Lornshill Academy Geography Department Higher Revision Human Environments - Urban Human Environments Urban Reasons for increased urban growth There are many reasons for increased urban growth in the developing world. Some of which are: increasing birth rates and decreasing death rates improved health care in many developing countries leading to longer life expectancies employment opportunities are greater within urban areas better paid jobs in the cities, an expected higher standard of living, and more reliable food are all pull factors - reasons why people are attracted to the city people who migrate to towns and cities tend to be young adults and therefore have higher birth rates better medical conditions compared to the countryside mean more successful births and a better life expectancy However, there are many problems associated with rapid growth. These include unplanned housing (squatter settlements/shanty towns), dealing with urban waste, pollution and stress on infrastructure and the city's services. Problems in urban areas Population growth has led to problems in many urban areas. Traffic congestion is a major issue in developed and developing countries. In developed world cities, there has been an increase in the number of cars on the road. As more people move to the edge of towns and cities, traffic congestion may get worse. Many people will drive their cars into the city centre for work. Substantial numbers get there on newer, larger roads or motorways. These roads then link up with older, narrower roads in the city centre. This causes a bottleneck and congestion. Many inner city areas, with a network of narrow roads and many junctions, cannot cope with the increased volume of traffic. Further traffic issues include: increasing numbers of private and commercial vehicles in the city centre cost or lack of public transport cars parking on the main roads and a shortage of adequate parking facilities in the city centre In developing countries, population growth in urban areas has exploded, leading to many people trying to access the cities for work. This situation is worsened by poor public transport. Developing world governments cannot afford to invest in the infrastructure, therefore roads are in disrepair. 2 | P a g e Reducing traffic congestion in developed world cities In developed countries, cities have tried to manage this problem by introducing traffic management schemes. These schemes may include: Park and ride schemes - people park in car parks on the edge of a settlement and catch public transport into the centre. Congestion charging schemes, such as those in Durham and London. Vehicle exclusion zones - for example large vehicles may not be allowed to enter narrow roads or residential areas. Permit holder parking - certain parts of the city, especially the centre can only be parked in by residents or business users who have a permit. Users often have to pay for this. Car-pooling - encourages people to share cars only driving when they really need to. Prioritised road lanes - usually for buses,taxis and cycles. Bradford has introduced 2+ lanes that only cars with high numbers of occupants can use. Low emission zones, as in London. Separate cycle lanes. Traffic calming - including road narrowing, speed bumps and reduced speed limits. Transport Problems in Glasgow As with most major cities in the developed world, Glasgow suffers major problems with traffic congestion. This is caused by: Increasing car numbers There are more cars on the road today than ever before. In 1991 the residents of Glasgow owned 107,000 cars. By 2005 this had risen to 160,000, an increase of 50%. More road journeys are therefore made by car as people prefer cars to public transport, as they are more convenient. Commuters Approximately 25% of people who work in Glasgow do not live in the city. Each day commuters converge on the city centre during the morning and evening rush hours, causing congestion. 3 | P a g e Few bridging points Glasgow only has a limited number of bridging points across the River Clyde. Vehicles are funnelled into a number of bottlenecks, which increases congestion. The Kingston Bridge alone has to cope with 170,000 vehicles per day despite being built to carry 20,000 per day in 1970. Narrow streets The Victorian grid-iron streets in Glasgow’s CBD were built before the age of the car. The streets are narrow, and this is often made worse by cars parking at the side of the road. Vibrations from traffic can damage buildings Increased journey More accidents times Problems of increased traffic Increased noise from Road rage traffic Increased pollution from vehicle exhausts Solutions to Glasgow’s traffic problems Construction of new roads During the 1960s and 1970s, the three-lane M8 motorway was built right through the centre of Glasgow, across areas including Anderston, Kingston and Townhead. The Kingston Bridge (opened 1970, see Figure 9.2) carries the M8 across the River Clyde. New expressways (dual carriageways with two lanes instead of three) such the Clydeside Expressway (see Figure 9.3) and the Springburn Expressway have improved access into the city centre. In recent years both the M80 (north) and the M77 (south) have also improved access into Glasgow for commuters. The Clyde Tunnel (opened 1963) and the Erskine Bridge (1971) allow vehicles to cross the Clyde further downstream and ease the pressure on the city centre. 4 | P a g e The M74 extension A controversial scheme to extend the M74 into the centre of Glasgow was announced in 2003 at a cost of £500 million. The motorway stopped 5 miles south-east of the city centre. Glasgow City Council argued the extension will ease congestion and take traffic away from the M8, one of the busiest motorways in Britain. However, local communities were upset as homes and businesses would have to be demolished to make way for the road. There were also concerns that the road would increase noise and pollution from exhausts. Environmentalists argued that any new roads will simply fill up with more cars, and that investment needs to be made in alternatives, including public transport. The extension finally opened in June 2011 at a cost of £692m. Improvements to public transport Glasgow’s local rail network is the second largest in any British city after London. Over 70 stations connect the suburbs with Queen Street and Glasgow Central stations. The busiest stations have been modernised and their platforms extended to cope with longer trains. A new line from Larkhall to Milngavie was opened up again after 40 years. A new rail link to Glasgow Airport from Paisley costing £200 million was proposed but the project was shelved as it was too costly. Park-and-ride schemes have been introduced across the city, where commuters can park their car for free next to a station in the suburbs and complete their journey into the city centre by train. The number of cyclists travelling into and out of Glasgow city centre has gone up by 25% since 2009. Glasgow’s subway During the late 1970s Glasgow’s subway (underground railway) was modernised, electrified and the stations enlarged. It provides a fast, efficient service; trains call every 4 minutes at the 15 stations at peak times. Over 14 million people use the subway each year. Plans for long-overdue refurbishment were made in 2005 which would allow disabled access at all stations for the first time. In 2011, new driverless trains, a smart ticketing system and a major upgrading of the signalling system were also introduced. Improving traffic flow in the CBD The methods that have been put in place in the city centre to improve traffic flow include: introducing a one-way system traffic wardens, parking meters and yellow lines to limit parking on streets building more multi-storey car parks, especially near shopping centres creating bus lanes to allow public transport to move more quickly pedestrianisation of major shopping streets (Sauchiehall St, Buchanan St and Argyle St) to improve safety for shoppers. Glasgow has so far chosen not to use congestion charging, which is used in London. Drivers are charged £10 for travelling into London’s CBD each day in a bid to encourage the use of public transport instead. Although expensive to set up (the system is monitored by hundreds of cameras), there has been a noticeable decrease in traffic and exhaust pollution in London’s city centre. However, the scheme is expensive and unpopular with drivers, who see it as another tax on motorists. Since its inception some changes have been made and drivers of vehicles with ultra-low emissions now don’t have to pay. 5 | P a g e Housing problems in developed countries Social and demographic changes are leading to a greater demand for housing in developed countries. People are living longer, choosing to marry later and in recent years there has been a rise in the number of single-parent families. Added to this, the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries. Since Eastern European countries joined the EU, people from Poland and other countries have travelled to the UK to find work. However, building new, affordable homes in urban areas is difficult. Land values are very high and land is in short supply. In many Scottish and UK cities, housing redevelopments have learned from the mistakes of the post-war years and are now upgrading the quality of low cost housing while trying to retain, and in many cases improve the sense of community. There is a drive to improve infrastructure and opportunities in these areas, rather than ‘rehouse and flatten’. This contrasts with recent suggestions from cities such as Mumbai where local authorities are planning to flatten huge areas of slum housing.