Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students An Annotated Bibliography

January 2015

West Comprehensive Center at WestEd Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students An Annotated Bibliography

January 2015

Prepared by RMC Research Corporation for the West Comprehensive Center at WestEd

Linda Fredericks Annette Shtivelband Emma Espel Amanda Withington

West Comprehensive Center at WestEd Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students

RMC Research Corporation, an approved subcontractor, produced this report for the West Comprehensive Center at WestEd. This work has been WestEd is a national nonpartisan, funded with monies received from ·the U.S. Department of Education nonprofit research, development, under Grant Award S283B120006. The content does not necessarily reflect and service agency that works with the position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does education and other communities to mention or visual representation of trade names, commercial products, or promote excellence, achieve equity, organizations imply endorsement by the federal government. and improve learning for children, youth, and adults. WestEd has more © 2015 WestEd. All rights reserved. than a dozen offices nationwide, from Massachusetts, Vermont, and Requests for permission to reproduce any part of this report for any other Georgia, to Illinois, Arizona, and purpose should be directed to WestEd, 730 Harrison Street, San Francisco, California, with headquarters in CA 94107-1242, 888-293-7833, fax 415-512-2024,[email protected], or San Francisco. For more ­information http://www.WestEd.org/permissions. about WestEd, visit http://www. Suggested citation: Fredericks, L., Shtivelband, A., Espel, E., & Withington, A. WestEd.org; call 415.565.3000 or, (2015). Culture and language revitalization for Native American students: toll‑free, (877) 4-WestEd; or write: An annotated bibliography. [A report from the West Comprehensive Center.] WestEd / 730 Harrison Street / San Francisco, CA: WestEd. San Francisco, CA 94107-1242.

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Contents

Introduction...... 1

Methods...... 3

College-Community Partnerships...... 6

Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching...... 9

Early Childhood Education...... 20

Family and Community Involvement/Engagement...... 24

Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts...... 31

Mentoring and Peer Tutoring...... 36

Policy Considerations...... 37

Teacher Preparation and Support...... 41

Appendix: Summary of Topics Covered in All Articles Contained in the Annotated Bibliography of Culture and Language Revitalization Literature...... 44

References...... 53

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Introduction

hroughout the United States, composed of representatives from efforts to revitalize culture the Department of Education, the and language continue to Department of Health and Human Services, and other government be of crucial importance to agencies to ensure that AI/AN Native American populations. students meet the requirements of TNumerous Native languages, for example, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 are threatened with extinction, with only small in “a manner consistent with tribal numbers of fluent speakers remaining, and traditions, languages, and cultures” (p. 1). many other languages have already perished (Crawford, 1995). • The Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act, signed Federal, state, and local recognition of into law by President Bush in 2006, the vital importance of revitalizing Native intends to prevent the loss of language and culture has led to a number of heritage and culture through funding of language immersion programs. major programmatic, research, and funding initiatives over the last 25 years (Beaulieu, • Executive Order 13175, 2008; McCoy, 2000; Warhol, 2011). At “Consultation and Coordination the federal level, policy has been enacted with Tribal Governments,” signed by President Obama in 2009, through executive orders as well as by intends to improve relationships congressional acts; some of the key initiatives between federal agencies and tribal in support of Native culture and language are governments. listed below. Native communities from across the country The Native American Language Act of 1990 are deeply engaged in the complex and declares as policy that Native Americans are often difficult process of teaching young entitled to use their own languages. people the value of traditional languages and • Executive Order 13096, “American cultural practices while ensuring that youth Indian and Alaska Native Education,” are also prepared to acquire the academic signed by President Clinton in 1998, knowledge and career skills needed for centers on improving academic life in the 21st century (Warhol, 2011). This performance and reducing the annotated bibliography has been prepared to dropout rate of American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students. inform educators, tribal leaders, researchers, and policymakers about research-based • Executive Order 13336, “American efforts to identify promising practices related Indian and Alaska Native Education,” signed into law by President Bush to reclaiming and revitalizing language and in 2004, calls for the formation of culture at all stages of education, from early an Interagency Working Group childhood to postsecondary education.

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While most articles, or entries (e.g., reports, subject areas, may be generalizable to a books, journal articles), describe culture- and broad segment of Native communities. The language-revitalization efforts with specific articles described in this bibliography provide populations in a few geographic locations, examples of how some Native communities there are persistent indications across the approach teaching languages and cultural literature that some key practices, such as traditions to their youth while simultaneously family involvement, academically rigorous preparing students for life in the modern language instruction, and the thoughtful technological age. integration of culture throughout various

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Methods

n initial search of the Acceptable publications included articles literature addressing Native from research periodicals, literature reviews, American graduation and books or book chapters based on recent dropout rates and issues research, doctoral dissertations, papers yielded approximately presented at conferences, and research- A4,270 articles. They were found through based information briefs or reports. Internet searches conducted using several Excluded documents included newspaper academic search engines, including and magazine articles and simple program Academic Search Premier, ERIC, Google descriptions lacking methodology or Scholar, and LexisNexis Academic. references. After using these criteria to filter A number of key words were used in the the articles identified in the initial search, search, including the following: approximately 1,820 articles remained. These remaining articles were then filtered again Alaska Native, American Indian, child using the following criteria: development, college-community partnerships, community engagement, • written during the 20-year period community-university partnerships, cultural from 1994 through the end of 2014, when this bibliography was drafted; competence, cultural programming, cultural relevance, culturally appropriate, • pertaining to Native American culturally based education, culturally populations residing within the responsive instruction/pedagogy/schooling, United States; and curriculum, dropout prevention, dropouts, • including a minimum sample size in early childhood education, educational research studies of 20 respondents aspirations, educational outcomes, family from a single category (e.g., students, and community involvement, family and teachers, or parents). community support, graduation, heritage language, indigenous Americans, language This final filtering process resulted in a total immersion/renewal/revitalization, mentoring, of 75 articles selected for review. Those Native American, Native Hawaiian, parents, articles were then categorized into eight topic policy, pre-professional training, professional areas related to Native American culture and development, protective factors, resiliency, language preservation. Although many of the retention strategies, school failure, student articles pertain to multiple topics, to avoid achievement, teacher preparation, teacher redundancy, each was categorized under its support, traditional culture, transition from predominant theme and is not duplicated high school to higher education, tribal elsewhere in the document. Tables displaying communities, and tutoring. each article according to its primary topic

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area, as well as the other topic areas of the use of social and political mores of the discussed, appear in the appendix. community. Entries in this section explore the research literature on this topic, effective Each entry in this annotated bibliography programs for the development of culture- features the name of the publication, based education in schools, and teaching bibliographic information, a content abstract, practices that appropriately support cultural and, if available, a web link to the article heritage and expression. itself or to information about purchasing it. Findings, recommendations, and implications Early Childhood Education. The for policy, practice, and research are incorporation of culturally appropriate highlighted in each entry as applicable. curriculum, parent involvement, professional development, and Native language The eight topics areas are described below. instruction in early childhood education College-Community Partnerships. programs are among the issues examined Articles in this section discuss ways that under this topic. Articles here address institutions of higher education can the need for high-quality early childhood education in Native communities and collaborate with tribal communities to factors that promote a supportive learning provide a sense of academic, social, and environment. cultural continuity to students and to promote research and education partnerships that are Family and Community Involvement/ perceived as mutually beneficial. Engagement. A strong sense of support Culture-Based Education and from family and community is associated with positive self-image, cultural identity, Culturally Responsive Teaching. and resilience in Native youth. Items in this Demmert and Towner (2003) defined section examine the specific factors that culture-based education programs as support students’ well-being and promote having six critical elements: (1) recognition the engagement of parents and families in and use of Native American (i.e., American their children’s school. Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian) languages; (2) pedagogy that emphasizes Language Revitalization and traditional cultural characteristics and adult- Immersion Efforts. Researchers have child interactions as the starting place for documented a precipitous decline in the education; (3) pedagogy in which teaching number of Native languages being used in strategies are congruent with traditional this country, with many existing languages culture as well as with contemporary ways only utilized by a small number of older of knowing and learning; (4) curriculum that speakers. Recognizing the inextricable link is based on traditional culture, recognizes between language and culture, dozens of the importance of Native spirituality, and tribal communities have initiated efforts places the education of young children in to revitalize their Native languages, often a contemporary context; (5) strong Native through the use of immersion programs. community participation; and (6) knowledge Articles detail the need for, and multiple

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benefits of, language programs. Descriptions Teacher Preparation and Support. of exemplary programs in language A variety of articles address teacher instruction and immersion are included. training programs and teacher knowledge essential for the implementation of culturally Mentoring and Peer Tutoring. Both responsive classrooms. Adequate preparation cross-age mentoring efforts and peer and support for teachers working with Native mentoring are described in articles that document impacts on Native students’ American populations are key factors in academic, career, and cultural aspirations. teacher commitment, student retention, creation of instruction that is engaging to Policy Considerations. Several resources Native students, and collaboration with in this section provide historical perspectives Native families in support of students’ on the many federal policies that have academic, social, and emotional well-being. profoundly impacted the lives, languages, and cultures of the Native American Note: Within the field, how Indigenous population in this country. Other publications people and groups are referred to varies. look at implications of contemporary With a few exceptions, each annotated article education policies affecting Native students, in this bibliography uses the terminology of families, and communities. its author(s).

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College-Community Partnerships

American Indians and Alaska Natives in Better Together: Coeur d’Alene Higher Education: Promoting Access and Reservation Communities and the Achievement University of Idaho Pavel, D. M. (1999). American Indians Salant, P., & Laumatia, L. (2011). Better and Alaska Natives in higher education: together: Coeur d’Alene reservation Promoting access and achievement. In communities and the University of Idaho. K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconnic III (Eds.), Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Next steps: Research and practice to advance Engagement, 15(3), 101–112. Indian education (pp. 239–258). Charleston, This article describes the partnership WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education between the University of Idaho’s Better and Small Schools. Together program (Horizons and Building Sustainable Communities Initiative) and the Utilizing findings from an extensive review of Coeur d’Alene reservation communities. the literature focused on the achievement of This partnership was created through the American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) Outreach Scholarship, supported by the students in higher education, this publication W. K. Kellogg Foundation Engagement suggests that AI/AN students are more likely Award for the Western Region. The article to attend a 2-year college and less likely to summarizes findings from partnership complete a bachelor’s degree than other U.S. activities that occurred from 2006 to 2009. ethnic groups. The author recommends that The partnership was intended to serve the colleges and governments promote K–16 Coeur d’Alene reservation community and partnerships with tribes to ease the transition the students that attended the University from high school to college for Native of Idaho. Five lessons were learned from American students. Institutions of higher this partnership: (1) successful community education should provide culturally specific engagement occurred through helping academic programs, student service support, teaching and research faculty build local mentoring, and sufficient financial aid. Tribal relationships and access local knowledge colleges are viewed as exemplary in terms of with the reservation; (2) offering hands- recruiting, retaining, and having supportive on, place-based graduate programs campus environments for AI/AN students. attracted more qualified and motivated The author suggests that non‑Indian candidates; (3) capacity- and leadership- institutions may benefit from following the building programs helped facilitate effective approach of tribal colleges. partnerships between the university and tribal communities; (4) the department- Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ based structure in universities was not ED427912.pdf well-suited for working with complex

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communities; and (5) working with tribes Identifying Community Needs and was an iterative process through which the Resources in a Native Community: university community learned about being a A Research Partnership in the good partner. Pacific Northwest

Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ945484 Thomas, L. R., Donovan, D. M., & Sigo, R. L. W. (2010). Identifying community needs and Building Community-University resources in a Native community: A research Partnerships by Listening, Learning, and partnership in the Pacific Northwest. Responding International Journal of Mental Health Addiction, 8(2), 362–373. Martenson, D. M., Newman, D. A., & Zak, D. M. (2011). Building community-university This article emphasizes the ways in which partnerships by listening, learning, and blending participatory research, theory, and responding. Journal of Extension, 49(5), 1–7. practice with community-driven assessment of assets and needs can help academic and This article describes a partnership approach community-based researchers better identify that was developed by the University of needs and resources with Native populations. Minnesota Extension to expand work in The authors discuss the utility of this approach Indian country. The approach taken by the in terms of developing interventions and extension was to build community-university health promotion programs that respect tribal partnerships through a methodology of sovereignty. The study provides a case study gathering data by listening; learning by in which this blended approach is utilized creating opportunities for professional and describes how this case can inform other development; and responding by building similar research partnerships. trusting relationships in Indian Country. This approach resulted in more educators working Available for purchase at http://link.springer. in partnership with Native communities. The com/article/10.1007%2Fs11469-009-9233-1 authors suggest that educators who seek a mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge Retaining American Indian/Alaskan Native and resources with community partners Students in Higher Education: A Case will be more likely to address the interests Study of One Partnership Between of the community in an appropriate and the Tohono O’odham Nation and Pima sustainable manner. The authors emphasize Community College, Tucson, Arizona that positive outcomes are achieved when Campbell, A. E. (2007). Retaining American there is a mutual respect for the strengths of Indian/Alaskan Native students in higher each partner and the joint identification of education: A case study of one partnership opportunities, solutions, and success. between the Tohono O’odham Nation and Pima Community College, Tucson, Arizona. Available at http://www.joe.org/ Journal of American Indian Education, 46(2), joe/2011october/a4.php 19–41.

