NOTES How to Study Power and Saints Note on the Sources and References: References to the revelations are given in form Rev. I 12; Book I, 71, meaning, for example, Liber I of the revelations, chapter 12, the corresponding page in the English translation. Passages from the Revelaciones Extravagantes are marked with Ex. The acts of Birgitta’s canoniza- tion process are given as Acta. However, the following parts of Acta, Birgitta’s life, the so-called process Vita, is referred to PVita and Prior Peter’s testimony, Deposicio copiosissima domini prioris de Aluastro, is identified as DCP. The idea is to make it easier for the reader to follow which part of the acts is being referred. The page number that follows refers to Isak Collijn’s edition, 1924–1931. I have used existing translations from Latin into English, when possible. Rev. I–VII (Books I–VII) are translated by Denis Searby in The Revelations of St. Birgitta of Sweden: Volume 1–3. Rev. V and Rev. VII. Translations of PVita are by Albert Kezel (Birgitta of Sweden, Life and Selected Revelations). Other translations are as indicated in the endnotes or, if there is no printed translation, the trans- lations are mine. The translation of The Life of Marie d’Oignies by Jacques de Vitry is by Margot H. King and Supplement to the Life by Thomas de Cantimpré is by Hugh Feiss. Both can be found in Two Lives of Marie d’Oignies. 1. Heffernan (1988, 14). 2. Williams-Krapp (2002, 208–210). 3. Kleinberg (1989, 186). 4. In English, “Living Saints: A Typology of Female Sanctity in the Early Sixteenth Century,” see, Zarri (1996). 5. Zarri (1996, 221). Zarri has examined several Italian holy women in the sixteenth century who seemed to have made a career of being a saint (257). 6. Kleinberg (1992, 6). Barcellona suggests the term “self-construction of sanctity” meaning a person who is aware of her or his would-be sanctity and seeks to act accordingly. This term closely resembles the concept of the living saint (1999, 36–37). 7. Sources regarding Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179), the German abbess, contain many instances of the abbess in conflict with clerical or secu- lar authorities (Salmesvuori 2000). I expected this to be the case with Birgitta of Sweden as well but soon realized that since she did not have 176 NOTES any official position—as an abbess, for example—she did not find herself in a similar situation as Hildegard, whose disagreements with authori- ties often concerned administrative matters. 8. Mulder-Bakker (2005). 9. For the most recent use of the concept of the living saint, see Heinonen (2007) and Herzig (2008). 10. Riches and Salih (2002, 4). The classic texts among scholars for defin- ing gender in historical analyses are the writings of Joan Wallach Scott (see, e.g., Scott 1988). Very few now deny the significance of gender or call it anachronistic. There are, however, a few who do. Dick Harrison interestingly discusses Hans-Werner Goetz’s idea that gender should not be overemphasized (1998, 28–29). Useful collections, besides Gender and Holiness. Men, Women and Saints in Late Medieval Europe, ed. Samantha J. E. Riches and Sarah Salih, that apply the gender perspective are, e.g., Constructions of Widowhood and Virginity in the Middle Ages, ed. Cindy L. Carlson and Angela Jane Weisl, and Gendering the Master Narrative: Women and Power in the Middle Ages, ed. Mary Erler and Maryanne Kowaleski. 11. On widows and power in the Middle Ages, see Haluska-Rausch (2005, 153–168). On men and “maleness” in the Middle Ages, see Medieval Masculinities. Regarding Men in the Middle Ages, ed. Clare A. Lees, and Becoming Male in the Middle Ages, ed. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen and Bonnie Wheeler. 12. See The Prime of Their Lives: Wise Old Women in Pre-industrial Society, ed. A. B. Mulder-Bakker and R. Nip. 13. Mulder-Bakker (2004b, x). 14. Mulder-Bakker (2004b, xx–xxii). Mulder-Bakker suggested that the menopause occurred earlier in the Middle Ages, when women were around 40. Both the earlier and more recent scholarship on menopause shows that 50 is the common age. It could occur between the age of 35 and 60 (Post 1971, 83–87; Youngs 2006, 172–173). 15. Blumenfeld-Kosinski (2004, 7). 16. Youngs (2006, 148–152). 17. Mann (1986, 2). 18. See, e.g., Women and Power in the Middle Ages, ed. Mary C. Erler and Maryanne Kowaleski, and by the same editors, Gendering the Master Narrative: Women and Power in the Middle Ages; Aers and Staley (1996); Women and Religion in Medieval and Renaissance Italy, ed. Daniel E. Bornstein and Roberto Rusconi; Gendering the Middle Ages, ed. Pauline Stafford and Anneke B. Mulder-Bakker; The Experience of Power in Medieval France, 950–1350, ed. Robert F. Berkhofer, Alan Cooper, and Adam J. Kosto. Concerning authority, the works of Ronald Surtz and Alison Weber on women in Late Medieval Spain have been especially inspiring for me (Surtz 1990; 1995; Weber 1990). 