Farm Animal Welfare Council (late September to October) (Fig. 1.15). Single calves are born in the spring (late May to Animal Welfare Act, 2006. June) after a gestation of 231 days. At birth, they weigh MLC Year Books Cattle, Pigs and Sheep. an average 8.5 kg and reach sexual maturity at 16 Defra Codes of Practice. months. Farmed deer are slaughtered at various ages Report on the Welfare of Broiler Chickens, 1992. (8–30 months) and produce dressed carcase weights Report on the Welfare of Sheep, 1994. of 53–60 kg live weight. Some 33% of the carcase is Report on the Welfare of Turkeys, 1995. regarded as first-class meat. Report on the Welfare of Pigs Kept Outdoors, 1996. Stocking rates vary according to the type of land and The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations, pasture utilised, from 0.66/hectare on heather-dominant 2007.

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