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The case study describes a partnership ‘Walk Softly and Listen Carefully’: between the Tohono O’odham Nation and Building Research Relationships with Pima Community College in Tucson, Arizona. Tribal Communities The partnership was intended to address NCAI Policy Research Center and MSU a critical need in the tribe for qualified Center for Native Health Partnerships. (2012). health personnel and was designed to ‘Walk softly and listen carefully’: Building meet the needs of nontraditional students research relationships with tribal communities. who chose to live on the reservation. Washington, DC, and Bozeman, MT: Authors. Twenty-four students participated in the program, with seven earning degrees This collaborative partnership between the during the program. The author describes National Congress of American Indians the social context in which this program (NCAI), the NCAI Policy Research Center, was developed, the culturally responsive Montana State University, and the Crow Indian curriculum it provided, the application of a Reservation highlights strategies to build functional collaborative approach through research relationships with tribal communities. this program, and the overall results of The policy report describes a variety of the partnership. The author concludes partnerships between these agencies and with contextual factors that seemed to be highlights a program intended for at-risk most beneficial in the program and for youth called RezRIDERS. The program has students. These factors included providing four major components: (1) extreme sports scholarships to tribal members so the tribe paired with activity clusters; (2) indigenized could have health care workers who were behavioral-cognitive lessons; (3) Native adult knowledgeable and sensitive to traditional cultural mentorship; and (4) youth-driven cultural practices. Other contributing factors community empowerment/action projects. to program success were: (1) a flexible Findings from this research partnership administration team; (2) committed teaching suggest the following as being effective faculty; (3) collaborative reading and writing practices: (1) personal, sustained relationships departments; (4) early designation of the between community-based and academic program liaisons and representatives; and researchers; (2) dedicated and committed (5) tribal supports, such as offering stipends people; (3) establishing a Tribal Research to allow students to stay in Tucson for classes Team (TRT) to inform stakeholders; and and not have to drive the long distance from (4) selecting a topic with lasting significance the reservation. for the community to form the foundation for a sustained partnership. Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/ default/files/462_2007_2_campbell.pdf Available at http://www.ncai. org/attachments/PolicyPaper_ SpMCHTcjxRRjMEjDnPmesENPzjHTwhOlOW xlWOIWdSrykJuQggG_NCAI-WalkSoftly.pdf

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Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching

A Review of the Research Literature Native American students in the United on the Influences of Culturally Based States. Journal of American Indian Education, Education on the Academic Performance 45(2), 50–61. of Native American Students This article defines the essential features of Demmert, W. G., Jr., & Towner, J. C. (2003). culture-based education (CBE) and reviews A review of the research literature on the the findings of a comprehensive survey of influences of culturally based education CBE programs in the United States. The on the academic performance of Native author found five distinct types of CBE American students. Portland, OR: Northwest programs: culture-based instruction, Native Regional Education Laboratory. language instruction, Native studies, Native This review examined research literature cultural enrichment, and culturally relevant about the impact of culture-based education materials. The author maintains that too few programs on the school performance of programs serve as models, and schools need American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native to be redesigned to more effectively educate Hawaiian children. The review included Native American students. Recommended studies classified as experimental or quasi- components of school redesign include experimental, with a small number of non- cultivating significant, long-term, and experimental comparative studies included. sustained efforts to train teachers from the Citing the paucity of sophisticated research local community; applying appropriate in this area, the authors called for more professional development strategies; using high-quality research studies to explore the locally based research to inform educators connection between culture-based education and community members; developing and improved academic performance. local standards for the education of Native students; identifying curricular approaches Available at http://educationnorthwest. consistent with locally defined educational org/resources/review-research-literature- objectives; creating accreditation standards influences-culturally-based-education- to evaluate the quality and accomplishment academic-performance of efforts; and fostering new knowledge necessary to guide this development among A Survey and Assessment of Culturally tribal leaders. Based Education Programs for Native American Students in the United States Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/ default/files/452_2006_8_beaulieu.pdf Beaulieu, D. (2006). A survey and assessment of culturally based education programs for

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American Indian Cultures and the who had stronger cultural identification. Classroom The author concluded that American Indian Van Hamme, L. (1995). American Indian students benefited from factors that tended cultures and the classroom. Journal of to support learning for all students, and American Indian Education, 35(2), 21–36. CBE programs served to improve student outcomes most noticeably when other This article examines ways to support the fundamental conditions of quality schools maintenance of traditional and contemporary were present and when students possessed American Indian cultures in schools while strong cultural identification. helping students prepare for the future. The author first outlines the history of American Available at https://www.csulb.edu/ Indian cultures and the education system org/college/spsa/docs/documents/ and, then, presents issues, definitions, and UrbanEducationfinalarticle.pdf perceptions of multicultural education. Educators of American Indian youth are Cultural Differences of Teaching and encouraged to validate and support culture Learning: A Native American Perspective in the classroom and thereby help to extend of Participating in Educational Systems cultural strengths developed by youth back and Organizations into their communities. Bowman, N. R. (2003). Cultural differences An Exploratory Study of Cultural Identity of teaching and learning: A Native American and Culture-Based Educational Programs perspective of participating in educational for Urban American Indian Students systems and organizations. American Indian Quarterly, 27(1/2), 91–102. Powers, K. M. (2006). An exploratory study of cultural identity and culture-based educational The purpose of this paper is to examine programs for urban American Indian students. Native American graduation rates and Urban Education, 41(1), 20–49. achievement gaps. The author found that Using a sample of 240 students from an Native Americans are underrepresented in urban area, the author explored culture- higher education and in research agendas. based education practices for American The paper suggests that such systemic Indian students. Findings indicate that strategies as collaborative learning, multi- culture-based programming had a mostly ethnic research teams, culturally relevant indirect effect that was largely mediated programs, multicultural education integrated by conditions that benefited all students, into the classroom, Native American mentors, such as safer school climates, more cultural understanding, and policy changes to parental involvement, and a higher quality support diversity and high poverty should be of instruction. These conditions, in turn, examined and perhaps implemented. were associated with higher achievement. The effect of cultural programs on student Available at http://www.jstor.org/ outcomes in achievement, participation, discover/4138847?sid=21104885214361& and completion was higher for students uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256

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Culturally Appropriate Curriculum: Culturally Responsive Schooling for A Research-Based Rationale Indigenous Youth: A Review of the Yazzie, T. (1999). Culturally appropriate Literature curriculum: A research-based rationale. In Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008). K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconnic III (Eds.), Culturally responsive schooling for Indigenous Next steps: Research and practice to advance youth: A review of the literature. Review of Indian education (pp. 83–106). Charlotte, Educational Research, 78(4), 941–993. WV: Appalachia Educational Laboratory, ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and This article reviews the literature on culturally Small Schools. responsive schooling (CRS) for Native youth in the United States. The authors This article examines theoretical and practical first provide an historical overview of CRS research studies that support and inform for Native students. Second, the authors the development of culturally appropriate identify ways in which CRS has been defined curriculum for American Indian children in and conceptualized in the research. Third, K–12 classrooms. The studies fall into the they discuss commonly used rationale for following five areas: (1) historical roots, educators to use CRS with Native youth. including the Merriam Report of 1928; Fourth, the authors review the two most (2) theoretical frameworks, which include commonly discussed topics related to modes of linguistic interaction, supportive CRS with this population: pedagogy and learning environments, and communication curriculum. Fifth, the authors describe how and interaction styles of students and teacher characteristics such as being warm, teachers; (3) curriculum development, caring, and respectful are necessary for including approaches to overcoming culture conflict, parent and community teachers to engage Native youth using a involvement, inquiry-based curriculum, role CRS approach. Sixth, school- and district- of Native language in concept development, level issues related to CRS are discussed. local community issues, and appropriate Finally, case studies and other successful communication with elders; (4) curriculum attempts with CRS and Native youth are practice and implementation, such as described. The authors argue that future CRS characteristics and behaviors of effective research should focus on tribal sovereignty teachers, and teacher role; and (5) implications and self‑determination, racism, and for education research and practice. indigenous epistemologies.

Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ Available for purchase at http://rer.sagepub. ED427906.pdf com/content/78/4/941

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Culture, Chaos, and Complexity: Catalysts Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ for Change in Indigenous Education ED425032.pdf Barnhardt, R., & Kawagley, A. O. (1998). Does Cultural Programming Improve Culture, chaos, and complexity: Catalysts for Educational Outcomes for American change in Indigenous education. Cultural Indian Youth? Survival Quarterly, 27(4), 59–64. Powers, K., Potthof, S. J., Bearinger, L. In 1995, the Alaska Native/Rural Education H., & Resnick, M. D. (2003). Does cultural Consortium established the Alaska Rural programming improve educational outcomes Systemic Initiative (AKRSI) to unite more for American Indian youth? Journal of than 50 organizations serving Native youth. American Indian Education, 42(2), 17–49. AKRSI was established to promote the The purpose of this study was to examine the complementary relationship between Native effects of culturally responsive programming systems of knowledge and the way that on student outcomes for urban American educators approach teaching Native students. Indian youth. The authors approached this Specifically, the reform strategy of AKRSI study through the lens of ecological systems focuses on strengthening Native student theory, suggesting that student learning education by creating a dual system that in school stems from multiple bidirectional leverages indigenous knowledge systems of and complex environmental transactions. Native cultures and formal education, and Relationships between culturally responsive integrating these two systems. The AKRSI programming and student outcomes were dual system resulted in the development of examined with a sample of 240 American the following reform strategy components: Indian students. Study participants were (1) Native ways of knowing, (2) academy surveyed as part of the Indian Youth of elders, (3) cultural standards, (4) cultural Resiliency Impact Study (IRIS). Students were documentation/cultural atlas, (5) Native either enrolled in a culture-based afterschool science fairs, (6) Alaska Native Knowledge program, which included academic tutoring, Network, (7) Alaska Native science education sports activities, social skills development, coalition, (8) math and science performance and substance-use resistance skills, or were standards, (9) performance assessment selected from public school enrollment system, (10) math/science unit-building records to be part of a comparison group. workshops, (11) village science curriculum, Structural equation modeling revealed and (12) Native educator associations. This that cultural programming moderately and indirectly influenced student outcomes. reform strategy was associated with the The strongest predictors of school success following positive outcomes for Native appeared to be the extent to which schools students: (1) decreased rate of dropout; provided supportive personnel and safe and (2) increased student achievement; (3) more drug-free environments. students attending college; and (4) increased interest in science, technology, engineering, Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/default/ and math (STEM) courses and positions. files/422_2003_2_powers_et_al.pdf