19. Aers and Staley (1996, 7). 20. Bornstein (1996, 1–2). NOTES 177 21. Erler and Kowaleski (2003, 9). 22. Shifting the emphasis from “women” to “gender” brings a wider field of research to focus and is more inclusive than “women.” 23. Some of the most important studies are, Medieval Women. Dedicated and Presented to Professor Rosalind M. T. Hill on the Occasion of Her Seventieth Birthday, ed. Derek Baker; Dronke (1984); Bynum (1987); Ennen (1989); Sisters and Workers in the Middle Ages, ed. Judith M. Bennett et al.; Framing Medieval Bodies, ed. Sarah Kay and Miri Rubin; Creative Women in Medieval and Early Modern Italy: Religious and Artistic Renaissance, ed. E. Ann Matter and John Coakley; Newman (1995; 2003); Ferrante (1997); Women Preachers and Prophets through Two Millennia of Christianity, ed. Beverly Mayne Kienzle and Pamela J. Walker; Women and Faith. Catholic Religious Life in Italy form Late Antiquity to the Present, ed. Lucetta Scaraffia and Gabriella Zarri; Singlewomen in the European Past, 1250–1800, ed. Judith M. Bennett and Amy M. Froide; New Trends in Feminine Spirituality. The Holy Women of Liège and Their Impact, ed. Juliette Dor, Lesley Johnson, and Jocelyn Wogan Browne; Hollywood (2002); Voices in Dialogue. Reading Women in the Middle Ages, ed. Olson and Kerby-Fulton. 24. Lukes (1986, 4–5); Allen (1999, 121). 25. Garrard (1983, 105–121, 107); Engelstad (2006). 26. Mann (1986, 6). McGuire’s definition of power and authority bears resemblance to this idea: power aims at influencing and changing a given condition and authority means right to exercise power (1991, 12). 27. “Power is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regard- less of the basis on which this probability rests” (Weber 1968 I:53). Weber, despite being one of the most influential scholars in the field of sociology of religion, was operating under the assumption made in his The Sociology of Religion that women were receptive to religious but not political prophecy. As Diane Watt notes, this statement “does not bear scrutiny” (1997, 3). Regarding resistance in Foucault’s writings, see Foucault (1982; 1988). Concerning power and resistance, see also J. M. Barbalet, who raises the interesting point that even quite different approaches “share an implicit assumption that the concept of ‘resistance’ is axiomatic and requires no further specification” (1985, 536–537). 28. Foucault (1983, 208–210). 29. Foucault (1983, 214). Foucault saw that this kind of power is applied today as well, with certain modifications: for example, instead of desir- ing salvation in the next world, people are ensuring it in this world. For the notion of practice in Michel Foucault’s thinking, see Alhanen (2007). 30. Foucault (1988, 11–12); Deveaux (1994, 233). 31. Malina (1995, 170). 32. Weber already emphasized the importance of the power of the leader being recognized (1968 I:215–216). 33. Garrard (1983, 108–109). 178 NOTES 34. Thompson (1991, 31). 35. Bourdieu (2001, 170; emphasis original). 36. Ibid., 170. Bourdieu also adopted and developed many of Max Weber’s theories. See, Verter (2004). 37. Bourdieu (2001, 12–14); Verter (2004, 188). Bourdieu’s concept of habi- tus goes beyond the conventional dictionary definition. 38. Verter (2003, 153). 39. Verter (2003, 156). On applying Bourdieu’s concepts to the research of medieval themes, see also Graves (1989, 297–301). 40. Allen (1999, 123–129). 41. Rapp (2005, 16–22). 42. Jantzen (1995, 169). 43. McGinn (1998, 17). 44. Ibid., 21–22; Bériou (1998, 136–141); Lehmijoki-Gardner (1999); Kerby-Fulton (2005). 45. On the discerning of spirits, see Caciola (2003); Elliott (2004, 233, 300– 302); Anderson (2011). 46. McGinn (2007, 17–18). 47. Newman (2005a, 7–9). 48. Allen (1999, 131–135). 49. Schechner (2000, 4). 50. For the history of performance studies, see Bell (1997, 73–79). The classic introduction to performance studies is Richard Schechner’s Performance Studies. An Introduction. Third Edition, 2013. 51. Miller (1994, 137); Brakke (2003, 390). Mary Suydam and Beverly Kienzle have applied performance theory convincingly to the study of beguines and medieval sermons; Stavroula Constantinou has done the same to the lives of holy women in Late Antiquity (Suydam 1999b; 2004; 2007; Kienzle 2002; Constantinou 2005). In 2008, Elina Gertsman edited the fine volume Visualizing Medieval Performance. Perspectives, Histories, Contexts, which contains 16 articles exploring various medi- eval cases from the performance perspective. 52. Suydam (1999a, 5). 53. Ibid., 11–12. 54. Ibid., 19. 55. Suydam (2004, 144). 56. Ibid., 152; emphasis original. 57. Suydam (1999a, 15–16). 58.