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Effective Practices for Creating using traditional ways of teaching, and Transformative Informal Science creating space for knowledge to be shared Education Programs Grounded in Native and respected. The authors conclude by Ways of Knowing emphasizing the importance of integrating Mack, E., Augare, H., Cloud-Jones, L. D., Native ways of knowing into ISE programs & Wippert, R. (2012). Effective practices for and provide the following recommendations creating transformative informal science to implement and strengthen existing education programs grounded in Native programs: (1) create hands-on, inquiry- ways of knowing. Cultural Studies of Science based lessons that reflect the people in their Education, 7(1), 49–70. aboriginal homeland; (2) use the community as an integral resource in developing The authors assert that informal science curriculum and instruction; (3) use Native education (ISE) has the potential to language to facilitate instruction and to incorporate Native ways of knowing into promote the Native worldview; (4) match science learning among Native youth. This the values of the program to the values of article reviews research on the associations the people; (5) seek out and engage people among culture, traditional knowledge, and from the community and beyond who can science learning. It then examines effective share cultural and scientific knowledge practices for the development and use of related to the community; (6) ensure that curriculum that incorporates traditional culture is foundational to the program; (7) use knowledge into science. In addition to traditional ways of teaching and pedagogy; the literature review, interviews with (8) create space for all knowledge and 21 educators across the nation and nine experience to be shared and respected; Indigenous education and science experts (9) approach learning sacredly; (10) seek were conducted to identify best practices out creative collaborations to utilize in ISE programs. Results suggest three resources within the tribe and community; best practices for creating successful ISE (11) encourage policy change by modeling programs based on Native ways of knowing. processes and educating stakeholders; and The first is to create lessons reflecting the (12) incorporate research on Native ways culture of people in the area. The second of knowing and Western science that is is to utilize the surrounding community as community initiated and overseen. an integral resource. The third is making use of the Native language in Native youth Available for purchase at http://link.springer. pedagogy and curriculum. The authors also com/article/10.1007%2Fs11422-011-9374-y discuss other recommendations generated by the Consensus Advisory Committee to Effective Standards-Based Practices for help realize effective ISE practices, such Native American Students: A Review of as providing programs with community- Research Literature specific values, engaging community Apthorp, H. S., D’Amato, E. D., & Richardson, members, viewing culture as foundational, A. (2002). Effective standards-based practices promoting cultural relevancy and context, for Native American students: A review

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of research literature. Washington, DC: including: (1) developing collaborative U.S. Department of Education, Institute partnerships between researchers, community of Education Sciences, National Center members, and school staff; (2) using for Education Evaluation and Regional informal assessments, such as interviews and Assistance, Mid-Continent Research for observations, to track student and learning Education and Learning, Aurora, CO. interaction; (3) providing funding support to teachers and external partners to evaluate This report reviews education programs cultural congruence and to develop or adapt and practices that have improved Native curriculum that incorporates students’ cultural American student achievement in English knowledge in ways that connect with content- language arts and mathematics. In Navajo area knowledge and skills; (4) establishing tribal schools, teaching Indigenous language and monitoring benchmarks in reading and literacy first, followed by teaching comprehension, communication, and English and promoting bilingualism, helped mathematics; (5) using multiple measures, students perform well on tests of vocabulary, such as formal assessments and observation comprehension, and writing. In Hawaii, a protocols, to track student progress; culturally congruent English language arts (6) establishing observation protocols to program significantly improved Native ensure implementation quality; and (7) using Hawaiian children’s achievement in reading. multiple measures and observation protocols Emphasis on comprehension over mechanics to support field testing, address issues, and and phonics allowed children to learn in revise curriculum as necessary. ways that were congruent with their everyday experiences outside of school. The use Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ of ethnomathematics, based on the same ED469297.pdf principles of cultural congruence, led to improved achievement for Native Hawaiian Effective Teaching Strategies for children and Alaskan rural middle school Engaging Native American Students students. All of these programs required Sorkness, H. L., & Kelting-Gibson, L. (2006, extensive collaboration between homes, February). Effective teaching strategies schools, and other relevant stakeholders for engaging Native American students. (e.g., local community members, educators, Paper presented at the National Association university faculty, outside researchers) and of Native American Studies Conference, time across years to build relationships. Baton Rouge, LA. Although limited in scope, the evidence suggests that congruency between the Statistical data from 2003 for the states school environment and the culture of the of Montana and South Dakota revealed a community is critical to education success. high dropout rate among Native American Collaborative research and development students and a high school graduation rate efforts, carried out at the local level, are that was the lowest among various minorities needed. Seven action steps to improve in those states. Achievement test scores in student achievement are recommended, both states were also low for Native American

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students. To find ways to improve this practices across school curriculum, providing situation, the study surveyed teachers from content that is accurate and free of bias); two schools in South Dakota with a significant and (3) school climate (e.g., ensuring student Native population, as well as a group of engagement, high expectations). The K–12 teachers from Montana, to determine authors conclude with examples of practice what strategies teachers had found to be that exemplify these culturally relevant most successful in raising the achievement strategies, such as Zuni Public School District of Native students. Teachers were also asked in New Mexico and Denver Public Schools about aspects of Native American culture that in Colorado. had the most significant impact on classroom Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED507588 interactions and about historical and cultural obstacles to students’ education success. Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Effective teaching strategies described by Native American Languages in the United teachers included developing personal States: Research, Policy, and Educational relationships with students, maintaining Practice respect for Native culture, integrating Native history and culture into the curriculum, and Wiley, T. G., Peyton, J. K., Christian, D., reinforcing student pride in their heritage. Moore, S. C., & Liu, N. (2014). Handbook of heritage, community, and Native American Available at http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/ languages in the United States: Research, research/pubs/oieresearch/conference/ policy, and educational practice. New York, sorkness_200602.pdf NY: Routledge.

Engaging Native American Learners with This book addresses major issues and research Rigor and Cultural Relevance related to heritage, community, and Native American languages in the United States. Oakes, A., & Maday, T. (2009). Engaging The publication examines speakers’ use of Native American learners with rigor and languages in the home, community, and wider cultural relevance [Issue brief]. Washington, society; patterns of acquisition, retention, DC: The Center for Comprehensive School loss, and revitalization of the languages; Reform and Improvement. and specific educational efforts devoted to This information brief identifies strategies developing stronger connections with them that simultaneously foster Native American as well as proficiency in them. One section student engagement and improved of the book profiles seven Native American academic achievement. The document languages — Navajo, Pueblo, Miami, explores three areas that are identified in Hawaiian, and three languages spoken by the literature as culturally relevant strategies the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs for Native students: (1) instructional Reservation in central Oregon — and efforts practices (e.g., using culturally relevant to revitalize them. Another section of the book and responsive instruction); (2) curriculum focuses on language programs and explores content (e.g., infusing culturally relevant different types of programs, funding options,

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instructional approaches, identity construction Education Statistics, Institute of Education with students, assessment of language Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. proficiency, and teacher preparation. This report is the second from a study Available for purchase at designed to describe education for American http://www.routledge.com/books/ Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students, details/9780415520676/ and it seeks to inform the reader of the education experiences of 4th- and 8th-grade Learning Styles of American Indian/ indigenous students. The study utilizes Alaska Native Students: A Review of the results from a sample of 22,000 students who Literature and Implications for Practice participated in the National Indian Education Pewewardy, C. (2002). Learning styles of Study in 2009. Data were also collected from American Indian/Alaska Native students: approximately 8,400 teachers who provided A review of the literature and implications information about their education practices for practice. Journal of American Indian to promote academic achievement for Education, 41(3), 22–56. AI/AN students and from about 4,200 school administrators who addressed questions This extensive literature review examines about school climate for this population. theories, research, and models of learning Findings suggest that AI/AN students report styles of American Indian/Alaska Native different levels of exposure to Native culture, students and suggests that these students with students in Bureau of Indian Education generally learn in ways characterized by (BIE) schools reporting more exposure to social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic Native culture in the curriculum than perspectives, expressive creativity, and AI/AN students in public or private schools. nonverbal communication. The author states Additionally, 55 percent of 8th graders that Native learning styles are somewhat attending BIE schools and 57 percent different from the mainstream but not in attending public schools report that they any sense deficient. The article discusses planned to attend college. From the teacher implications for instruction, curricula, survey, results suggest that at least 87 percent assessment, and future research. of AI/AN students receive instruction in core subjects exclusively in English. A highlighted National Indian Education Study 2009 - finding from school administrators is that Part II: The Educational Experiences the highest proportion (i.e., more than of American Indian and Alaska Native Students in Grades 4 and 8 75 percent) of AI/AN teachers are teaching in BIE schools rather than in public and private Mead, N., Grigg, W., Moran, R., & Kuang, schools. This comprehensive report provides M. (2010). National Indian Education Study a wealth of information about AI/AN students 2009 - Part II: The Educational Experiences in the nation. of American Indian and Alaska Native Students in Grades 4 and 8 (NCES 2010‑463). Available at http://nces.ed.gov/ Washington, DC: National Center for nationsreportcard/pdf/studies/2010463.pdf

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Research in American Indian and Alaska literacy for American Indigenous youth on Native Education: From Assimilation to the national and local levels. The authors Self-Determination first describe research literature on the Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research impact of CRS. The methodologies being in American Indian and Alaska Native used in this research include analyses of education: From assimilation to self- national datasets with student achievement determination. Review of Research in outcomes, qualitative research studies, and Education, 22, 113–194. case studies of successful implementation of CRS. To improve the educational The authors detail the many barriers experiences of Indigenous youth, the authors hindering the education of Native students, recommend that future policy and practice including ongoing economic, social, and include: diverse curricular materials that health problems within Native communities; are relevant to students’ lives; professional unpredictable funding for K–12 schools development opportunities for educators and higher education; schools that do around their role in social change for greater not promote academic, social, cultural, educational equity; alignment of state and and spiritual development among Native federal policies with tribal sovereignty; locally students; and curricula that do not include developed educational and cultural standards tribal history, culture, and language. The with corresponding assessments; and the authors state that in spite of enormous recruitment of indigenous teachers through adversity, American Indian and Alaska better collaboration between local schools Native people have been successful in the and tribal colleges. development and operation of their own Available for purchase at schools and possess substantial knowledge http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ about effective practices. full/10.1080/10476210802681709 Available at https://www.jstor.org/ stable/1167375?seq=1 - page_scan_tab_ The Educational Aspirations/Attainment contents Gap among Rural Alaska Native Students Doyle, A., Kleinfeld, J., & Reyes, M. (2009). Self-Determination through Self-Education: The educational aspirations/attainment gap Culturally Responsive Schooling for among rural Alaska Native students. The Indigenous Students in the USA Rural Educator, 30(3), 25–33. Brayboy, B. M. J., & Castagno, A. E. This study sought to explain the factors that (2009). Self-determination through self- deter students from achieving their goals for education: Culturally responsive schooling postsecondary programs or employment. for Indigenous students in the USA. Teaching Interviews with a sample of 49 grade-12 Education, 20(1), 31–53. Alaska Native high school students, This article describes culturally responsive conducted over the course of a year, were schooling (CRS) efforts designed to support used to examine education and occupational

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goals and factors that influenced their plans. Native American students perform worse Some students were classified as “drifting” if than white students in many content areas. they failed to pursue meaningful goals, while However, the author suggests that these tests others were considered “directed” if they are not designed with cultural sensitivity to showed plans, means to attain goals, and/ the types of questions and knowledge valued or concrete action to accomplish objectives. in cultures such as those of Native American Most rural students were considered to be youth. The author concludes by suggesting drifting. The study includes two student case that culture, environment, attitudes, context, studies and identification of several themes and perspectives of Native American and that emerged from student interviews, other minority students must be examined including indications that drifting students in order to guide consideration of culturally had difficulty understanding how to obtain sensitive assessment. goals, while directed students shared career Available at http://blogs.ubc.ca/dryan/ ambitions with peers. Factors that made a files/2008/10/fulltext.pdf difference in post–high school achievement included direct follow-up (e.g., help with Traditional Culture and Academic Success filling out applications) and structured among American Indian Children in the pathways, such as the National Guard or Upper Midwest Alaska Scholars Program. Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Stubben, J. D., Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ & LaFramboise, T. (2001). Traditional culture EJ869312.pdf and academic success among American Indian children in the upper Midwest. Journal The Influence of Culture on Learning of American Indian Education, 40(2), 48–60. and Assessment among Native American Students This article identifies factors related to school success for a sample of 196 American Indian Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2005). The influence of children in grades 5 through 8 from three culture on learning and assessment among reservations in the upper Midwest. The Native American students. Learning Disabilities regression model used to identify effective Research and Practice, 20(1), 16–23. practices included age, gender, family This article examines the influence of Native structure, parent occupation and income, American culture on learning and assessment. maternal warmth, extracurricular activities, The issue is explored through cultural aspects enculturation, and self-esteem. The results of practices and principles of learning and indicate that traditional culture positively assessment. Analysis of data from the Early affects the academic performance of students Childhood Longitudinal Survey (ECLS) and in grades 5 through 8 and helps to support the National Assessment of Educational the resiliency and well-being of American Progress data (NAEP) demonstrate that Indian children.

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Virtual Museum Projects for Culturally American museum collections. In these Responsive Teaching in American Indian partnerships, Native American high school Education students worked with community members to create a virtual exhibit, using technology, Christal, M. A. (2003). Virtual museum history of the pieces, and essays about the projects for culturally responsive teaching objects. The researcher conducted interviews, in American Indian education [Doctoral videotaped activities, and performed dissertation]. University of Texas, Austin. document analysis. Results suggest that the This study examines the contributions virtual museum projects worked to affirm culture, understanding of place in the world, of virtual museum projects to culturally collaboration, hands-on experience, object responsive teaching practices. Four case aspects, and student independence. studies were conducted to document partnerships between American Indian Available at http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ schools controlled by the tribes and Native etd/d/2003/christalma032/christalma032.pdf

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Early Childhood Education

A Summary of Research and Publications measures with these youth. The health and on Early Childhood for American Indian physical well-being section highlights the and Alaska Native Children health disparities experienced by AI/AN Marks, E. L., Moyer, M. K., Roche, M., & youth compared to other youth. The mental Graham, E. T. (2003). A summary of research health section focuses on the need for more and publications on early childhood for research in this area because AI/AN youth American Indian and Alaska Native children. face mental health issues. The authors believe Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health that future research should focus on the and Human Services. strengths of AI/AN children and on examining the institutions and practices that serve This report is the culmination of an effort AI/AN children. This report concludes by launched by the Federal Administration emphasizing that the field of early childhood for Children and Families (ACF) to review education for AI/AN is understudied and existing information and explore research that there is a need for more systematic and needs for Head Start programs that serve substantial research in this area. American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) populations. Information is organized in Available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/ two parts. The first part summarizes issues programs/opre/resource/a-summary- and observations from position papers, of-research-and-publications-on-early- opinions, experiences, and syntheses; the childhood-for-american second part presents information from research studies. Topics include culturally An Investigation of How Culture Shapes appropriate curricula and practice, language Curriculum in Early Care and Education and literacy acquisition, teacher training Programs on a Native American Indian and professional development, parent Reservation involvement, assessment tools and practices, Gilliard, J. L., & Moore, R. A. (2007). health and physical well-being, mental An investigation of how culture shapes health, and conducting research. The report curriculum in early care and education suggests that additional training for teachers programs on a Native American Indian of AI/AN children is critical. The section on reservation. Early Childhood Education parent involvement highlights barriers to Journal, 34(4), 251–254. involvement that parents may experience, such as alienation, lack of cultural awareness, This article explores the ways in which culture and lack of parent education programs. The shapes instruction in three early care and section on assessment tools being used education programs on the Flathead Indian with AI/AN students suggests that current Reservation. Interviews were conducted assessments may be biased or inadequate with eight early childhood teachers, along

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with classroom observations, to learn how culture in early learning; (4) the state the culture of the family and community should develop appropriate coursework for shape curriculum. Results of data analysis educators in early childhood education; and suggested that ongoing communication (5) the state should share stories of success with parents and community about teaching in the education of young children in Native within a culturally relevant context, building a communities, to inspire collaborations sense of belonging and community through between schools and tribes. ritual, and respecting children, families, and Available at https://thrivewa.org/wp-content/ community were essential to defining the uploads/Dear_Children_Final_Report.pdf Native American Indian culture within these early learning programs. For Each and Every Child: A Strategy for Available for purchase at http://link.springer. Education Equity and Excellence com/journal/10643/34/4/page/1 U.S. Department of Education, Equity and Excellence Commission. (2013). For each Dear Children: Preferred Preparation for and every child: A strategy for education Native Early Childhood Education equity and excellence. Washington, DC: CHiXapkaid (Pavel, M.), Strong, Z. H., Dolata, Government Printing Office. J., & Baker, A. (2014). Dear children: Preferred This report from the Equity and Excellence preparation for Native early childhood Commission, a federal advisory committee education. Seattle, WA: Thrive by Five (now chartered by Congress, was developed Thrive). to provide advice to the Secretary of the Undertaken to support partnerships and U.S. Department of Education on ways collaboration within the state of Washington in which federal policies could address disparities in education opportunities that on behalf of Native children, this study give rise to achievement gaps. One chapter illustrates ways to support Native teachers of the report addresses the need to ensure in the classroom and to establish Native access to high-quality early childhood language, culture, and oral traditions as education. Universal access to high-quality a preferred means of preparing the next early learning programs is noted as a matter generation of early childhood educators. of the highest national priority, with a special Recommendations from the study include: priority for children in the country’s poorest (1) leaders should learn from the existing communities. In addition, the authors research literature about the incorporation of recommend that the Bureau of Indian Native language, culture, and oral traditions Education work to expand access to full-day into early childhood education; (2) the state kindergarten programs for students from low- should create statewide presentations on income backgrounds. early learning efforts for Native children; (3) the state should provide professional Available at http://www2.ed.gov/about/ development to teachers on the preservation bdscomm/list/eec/equity-excellence- and enhancement of tribal language and commission-report.pdf

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Improving Academic Performance among This volume provides a collection of papers Native American Students — A Review of that were presented at the Rural Early the Research Literature Childhood Forum on American Indian and Alaska Native Early Learning by experts in the Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2001). Improving field (e.g., academic researchers and faculty, academic performance among Native Native educators, early childhood education American students — A review of the research specialists, community leaders). The literature. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse National Center for Rural Early Childhood on Rural Education and Small Schools. Learning Initiatives, known as Rural Early This comprehensive literature review Childhood, Pennsylvania State University’s identifies research projects with information American Indian Leadership Program), and on factors and programs associated with the university’s Center for Rural Education improved academic performance of Native and Communities held this forum to address students. One section covers early childhood research needs and gaps with regard to environment and experiences. Research Native American early childhood education and education leadership. Specifically, the findings underscore the importance of early purpose of this volume was to assess the childhood education programs for parents to current state of rural Indian early childhood help them understand ways to support their education, with an emphasis on the years children’s improved cognition and academic prior to formal school entry, as well as performance; the need for more Native education leadership as it pertains to rural teachers and culture-based curricula; and the Indian early childhood education. The strong links between cognitive development papers and reviews in this volume include: resulting from a challenging and stimulating (1) Early childhood educational opportunities environment for young children and later for American Indian and Alaska Native achievement in a formal setting. children and families; (2) The health and Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/ development of American Indian and Alaska Native children in relationship to reservation ERIC-ED463917/pdf/ERIC-ED463917.pdf and rural/urban residence; (3) Effective Proceedings of the Rural Early Childhood early education programs that promote Forum on American Indian and Alaska the learning of English language and tribal Native Early Learning languages and cultures; (4) Transitions of American Indian and Alaska Native children National Center for Rural Early Childhood pre-school to kindergarten; (5) American Learning Initiatives. (2006). Proceedings of Indian and Alaska Native school readiness; the Rural Early Childhood Forum on American (6) Young American Indian/Alaskan Native Indian and Alaska Native Early Learning, Children with disabilities: Implications for July 28–29, 2005, Little Rock, AR (Rural policy, research, and practice; (7) American Early Childhood Report No. 2). Mississippi Indian and Alaska Native early childhood State, MS: Mississippi State University Early family involvement: A review of the literature; Childhood Institute. and (8) School leaders. This volume

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summarizes the state of knowledge regarding especially culturally sensitive research, is rural early childhood education of Native needed. The authors argue that research youth. The authors conclude that there is should not be conducted on Native people, a lack of research in all areas of American but rather with Native people. Indian and Alaska Native early care and education and, as a result, more research, Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED498834

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Family and Community Involvement/Engagement

A Native American Community’s combine Zuni cultural practices with the Involvement and Empowerment to Guide teaching of the Zuni language. Their Children’s Development in the School Setting Available for purchase at http://onlinelibrary. wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcop.20108/abstract Rivera, H. H., & Tharp, R. G. (2006). A Native American community’s involvement and Examining American Indian Perspectives empowerment to guide their children’s in the Central Region on Parent development in the school setting. Journal of Involvement in Children’s Education Community Psychology, 34(4), 435–451. Mackety, D. M., & Linder-VanBerschot, This study provides an empirical description J. A. (2008). Examining American Indian of the dimensions of community values, perspectives in the central region on parent beliefs, and opinions through a survey involvement in children’s education (Issues conducted in the Pueblo Indian community & Answers Report, REL 2008-No. 059). of Zuni in New Mexico. The sample was Washington, DC: Department of Education, composed of 200 randomly chosen Institute of Education Sciences, National community members ranging in age from Center for Education Evaluation and Regional 21 to 103 years. A principal component Assistance. factor analysis was conducted, as well as a multivariate analysis of variance, to This study examines American Indian parents’ explore gender, age, education, language, perceptions of parent involvement in their and socioeconomic (SES) differences children’s education and factors that may on values, beliefs, and opinions from encourage or discourage involvement. survey participants. Findings suggest a This report was organized around the strong agreement by the community on following research questions: (1) What do the direction to be taken by their school American Indian parents perceive as parent district in their efforts to improve classroom involvement in their children’s education, instruction, as well as in their efforts to (2) Why do American Indian parents get guide their children’s development as Native involved, (3) What do parents perceive as Americans. Stakeholders recommended the barriers to involvement, and (4) What school following strategies: (1) promote contextual strategies do parents perceive encourage and meaningful instruction in the classroom involvement? Qualitative data were collected and involve Zuni community and non- from two central region communities via five community members in community activities; focus groups (N = 47). This study found that (2) empower community members; and (3) greater parental involvement was encouraged

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by such factors as a caring, supportive, and Families and Schools Together: communicative school staff and a culturally An Experimental Analysis of a Parent- respectful environment; access to American Mediated Multi-Family Group Program Indian programs, resource centers, after for American Indian Children school activities and clubs; and the presence Kratochwill, T. R., McDonald, L., Levin, J. R., of an advocate or liaison in each school. Bear-Tibbetts, H. Y., & Demaray, M. K. (2004). Families and schools together: An Available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/ experimental analysis of a parent-mediated regions/central/pdf/REL_2008059_sum.pdf multi-family group program for American Indian children. Journal of School Psychology, Factors Influencing Transition for 42(5), 359–383. Students with Disabilities: The American Indian Experience The goals of this study were to assess the Applequist, K., Mears, R., & Loyless, R. extent to which participation in the multi- (2009). Factors influencing transition for family group program called Families students with disabilities: The American and Schools Together (FAST) resulted in Indian experience. International Journal of increased academic performance among Special Education, 24(3), 45–56. American Indian children ages 4–9 years and reduced problem behaviors in the This study explored factors influencing the classroom. In collaboration with the successful transition of American Indian College of Menominee Nation, this parent students with mild to moderate disabilities to intervention approach was adapted in three postsecondary academic settings and other American Indian Nations in Wisconsin to lifelong learning opportunities. Thirty‑five express tribal values while maintaining its individuals from three Southwestern core components. Fifty pairs of recruited tribes were interviewed about personal American Indian students at three schools factors during transition, as well as about were assessed, matched on five variables, secondary and postsecondary experiences. and then randomly assigned to either the Approximately two years later, a second FAST or non-FAST control condition. Over interview was conducted with 14 participants three years, seven multi-family group cycles to follow up on the progress of those of FAST were implemented, each lasting individuals after transition. Participants eight weeks. Pretest, posttest, and 9- to emphasized the importance of family 12-month follow-up data were collected and religion in their lives throughout the by American Indian staff and university transition process. Those participating in students on multiple indicators of academic both interviews showed statistically significant and behavioral performance. Of the 50 families that attended FAST meetings at positive changes in self-ratings of dimensions least once, 40 (80 percent) graduated from of self-advocacy and self-determination. the seven FAST cycles. On the immediate Available for purchase at http://eric. posttest, statistically significant differences ed.gov/?id=EJ877922 in improvement favoring FAST participants

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were found on the Aggressive Behavior scale adversity households. Findings from these of the teacher-rated Child Behavior Checklist analyses identified key risk and protective (CBCL) and on the parent-rated Withdrawn factors regarding the resilience of American scale of the same instrument. On the Indian adolescents in the study. Perceived one-year follow-up assessment, parent CBCL discrimination was identified as a primary ratings indicated that FAST students were less risk factor while the influence of family, socially withdrawn, and teacher ratings on the community, and culture served as protective Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS) revealed that factors. Having a warm and supportive FAST participants had exhibited relatively mother, perceived community support, and greater improvement in their academic higher levels of enculturation were associated competence. Parent surveys of the graduated with increased likelihood of prosocial students generally showed satisfaction with outcomes. Youth self-esteem was not the program. associated with resilience outcomes.

Available for purchase at http://www. Available at http://digitalcommons. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent. S0022440504000664 cgi?article=1025&context=sociologyfacpub

Family, Community, and School Influences Home-Going as a Strategy for Success on Resilience among American Indian among Haudenosaunee College and Adolescents in the Upper Midwest University Students LaFromboise, T. D., Hoyt, D. R., Oliver, L., & Waterman, S. J. (2012). Home-going as a Whitbeck, L. B. (2006). Family, community, strategy for success among Haudenosaunee and school influences on resilience among college and university students. Journal of American Indian adolescents in the upper Student Affairs Research and Practice, 49(2), Midwest. Journal of Community Psychology, 193–209. 34(2), 193–209. This study focused on home-going as a This research examined resilience among strategy for success among Haudenosaunee a sample of 212 American Indian youth (Iroquois) college graduates living in residence (115 boys and 97 girls) in fifth through eighth halls while enrolled in college. The sample grades living on or near reservations in the of 54 students obtained a college education upper Midwest. This study utilized a latent while remaining culturally centered and class analysis method to identify youth with connected to their families through frequent prosocial outcomes (60.5 percent) and low- visits home. Findings from this qualitative adversity households (38.4 percent). The study suggest that Native American students authors defined resilience in the context of find strength in their families, communities, positive outcomes in the face of adversity and culture, and home-going is a positive and applied logistic regression to examine strategy for college success among these the predictors of prosocial behavior among university students. The author concludes that youth who lived in moderate- to high- by Haudenosaunee students returning home,

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they are able to continue their connection to choices they made (23.2 percent), school- family and community while sustaining their related choices (14.7 percent), substance cultural integrity. abuse (12.6 percent), and living situation/ environment (12.6 percent). Native youth also Available for purchase at http://www. reported the following community strengths: degruyter.com/view/j/jsarp.2012.49.issue- people/atmosphere (43.8 percent), facilities/ 2/1949-6605.6378/1949-6605.6378.xml resources/activities (22.5 percent), culture/ traditions (19.1 percent), location/environment “My Culture, My Family, My School, Me”: (14.6 percent), and nothing (9.0 percent). Identifying Strengths and Challenges in Native youth reported aspects of their the Lives and Communities of American Indian Youth community that needed to be changed, such as substance abuse (20.0 percent), McMahon, T. R., Kenyon, D. B., & Carter, J. S. appearance/environment (17.8 percent), (2013). “My culture, my family, my school, nothing (16.7 percent), lack of support me”: Identifying strengths and challenges in (15.6 percent), and people (14.7 percent). The the lives and communities of American Indian authors discuss the implications of this study youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, and recommend using a strengths-based 22(5), 694–706. approach in the development of programs This study examined the ways in which intended to reduce the challenges in the lives community assets and community challenges of American Indian youth. are related to personal strengths and Available for purchase at http://link.springer. challenges in the lives of American Indian com/article/10.1007%2Fs10826-012-9623-z youth. A sample of 95 reservation-based, Northern plains youth between the ages of Navajo Culture and Family Influences on 14 and 20 (37 males, 58 females) participated Academic Success: Traditionalism Is Not in this study. Qualitative data were collected a Significant Predictor of Achievement from four open-ended survey questions. among Navajo Youth Findings suggested that sources of strength Willeto, A. A. A. (1999). Navajo culture and for American Indian students include their family influences on academic success: families (58.9 percent), their friends/significant Traditionalism is not a significant predictor of other (36.8 percent), the students themselves achievement among Navajo youth. Journal of (24.2 percent), extracurricular activities/jobs American Indian Education, 38(2), 1–24. (23.2 percent), and schools (23.2 percent). The authors argue that the findings are This study examined the impact of consistent with American Indian traditional traditionalism as a predictor of achievement values of collectivism and community. When among Navajo youth. A field study was Native youth were asked what, if anything, conducted with a sample of 451 young they would change about their lives, most Navajos. Results indicated there may be no responded that they would not change relationship between academic achievement anything (32.6 percent), followed by the and the behavior of these Navajos in relation

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to Navajo culture. Findings suggested that expected to include cultural standards. This youth participation in ritual activities, cultural project illuminates the importance of families, conventions, and language did not predict communities, and schools coming together their education failure or disengagement to create a shared vision of success for from school. However, the family was found Native youth. to affect academic performance and goals, as Available at http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/ was gender. The author suggests that the role Curriculum/Articles/RayBarnhardt/ of tribal culture in the education of American ReformingEd.html Indian youths may need more study.

Supporting American Indian Students Reforming Education from the Inside- Out: A Study of Community Engagement in the Transition to Postsecondary and Educational Reform in Rural Alaska Education Kushman, J. W., & Barnhardt, R. (2001). Bosse, S. A., Duncan, K., Gapp, S. C., Reforming education from the inside-out: & Newland, L. A. (2011). Supporting A study of community engagement and American Indian students in the transition educational reform in rural Alaska. Journal of to postsecondary education. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 17(1), 12–26. The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, 23(2), 33–51. This study examined school reform strategies in seven rural Alaskan communities. The This qualitative study examined the factors reform effort, called Alaska Onward to that may promote successful transition Excellence (AOTE), was designed to increase into and through postsecondary education community engagement and parental among American Indian students. Interview involvement. The researchers aspired to data were collected from students who had answer two questions: (1) What does it take completed postsecondary education as for school and communities to work together well as from school counselors and college successfully to achieve common goals advisors. A phenomenological approach was for Alaska Native students? and (2) What utilized that focused on significant statements factors help promote school-community and themes from the interviews. Findings partnerships in rural settings? A participatory from this study revealed that the following action research approach was used to factors contributed to the successful answer these questions. The four major transition of American Indian students findings were: (1) educators must create a in postsecondary education: (1) strong trusting relationship with the community academic preparation; (2) motivation and self- before the reform effort; (2) parents need to confidence; (3) family support; (4) ongoing expand the vision of their roles to include relations with culturally sensitive faculty active participation in school life; (3) shared members and advisors; (5) strong connections leadership between educators, parents, and with culturally relevant peer groups; and (6) a the community is necessary for a successful clear focus on the future. The authors provide reform; and (4) education in Alaska is a conceptual model for assisting American

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Indian students in their transition to higher participation of all family members in the education that focuses on family and student preparation, planting, and tending of plants; needs and strengths, education setting, staff an annual harvest celebration and powwow and resources, and peer and social resources. that includes extended family members; Student empowerment is seen as being and inclusion of family members, including enhanced through respectful support, cultural parents, grandparents, and older siblings, as identity, and national context. classroom volunteers. The NICE preschool has increased the rate of family participation Available at http://www.se.edu/dept/native- and helped more Native American families american-center/files/2012/04/Supporting- enroll their children in preschool settings. Native-American-Students-Transition.pdf Thirty-two Native children were enrolled in district preschools as compared to the Supporting Native Indian Preschoolers average of three to five children enrolled in and Their Families: Family-School- the previous years. Community Partnerships McWilliams, S. M., Maldonado-Mancebo, T., Available at http://www.naeyc.org/files/yc/ Szczepaniak, P. S., & Jones, J. (2011). file/201111/McWilliams_Family_-_School_-_ Supporting Native Indian preschoolers and Community_Partnerships_Online%201111. their families: Family-school-community pdf partnerships. Young Children, 66(6), 34–41. The Context and Meaning of Family This case study describes a multigenerational Strengthening in Indian America program in which Native Indian students Besaw, A., Kalt, J. P., Lee, A., Sethi, J., pre-K through grade 12 attend four meetings & Wilson, J. B. (2004). The context and a year hosted by the Native Indian Centered meaning of family strengthening in Indian Education (NICE) program. This program is America. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey funded by a U.S. Department of Education Foundation. Experimental Education grant. The purpose of this program is to address the achievement This review was commissioned by the Annie gap between children in low-income E. Casey Foundation and conducted by the minority communities and other student Harvard Project on American Indian Economic subpopulations. This article describes the Development. The purpose was to define and program and the ways in which family, school, understand the forces that affect American and community partnerships are formed on Indian families and children, focusing on the an ongoing basis as a result of NICE. Families actors and activities (e.g., tribal governments, become engaged in the program in a number non-tribal governments, Native NGOs, non- of ways: parent-child classroom interactions Native NGOs, philanthropic foundations) involving culturally relevant arts, crafts, that address the needs of this group. This and literacy activities; districtwide Native report covers five key areas related to family family nights that encourage community strengthening in Indian America: (1) the state fellowship; school gardens that invite the of children, families, and communities in

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Indian America; (2) case studies in effective The Traditional Tribal Values of Ojibwa family strengthening; (3) a framework Parents and the School Performance of for understanding family strengthening; Their Children: An Exploratory Study (4) observations on effective family Coggins, K., Radin, N., & Williams, E. (1996). strengthening; and (5) recommendations to The traditional tribal values of Ojibwa parents the philanthropic community. The authors and the school performance of their children: made the following six recommendations: An exploratory study. Ann Arbor, MI: (1) embrace self-determination as the University of Michigan. overarching theme of current and future efforts to strengthen families in Indian This study examined the traditional tribal America; (2) be flexible in grant-making, values of Ojibwa parents and the school recognizing that there is great diversity performance of their children, using a of context and need throughout Indian qualitative research method. The sample America; (3) work with the relevant actors and consisted of 19 northern Michigan Ojibwa institutions, not just the easiest to fund or families: 15 mothers and 14 fathers with most well-connected; (4) foster connections children between the ages of 3 and 11. within and across sectors; (5) strengthen The authors examined the extent to which institutions, especially among tribal mothers' and fathers’ traditional value scores governments and Native nonprofits; and predicted child GPA and social functioning (6) institutionalize American Indian related as measured by school performance and grant-making. learning items from the Achenbach’s Teacher’s Report Form of Child Behavior Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ Checklist (Achenbach & Edlebrock, 1986). ED485942.pdf Findings from this study suggest that a mother’s traditional values, but not the father’s, predicted academic and social performance in school.

Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED400116.pdf

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Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts

Grassroots Suggestions for Linking Native- Available for purchase at http://rer.sagepub. Language Learning, Native American com/content/78/4/941 Studies, and Mainstream Education in Reservation Schools with Mixed Indian Indigenous Language Revitalization: and White Student Populations Encouragement, Guidance, & Lessons Ngai, P. B. (2006). Grassroots suggestions Learned for linking Native-language learning, Native Reyhner, J., & Lockard, L. (Eds.). (2009). American studies, and mainstream education Indigenous language revitalization: in reservation schools with mixed Indian Encouragement, guidance, & lessons learned. and white student populations. Language, Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Culture, and Curriculum, 19(2), 220–236. Based on presentations delivered at the In 2002 and 2003, the researcher conducted 14th and 15th annual Stabilizing Indigenous interviews with 89 individuals on the Languages conferences, this book Flathead Indian Reservation, located in describes effective approaches to language western Montana, as part of a study related revitalization and language immersion. to language revitalization. The purpose was to identify ways to create a preK–16 Among the papers presented in this book Native language curriculum in rural and is a profile of the Cuts Wood School in small-town communities on the reservation Montana, which is a nationally recognized with a mixture of Native and non-Native model for Native language immersion with populations. The curriculum was intended to a multi-generational approach. Other essays create connections across Indian language include an analysis of how linguists and education programs, between Indian language activists can cooperate in language language classrooms and mainstream revitalization efforts; efforts of Hawaiians classrooms, and between Indian language to make their language vital in the modern education and Native American Studies. world; outreach strategies used by Native Findings from interviews suggested that Hawaiians to help Alaska Natives in their prospects for long-term survival of Native language revitalization efforts; and the uses languages are enhanced when language of technology in language revitalization. education is perceived as beneficial to most A final section deals with the assessment of or all members of mixed-race communities language revitalization efforts. and when indigenous language learning is set within a framework of place-based Available for purchase at http://jan.ucc.nau. multicultural education. edu/~jar/ILR/

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Language and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose types of methodology used to promote Language Is It Anyway? language learning, the role of tribal colleges Martinez, R. B. (2000). Language and tribal and universities in promoting language sovereignty: Whose language is it anyway? immersion, challenges associated with Theory into Practice, 39(4), 211–219. immersion programs and activities, funding issues, and successful indigenous models. With the help of bilingual teachers, the For the purposes of this study, 10 of 50 Tampa School District of Northern New language immersion schools (e.g., Piegan Mexico attempted to establish a Pueblo- Institute in Browning, Montana, and Rough English bilingual program based on the Rock Community School in Rough Rock, model of Spanish-English bilingual programs. Arizona) were reviewed. The author describes However, members of the Pueblo Indian the three Native American language community angrily rejected this idea. The immersion approaches utilized in these case study explores how the bilingual teachers and the school district failed to schools: (1) traditional grandparents (i.e., understand the role and sovereignty of the elders and fluent tribal members are primary Pueblo language from the perspective of the instructors); (2) Montessori method (i.e., using Pueblo people. “interest islands” to provide students with a tribal knowledge base and culturally rich Available for purchase at http://www. resources); and (3) total physical responses tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/ (i.e., progressive learning approach that s15430421tip3904_4#.VB93B150zIU involves scaffolding). The author describes a number of examples (e.g., Inupiaq Immersion Native Language Immersion: Innovative Native Education for Children and School of Kotzebue, Alaska, Fort Berthold Families Community College, Tribal Language Mentor Program, Chief Dull Knife College, Northern Pease-Pretty On Top, J. (n.d.). Native Cheyenne Language Immersion Camp) that Language immersion: Innovative Native represent year-round schools, summer and education for children and families. Denver, seasonal camps, weekend retreats, and CO: American Indian College Fund. seminars. At the conclusion of this book, A project of the American Indian College the author argues that there is a positive Fund and supported by the W. K. Kellogg relationship between Native and indigenous Foundation, this study examines Native language and culture, and education American language immersion schools achievement. Furthermore, the author and projects throughout the country. The emphasizes that Native language immersion author describes Native American language programs provide a source of hope for immersion as being characterized by Native children and families. ways of knowing, learning, and indigenous knowledge. The study reviews compelling Available at http://www.collegefund.org/ reasons for language immersion, the userfiles/file/ImmersionBook.pdf

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Native Language Renewal: Dispelling the Canada. Four brief case studies of Native Myths, Planning for the Future communities — Mohawk in Canada and the United States, Hawaiian in the Pacific, and Ayoungman, V. (1995). Native language Hopi and Navajo in the American Southwest renewal: Dispelling the myths, planning for — are used as examples of the ways in the future. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1), which language reclamation is developed in 183–187. different settings. Stakeholders, goals, and The article examines the misunderstandings impacts of language reclamation projects are surrounding the introduction of Native explored in each location. language instruction in American Indian Available for purchase at http://rre.sagepub. communities. Despite the concerns of many com/content/38/1/106.full.pdf parents, research indicates that Native language instruction encourages students Revitalising Indigenous Languages in to succeed in school. Parent-community Homogenising Times involvement is essential for revealing the McCarty, T. L. (2003). Revitalising Indigenous importance of language instruction and languages in homogenising times. reinforcing the Native language at home. Comparative Education, 39(2), 147–163. Available for purchase at http://www. The article describes efforts to counter tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15235882. the decline of Native languages and to 1995.10668598#.VB-sC150zIU preserve linguistic and cultural diversity through the creation of new approaches Reclaiming Indigenous Languages: A Reconsideration of the Roles and to indigenous schooling that emphasize Responsibilities of Schools immersion in the heritage language. Data from American Indian language immersion McCarty, T. L., & Nicholas, S. E. (2014). programs in three different communities — Reclaiming Indigenous languages: one Navajo, one Native Hawaiian, and one A reconsideration of the roles and Keres (in the Acoma and Cochiti Pueblos of responsibilities of schools. Review of New Mexico) — combined with data from a Research in Education, 38, 106–136. national research project conducted by the University of Arizona suggest that effective This review examines the roles that schools immersion programs can both support have played in reclaiming and revitalizing students’ academic success and promote the threatened indigenous languages, including revitalization of endangered languages. approaches that have been successful, as well as pitfalls and challenges associated with the Available for purchase at http://www.jstor. implementation process. The article focuses org/stable/3099876?seq=1#page_scan_tab_ on school efforts in the United States and contents

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Schooling for Self-Determination: The Atse Kituwah Academy: Research on the Effects of Including An Immersion Model That Holds the Key Native Language and Culture in to the Future of the Cherokee Language the Schools and Culture Lipka, J. (2002). Schooling for self- Redmond, M., & Wiethaus, U. (2009). The determination: Research on the effects of Atse Kituwah Academy: An immersion including Native language and culture in the model that holds the key to the future of the schools (ERIC #459989). Charleston, WV: Cherokee language and culture. Learning ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Languages, 15(1), 34–37. Small Schools. A comprehensive study of the health of the The ERIC Digest briefly reviews the Cherokee language conducted in 2005 with education effects of forced assimilationist members of the Eastern Band of Cherokee schooling and later efforts to create schools Indians in North Carolina revealed that only supportive of American Indian/Native Alaska about 420 out of a population of 10,000 tribal self-determination. The article provides members were fluent speakers. Of those, examples of tribally or community controlled almost three fourths (72 percent) were older education programs that use students’ Native than 51. The study concluded that, without language as the language of instruction intervention, there would be no more fluent in at least some classes and incorporate speakers once these individuals passed away. traditional culture into the curriculum. Two years after publication of that study, the Exemplary programs cited are schools in Kituwah Language Revitalization Initiative Rock Point, Arizona, which teach all classes was begun to guide a comprehensive in the local Navajo language; schools in effort to save and revitalize the Cherokee Fort Defiance, Arizona, which offer the language. An immersion school became the option of being taught with Navajo as the key component of the Kituwah Initiative, language of instruction; the Kamehameha supported by the tribal government and Early Learning Project in Honolulu, Hawaii, augmented by programs to re-establish the which uses an experimental mathematics usage of Cherokee in local media and the curriculum based on the ways that Native community at large. In addition to supporting Hawaiian children develop mathematical the Atse Kituwah Academy, the Eastern Band knowledge in everyday life; and the Kativik of Cherokee Indians created a partnership schools in Northern Quebec, Canada, with a local university to create teacher which involve Inuit students in an Inuktitut licensure programs for language teachers, language program. through university courses and internships. The university partnership includes language Available at https://www.uaf.edu/files/mcc/ revitalization research and scholarship. Articles/schooling-for-self-determination.pdf Available at http://pieducators.com/sites/ default/files/Cherokee-Immersion.pdf

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State of the Field: The Role of Native entering programs characterized as “strong,” Languages and Cultures in American time spent learning the Native language is Indian, Alaska Native, and Native not time lost in developing academic English; Hawaiian Student Achievement (3) it takes a minimum of four to seven years McCarty, T. L. (2011, July). State of the field: for students to develop age-appropriate The role of Native languages and cultures in academic proficiency in a lesser-used American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native language (English or the Native/heritage Hawaiian student achievement. Tempe: language); (4) strong Native language and Arizona State University Center for Indian culture (NLC) programs enhance student Education. motivation, self-esteem, and ethnic pride; (5) strong programs offer unique and varied This policy brief examines evidence for opportunities to involve parents and elders the role and impact of Native language in children’s learning; (6) strong programs and cultural instruction in the education are characterized by strong investments of American Indian, Alaska Native, and in teachers’ professional development Native Hawaiian students. The document and community intellectual resources, as defines key terms related to language evidenced by “grow your own” approaches and culture, explores promising practices to Native teacher preparation and curriculum for indigenous students from a variety of development; and (7) the effectiveness of linguistic and cultural backgrounds, and strong NLC programs (i.e., their ability to provides a summary of findings, including achieve their goals) rests on the ability of characteristics of “strong” language and tribes and Native communities to exercise culture programs. The author concludes that self-determination in the content, process, (1) there is compelling empirical evidence and medium of instruction. that strong, additive, academically rigorous Native language and culture programs have Available at https://static1.squarespace.com/ salutary effects on both Native language static/52cf1070e4b048ae22d972b2/t/54aac6 and culture maintenance/revitalization b3e4b0c309d027948a/1420478131256/ and student achievement, as measured by McCarty+(2011).+Role+and+Impact+of+ multiple types of assessments; (2) regardless Native+Languages+and+Cultural+Context. of students’ Native-language expertise on pdf

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Mentoring and Peer Tutoring

Mentored Research in a Tribal College Mentoring American Indian Middle Setting: The Northern Cheyenne Case School Students to Consider Teaching as a Career Ward, C., Jones, K. W., Madsen, B., Coles, R., Rich, L., & Knapp, S., (2014). Mentored Reed, K. (2007). Mentoring American Indian research in a tribal college setting: The middle school students to consider teaching Northern Cheyenne case. Journal of Research as a career. Middle School Journal, 38(3), in Rural Education, 29(3), 1–17. 25–33.

The purpose of this study was to advance During the 2002 academic year, the National knowledge of effective mentoring and Center for Education Statistics reported that research experience strategies for minority less than one percent of the teaching force undergraduate students with a focus on in the United States was American Indian. retention for students in STEM majors. The Responding to the need for increasing study was conducted over 12 years at a the number of American Indian teachers tribal college of the Northern Cheyenne and recognizing the high dropout rates of Nation in southeastern Montana. Interviews American Indian students, the University of were conducted with 51 student interns, South Dakota’s School of Education joined paraprofessionals, and science instructors. with a reservation school in the state to The researchers examined student provide career exploration in teaching for perceptions of mentor research (i.e., American Indian middle school students. The undergraduate research experiences that article describes this mentoring/exploratory are guided by a mentor, such as a faculty project, which took place during the fall of member) and the effects of mentoring 2004. By the end of the project, university programs on student attitudes about students expressed greater confidence in science, future plans, student identities, speaking in front of a classroom and working and the context of the program supporting with middle school students, while middle student STEM retention. Results indicated school students reported an elevated level that mentoring had positive outcomes for of interest in the teaching profession and tribal college students. The authors suggest confidence in being able to successfully that mentoring and research opportunities pursue a teaching career. are empowering for tribal college students Available for purchase at http://www. and encourage them to pursue academic tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00940771. goals, whether or not those goals include 2007.11461580 returning to their Native community.

Available at https://tribaleddepartmentsna. files.wordpress.com/2014/05/00042582.pdf

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Policy Considerations

2014 Native Youth Report This comprehensive history of American Indian education in the United States, from The White House, Executive Office of the colonial times to the present, explores the President. (2014). 2014 Native Youth Report. broad spectrum of Native experiences in Washington, DC: Author. missionary, government, and tribal boarding This report, written after President Obama and day schools. The one-volume source visited Indian Country in June of 2014, book describes education reform policies summarizes the characteristics of federal and missionary and government efforts to policies affecting the education of Native Christianize and “civilize” American Indian children. It examines the root causes, children. Drawing on firsthand accounts from outcomes, and negative consequences of teachers and students, the authors analyze education inequities as a result of these shifting education policies and philosophies, policies. This report makes clear that Native paying special attention to the passage of the youth today face a variety of barriers but Native American Languages Act and current that with a coordinated effort, significant efforts to revitalize Native American cultures. changes can be made to improve their lives. Available for purchase at http://www. The overarching recommendations include: oupress.com/ECommerce/Book/Detail/67/ (1) strengthen tribal control of education; American%20Indian%20Education (2) provide comprehensive, community- based student supports; (3) integrate Native Indian Education Policies in Five cultures and languages into school climate Northwest Region States and culture; (4) increase support for highly Smiley, R., & Sather, S. (2009). Indian effective teachers and leaders; (5) promote education policies in five Northwest Region up-to-date technology for tribal education; states (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2009 (6) expand efforts that target suicide No. 081). Washington, DC: U.S. Department prevention; and (7) address the behavioral of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, health needs of Native youth. National Center for Education Evaluation Available at http://www. and Regional Assistance, Regional Education whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ Laboratory Northwest. docs/20141129nativeyouthreport_final.pdf This report categorizes Indian education policies of Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, American Indian Education: A History and Washington. The study focuses on key Reyhner, J., & Eder, J. (2006). American Indian education policies, the adoption of Indian education: A history. Norman, OK: these policies, and the mechanisms that states University of Oklahoma Press. employed to adopt these education policies.

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Thirteen key policies from 1991 until 2008 are Native American Languages Act have funded identified, with commonalties and differences more than 500 programs to date. Even in between states highlighted. Policies common states with restrictive English-only policies, to all five states included academic standards public, Bureau of Indian Education, and addressing Native American culture and tribally controlled schools are engaging in history; Native American students learning dual-immersion programs to reverse Native their Native language as part of the education language loss. As language revitalization program; Native American history and culture efforts grow, maintaining official policies being part of the school curriculum; Native that support and protect Native American communities being involved in advisory languages will continue to be important for boards; and teacher certification being federal, state, and tribal governments. promoted for speakers of Native American Available at http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/ languages. Data collection included internet briefs/native-american-language-policy.pdf and library searches, followed by interviews with key informants. States most commonly Native American Education Research used state statutes or regulations to formalize and Policy Development in an Era of No policy. The variety of choices for both policy Child Left Behind: Native Language and and adoption mechanisms are also featured in Culture During the Administrations of this report. Presidents Clinton and Bush Available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/ Beaulieu, D. (2008). Native American education regions/northwest/pdf/REL_2009081.pdf research and policy development in an era of No Child Left Behind: Native language and Native American Language Policy in the culture during the administrations of Presidents United States Clinton and Bush. Journal of American Indian Warhol, L. (2011). Native American language Education, 47(1), 10–45. policy in the United States [Heritage brief]. This article traces the history of policy Washington, DC: Center for Applied development in Native American education Linguistics. from the second term of President William J. This information brief provides an overview Clinton and his signing of Executive Order of past and present policies that have 13096 of August 6, 1998, on American Indian/ impacted Native language maintenance and Alaska Native education, through the passage revitalization efforts. While historically Native and implementation of the No Child Left American language policy in the United States Behind Act (NCLB) and initial consideration has entailed a difficult struggle to maintain of its reauthorization near the end of the Native American languages, communities presidency of George W. Bush. The article are now using recent federal, state, and describes the interaction of political action, local policies to protect their languages research, and policy development under the and support language revitalization efforts. umbrella of the growing political influence Appropriations allocated to the federal of the National Indian Education Association

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(NIEA), leading up to the successful passage The National Congress of American Indians, of the Esther Martinez Native American the National Indian Child Welfare Association, Languages Preservation Act and preparation the National Indian Education Association, for reauthorization of NCLB. The analysis and the National Indian Health Board created provides a perspective of the implementation a joint policy agenda for American Indian of NCLB with American Indian, Alaska Native, and Alaska Native children’s issues. The and Native Hawaiian students through the policy agenda identified guiding principles author’s personal narrative of those years, for improving the lives of Native children and during which he served in key positions within providing concrete recommendations for the federal government and NIEA. Throughout implementation. The principles were grouped this period, a research agenda in American into four overarching themes: healthy Indian/Alaska Native education evolved with lifestyles, supportive environments, successful a focus on the role of Native languages and students, and vibrant communities. Each cultures in Native American education. With subsection includes a list of tribal strategies the passage of NCLB, that role was threatened and policy objectives. despite the plain language of Title VII in NCLB Available at http://www.ncai.org/resources/ and the pronouncements of President Bush’s ncai-publications/Aug_2015_Native_ American Indian/Alaska Native education Childrens_Policy_Agenda.pdf Executive Order. This threat was blunted by a significant effort on the part of NIEA to protect The Impact of High-Stakes Accountability the prominence of Native languages and Policies on Native American Learners: cultures in the education of Native students. Evidence from Research Central to this effort and foundational for McCarty, T. L. (2009). The impact of high- future efforts was the 2006 passage of the stakes accountability policies on Native Esther Martinez Native American Languages American learners: Evidence from research. Preservation Act in a Republican-controlled Teaching Education, 20(1), 7–29. Congress and its signing by President Bush. This article first examines the education profile Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/ of Native American communities and explains default/files/471_2008_2_beaulieu.pdf tribal sovereignty. The author then addresses the impacts of the No Child Left Behind Act for Native Children’s Policy Agenda: Putting Native American students. The final sections First Kids 1st provide examples of promising policies National Congress of American Indians, and practices for future education reform. National Indian Child Welfare Association, Programs and policies related to closure of National Indian Education Association, & the achievement gap include: (1) cultural National Indian Health Board. (August 2015). integration illustrated by a school in Hawaii Native children’s policy agenda: Putting First with a 100 percent graduation rate and an kids 1st. Washington, DC: National Congress 80 percent college attendance rate; (2) an of American Indians. immersion program in the Navajo Nation in

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which English was gradually introduced; and relationships that exist between non-Indians (3) another type of immersion program that and Indians; and (5) model best practices integrates three languages and cultures in to connect classrooms and cultures with Arizona. The conclusion includes characteristics cultural sensitivity. of these policies and programs postulated Available at http://ijme-journal.org/index. to be associated with their effectiveness for php/ijme/article/view/620 Native American communities.

Available for purchase at Toward an Ideal Democracy: The http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ Impact of Standardization Policies on abs/10.1080/10476210802681600 the American Indian/Alaska Native Community and Language Revitalization The Positive Impact of Culturally Efforts Responsive Pedagogy: Montana’s Indian Cohen, E., & Allan, A. (2013). Toward an ideal Education for All democracy: The impact of standardization Carjuzaa, J. (2012). The positive impact of policies on the American Indian/Alaska culturally responsive pedagogy: Montana’s Native community and language revitalization Indian Education for All. International Journal efforts. Educational Policy, 27(5), 743–769. of Multicultural Education, 14(3), 1–17. This article explores the impact of This qualitative report examines the impact standardization policies of the No Child of Montana’s mandate requiring educators Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) on the to integrate American Indian content into American Indian/Alaska Native community. all instruction, known as Montana’s Indian The authors examined current research and Education for All Act (IEFA). This mandate data from the National Indian Education Study (NIES) of 2009 and argue that addresses the many misunderstandings that English-only assessments under NCLB appear to be founded on a commonplace devalued indigenous social and cultural lack of cultural awareness in the Western capital by having no salient measure of states. The report introduces the culture language revitalization efforts. By narrowing and context in Montana, continues with the the scope of the curriculum, the NCLB development and implementation of the standards-based reforms were perceived as Act, and concludes with recommendations straining the relationships between schools from IEFA. Findings from this study suggest and communities. The authors endorse a that teachers need to: (1) feel prepared to responsive Indian education policy that make a difference by better understanding unites the concepts of sovereignty, liberty, American Indian cultures; (2) deconstruct and equity toward revitalizing indigenous stereotypes and confront biases through language without sacrificing a focus on multicultural education; (3) increase raising student achievement. awareness and knowledge with professional development; (4) build and foster Available for purchase at http://epx.sagepub. relationships through understanding power com/content/27/5/743.abstract

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Teacher Preparation and Support

Effective Teachers: Perceptions of Native Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ American Students in Rural Areas ED381332.pdf Prater, G., Rezzonico, A., Pyron, R., Next Steps: Research and Practice to Chischille, J., Arthur, V., & Yellowhair, B. Advance Indian Education (1995, March). Effective teachers: Perceptions of Native American students in rural areas. Swisher, K. G., & Tippeconnic, J. W., III. (Eds.). Paper presented at the American Council on (1999). Next steps: Research and practice to Rural Special Education, Las Vegas, NV. advance Indian education. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and This paper examines Native American Small Schools. student perceptions of effective practices of non-Native teachers. A student survey was The purpose of this book is to support administered to students in grades 3–12 teacher preparation by describing crucial living in rural districts on the Navajo issues in American Indian/Alaska Native Reservation in Arizona. The sample involved education. The book addresses foundations 148 Navajo students and 10 non-Native of Indian education from historical and students, with 28 of the students classified contemporary perspectives. Curricula are as special need. The survey had open-ended discussed in terms of foundations, theories, questions asking about the types of teachers and practices viewed through a cultural and instructional practices that facilitated the lens. This section includes best practices, greatest amount of learning and teachers’ assessment methods, and cross-cultural sensitivity to students’ cultural background. strategies. Next, the college experience Findings indicated that students learned is discussed, with a focus on access to more from hands-on projects and from education and achievement. This book teachers who encouraged various means concludes with suggestions for research to of learning. Students also emphasized the support practice and ultimately improve importance of teachers imparting lessons Native student education. Chapter authors on responsibility and treating students advocate for several specific improvements to with respect. Students stated that the most be made to better engage and accommodate important teacher qualities were respect, Native students. These include having kindness, positive attitude, patience, and a educators examine school and environmental sense of humor. They also preferred teachers factors that affect the quality of schooling who did not speak quickly, make fun of rather than viewing Native students through a Native culture, or deliver boring lessons. deficit model; utilizing community resources A large majority of students felt that teachers and traditional healing practices to help needed to possess a greater sensitivity to students who may be dealing with mental Native culture. health issues; and using performance-based

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tests that involve not only students but authors emphasize that the goal of teacher teachers and parents in the assessment of education is to empower and prepare students’ progress. American Indian and Alaska Native students to feel comfortable moving in different Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ cultures (e.g., school, community, heritage) by ED427902.pdf valuing their culture.

Preparing Teachers to Support American Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ Indian and Alaska Native Student Success ED459990.pdf and Cultural Heritage Jacobs, D. T., & Reyhner, J. (2002). Preparing The Oksale Story: Training Teachers for teachers to support American Indian Schools Serving American Indians and and Alaska Native student success and Alaska Natives cultural heritage. Charleston, WV: ERIC Pavel, M., Banks, S. R., & Pavel, S. C. Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small (2002). The Oksale story: Training teachers Schools. for schools serving American Indians and Alaska Natives. Journal of American Indian This article reviews research from Native Education, 41(2), 38–47. and non-Native sources in order to support the authors’ argument that research-based The article describes a teacher-training knowledge of cultural approaches to learning program for Native students developed exists and should be incorporated into through a partnership between a tribal teacher preparation programs. The goal college, Northwest Indian College, and a of this article is to promote opportunities public research institution, Washington State for American Indian and Alaska Native University. Both institutions have convergent students to learn about and contribute to goals of training teachers. Northwest Indian their communities while honoring traditional College provides courses leading to a cultural values. The authors assert that transferable associate of arts degree, while teacher training programs should prepare Washington State University offers instruction teachers to provide reflective/responsive leading to a bachelor of arts degree and teaching; to understand literature on a teacher certification program accredited breadth and depth of knowledge, including by the state of Washington. Students learn an examination of Indian dropout studies; to apply knowledge gained in coursework to incorporate high academic and cultural through more than 100 hours of practicum expectations; to support values such as experience, and they are provided with spirituality and Native identity within the academic, financial, and personal support community; to work with students’ families services to facilitate graduation in a timely in supporting academic achievement; to manner. Students were interviewed to motivate and engage students by educating obtain their perspectives on the unique them within a relevant cultural context; and elements of the programs and how their to teach from their own cultural identity. The involvement in the Oksale Native teacher

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preparation program affected their college norms that are culturally responsive. Third, experience, personal growth, and cultural advance the scholarly study of teaching knowledge. All students reported that the and learning within Indian communities to Oksale Native teacher preparation program advance knowledge about Indian education. greatly enhanced personal and professional Available for purchase at http://www. growth and encouraged the use of cultural tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01626620. knowledge as a foundation for learning. 2002.10734418 What Do We Have to Do to Create What Every Teacher Needs to Know to Culturally Responsive Programs? The Teach Native American Students Challenge of Transforming American Indian Teacher Education Morgan, H. (2009). What every teacher needs to know to teach Native American students. Belgarde, M. J., Mitchell, R. D., & Arguero, A. Multicultural Education, 16(4), 10–12. (2002). What do we have to do to create culturally responsive programs? The The author discusses the culture and learning challenge of transforming American Indian styles of Native American students in this teacher education. Action in Teacher review paper and offers research-based Education, 24(2), 42–54. education practices that will likely aid this group of students to attain greater academic Culturally responsive education is defined as and emotional success in the school context. generally validating cultures and languages of The author argues that in order to teach students and allowing them to co-construct Native Americans in a way that reflects their knowledge in schools. The authors sought culture, teachers must realize that Native to identify culturally responsive teacher American students are often taught differently education models for teaching American at home compared to mainstream students. Indians. The article provides (1) a brief Native American children can also differ historical overview of American Indian greatly from each other and teachers cannot education; (2) a description of efforts to assume that one instructional approach or address teacher preparation issues; and strategy will work for all Native students. (3) lessons learned in culturally responsive If Native American students are to reach teacher training. Three broad changes are their potential in school, it is recommended proposed to promote practices that benefit that teachers understand those students’ American Indian students. First, establish preferred ways of learning. infrastructure for the participation of Native voices in the education process. Second, Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ institutionalize curriculum and instruction EJ858583.pdf

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Appendix: Summary of Topics Covered in All Articles Contained in the Annotated Bibliography of Culture and Language Revitalization Literature

majority of articles contained in the annotated bibliography contained information pertaining to multiple topic areas. However, to facilitate ease of reading and avoid confusion, each article is only mentioned once in the bibliography, with the category chosen based on its main topic. The following tables include each article by main topic area and any other topics Aaddressed by the content. TOPIC KEY:

CCP = College-Community Partnerships LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring ECE = Early Childhood Education PC = Policy Considerations FCI = Family and Community TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support Involvement/Engagement

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Table 1. College-Community Partnerships

Article Title CBE ECE FCI LRI MPT PC TPS

American Indians and Alaska Natives in Higher X Education: Promoting Access and Achievement Better Together: Coeur d’Alene Reservation X Communities and the University of Idaho Building Community-University Partnerships by X Listening, Learning, and Responding Identifying Community Needs and Resources in a Native Community: A Research Partnership in the X Pacific Northwest Retaining American Indian/Alaskan Native Students in Higher Education: A Case Study of One X X Partnership Between the Tohono O’odham Nation and Pima Community College, Tucson, Arizona 'Walk Softly and Listen Carefully': Building Research X X Relationships with Tribal Communities

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 2. Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching

Article Title CCP ECE FCI LRI MPT PC TPS

A Review of the Research Literature on the Influences of Culturally Based Education on X the Academic Performance of Native American Students A Survey and Assessment of Culturally Based Education Programs for Native American Students X X in the United States American Indian Cultures and the Classroom X X An Exploratory Study of Cultural Identity and Culture-Based Educational Programs for Urban X American Indian Students Cultural Differences of Teaching and Learning: A Native American Perspective of Participating in X X Educational Systems and Organizations Culturally Appropriate Curriculum: A Research- X X Based Rationale Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous X Youth: A Review of the Literature Culture, Chaos, and Complexity: Catalysts for X X Change in Indigenous Education Does Cultural Programming Improve Educational Outcomes for American Indian Youth? Effective Practices for Creating Transformative Informal Science Education Programs Grounded in X X Native Ways of Knowing Effective Standards-Based Practices for Native American Students: A Review of Research X Literature Effective Teaching Strategies for Engaging Native X American Students Engaging Native American Learners with Rigor and Cultural Relevance Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Native American Languages in the United States: Research, X X Policy, and Educational Practice

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Article Title CCP ECE FCI LRI MPT PC TPS

Learning Styles of American Indian/Alaska Native Students: A Review of the Literature and X Implications for Practice National Indian Education Study 2009 - Part II: The Educational Experiences of American Indian X and Alaska Native Students in Grades 4 and 8 (NCES 2010‑463) Research in American Indian and Alaska Native Education: From Assimilation to Self-Determination Self-Determination through Self-Education: Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous X Students in the USA The Educational Aspirations/Attainment Gap X Among Rural Alaska Native Students The Influence of Culture on Learning and Assessment among Native American Students Traditional Culture and Academic Success among American Indian Children in the Upper Midwest Virtual Museum Projects for Culturally Responsive X Teaching in American Indian Education

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 3. Early Childhood Education

Article Title CCP CBE FCI LRI MPT PC TPS

A Summary of Research and Publications on Early Childhood for American Indian and Alaska Native X X X X Children An Investigation of How Culture Shapes Curriculum in Early Care and Education Programs on a Native X X X American Indian Reservation Dear Children: Preferred Preparation for Native X X X X Early Childhood Education For Each and Every Child: A Strategy for Education X Equity and Excellence Improving Academic Performance among Native American Students — A Review of the Research X X Literature Proceedings of the Rural Early Childhood Forum on American Indian and Alaska Native Early Learning

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 4. Family and Community Involvement/Engagement

Article Title CCP CBE ECE LRI MPT PC TPS

A Native American Community’s Involvement and Empowerment to Guide Their Children’s X Development in the School Setting Examining American Indian Perspectives in the Central Region on Parent Involvement in Children’s X X Education Factors Influencing Transition for Students with X Disabilities: The American Indian Experience Families and Schools Together: An Experimental Analysis of a Parent-Mediated Multi-Family Group X Program for American Indian Children Family, Community, and School Influences on Resilience among American Indian Adolescents in the Upper Midwest Home-Going as a Strategy for Success among X X Haudenosaunee College and University Students “My Culture, My Family, My School, Me”: Identifying Strengths and Challenges in the Lives X and Communities of American Indian Youth Navajo Culture and Family Influences on Academic Success: Traditionalism Is Not a Significant X Predictor of Achievement among Navajo Youth Reforming Education from the Inside-Out: A Study of Community Engagement and Educational X X Reform in Rural Alaska Supporting American Indian Students in the X Transition to Postsecondary Education Supporting Native Indian Preschoolers and Their X X Families: Family-School-Community Partnerships The Context and Meaning of Family Strengthening in Indian America The Traditional Tribal Values of Ojibwa Parents and the School Performance of Their Children: An X Exploratory Study

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 5. Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts

Article Title CCP CBE ECE FCI MPT PC TPS

Grassroots Suggestions for Linking Native- Language Learning, Native American Studies, and X Mainstream Education in Reservation Schools with Mixed Indian and White Student Populations Indigenous Language Revitalization: X Encouragement, Guidance, & Lessons Learned Language and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose Language X Is It Anyway? Native Language Immersion: Innovative Native X X Education for Children and Families Native Language Renewal: Dispelling the Myths, X X Planning for the Future Reclaiming Indigenous Languages: A Reconsideration of the Roles and Responsibilities X X of Schools Revitalising Indigenous Languages in X X Homogenising Times Schooling for Self-Determination: Research on the Effects of Including Native Language and Culture X in the Schools The Atse Kituwah Academy: An Immersion Model That Holds the Key to the Future of the Cherokee Language and Culture State of the Field: The Role of Native Languages and Cultures in American Indian, Alaska Native, X X and Native Hawaiian Student Achievement

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 6. Mentoring and Peer Tutoring

Article Title CCP CBE ECE FCI LRI PC TPS

Mentored Research in a Tribal College Setting: The X Northern Cheyenne Case

Mentoring American Indian Middle School X X X Students to Consider Teaching as a Career

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

Table 7. Policy Considerations

Article Title CCP CBE ECE FCI LRI MPT TPS

2014 Native Youth Report American Indian Education: A History Indian Education Policies in Five Northwest Region X X X X States Native American Language Policy in the X X United States Native American Education Research and Policy Development in an Era of No Child Left X X Behind: Native Language and Culture During the Administrations of Presidents Clinton and Bush Native Children’s Policy Agenda: Putting First X Kids 1st The Impact of High Stakes Accountability Policies on Native American Learners: Evidence X X from Research The Positive Impact of Culturally Responsive X X Pedagogy: Montana’s Indian Education for All Toward an Ideal Democracy: The Impact of Standardization Policies on the American Indian/ X Alaska Native Community and Language Revitalization Efforts

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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Table 8. Teacher Preparation and Support

Article Title CCP CBE ECE FCI LRI MPT PC

Effective Teachers: Perceptions of Native American X Students in Rural Areas Next Steps: Research and Practice to Advance X Indian Education Preparing Teachers to Support American Indian and Alaska Native Student Success and Cultural X X Heritage The Oksale Story: Training Teachers for Schools X X Serving American Indians and Alaska Natives What Do We Have to Do to Create Culturally Responsive Programs? The Challenge of X X Transforming American Indian Teacher Education What Every Teacher Needs to Know to Teach X Native American Students

Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching; ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support.

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