DOCSLIB.ORG

MIXED CODES, BILINGUALISM, and LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requi

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
MIXED CODES, BILINGUALISM, and LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requi BILINGUAL NAVAJO: MIXED CODES, BILINGUALISM, AND LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Charlotte C. Schaengold, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2004 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Brian Joseph, Advisor Professor Donald Winford ________________________ Professor Keith Johnson Advisor Linguistics Graduate Program ABSTRACT Many American Indian Languages today are spoken by fewer than one hundred people, yet Navajo is still spoken by over 100,000 people and has maintained regional as well as formal and informal dialects. However, the language is changing. While the Navajo population is gradually shifting from Navajo toward English, the “tip” in the shift has not yet occurred, and enormous efforts are being made in Navajoland to slow the language’s decline. One symptom in this process of shift is the fact that many young people on the Reservation now speak a non-standard variety of Navajo called “Bilingual Navajo.” This non-standard variety of Navajo is the linguistic result of the contact between speakers of English and speakers of Navajo. Similar to Michif, as described by Bakker and Papen (1988, 1994, 1997) and Media Lengua, as described by Muysken (1994, 1997, 2000), Bilingual Navajo has the structure of an American Indian language with parts of its lexicon from a European language. “Bilingual mixed languages” are defined by Winford (2003) as languages created in a bilingual speech community with the grammar of one language and the lexicon of another. My intention is to place Bilingual Navajo into the historical and theoretical framework of the bilingual mixed language, and to explain how ii this language can be used in the Navajo speech community to help maintain the Navajo language. Many young people who have difficulty with Standard Navajo are quite fluent in this mixed variety. It may be heard more on the urban edges of the Navajo Nation than in the rural center. Although this is not the most favored variety of Navajo to be heard in the Navajo Nation today, the social evaluation of Bilingual Navajo is improving, and it can be seen it as a tool for maintaining the Navajo language. iii DEDICATION Diyin GOD bá Éí nihookáá’góó naaldlooshii danilíinii yiláahgo nanihintin; tsídii wót’áahdi naaldeehii biláahgo dahoniidz£™go ádanihile’. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to particularly thank my advisor, Brian Joseph, for having the patience of Job. He taught me more than I thought I could learn, and forced me to keep explaining myself until at last the point I was making was clear. I appreciate the challenges Don Winford offered, telling me to develop my own framework for the data, instead of trying to place it into someone else’s model. I plan to continue to put that lesson into my work. I am also grateful to the other professors in the Linguistics Department at OSU for encouraging me to keep on with my work in spite of living an impossible two hours distance from the campus. I also thank my loving family, who put up with many long absences and more than 100,000 additional miles on the car. I am also grateful to the faculty and administration of Diné College, who allowed me to administer my survey during class time, and to friends in Farmington and Shiprock, NM, especially the Wilson Stevenson family, who let me stay at their house for a month! Many kind people were Navajo language teachers to me when I lived in Shiprock and Albuquerque, New Mexico; the ones who would actually call themselves Navajo Language teachers are as follows: Tony Goldtooth, Martha Austin-Garrison, Mary Anne Willie, Rosanne Willink, Ron Kinsel, and Leroy Morgan. Special thanks to Leroy, for showing me how the bilingual variety of Navajo works, and to Mary Anne Willie, for teaching Navajo Linguistics and being willing to share with her Bilagáana teaching assistant, and most special appreciation to shínaaí Tony Goldtooth. T’áá ánó¬tso nihich’•’ ayóo baa ahééh nisin. v VITA April 4, 1957............................................Born- Boston, Massachusetts. 1976.........................................................Kleine Goethe-Sprachdiplom. 1982.........................................................B.A. German, University of Wisconsin. 1990-1992...............................................Instructor, Navajo Community College. 1992-1994...............................................Graduate teaching assistant, UNM. 1995........................................................M.A. Linguistics, University of NM. 1995-2002...............................................Graduate teaching assistant, OSU. 2001-present............................................Instructor at Miami University. PUBLICATIONS Research Publication 1. Schaengold, Charlotte. 2003. “The Emergence of Bilingual Navajo: English and Navajo Languages in Contact Regardless of Everyone’s Best Intentions” from: When Languages Collide, edited by Joseph, DeStefano, Jacobs, and Lehiste. OSU Press. (Chapter 12, pages 235-254). 2. Schaengold, Charlotte Christ. 1999. “Doubling Verbs in Schwyzerdütsch” OSUWPL, OSU Department of Linguistics. (pages 89-95). FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Linguistics Historical Linguistics and Language Change, Sociolinguistics, Contact Languages, Bilingual Mixed Languages, Navajo, American Indian Languages, Language Endangerment, Language Maintenance. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... v Vita ..................................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. ix Chapters: 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 2. Input Languages; Standard Navajo and Navajo English.................................................20 3. Bilingual Navajo: Description .......................................................................................41 4. Bilingual Navajo: Analysis and the results of a survey ................................................. 65 5. Structural Change and Mixed Codes ............................................................................80 6. Languages in Contact ..................................................................................................102 7. Linguistic Consequences of Societal Bilingualism in several American Indian Speech Communities ....................................................................................................................121 8. Purity and Survival ..................................................................................................... 137 9. Endangered Languages: Comparisons, ideology, and agenda .....................................156 Bibilography ....................................................................................................................168 vii Appendices: Appendix A: Data ........................................................................................................... 175 Appendix B: Survey and IRB Protocol ............................................................................182 viii TABLE OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Speaker Types .................................................................................................................7 2. Navajo Consonant Chart (Y&M 1987)...........................................................................21 3. Navajo Consonants in IPA.............................................................................................22 4. Navajo Vowel Chart (Y&M 1987)................................................................................23 5. Neuter verb paradigm ‘¬ikan’.........................................................................................26 6. Levy and Kunitz .............................................................................................................76 7. Degrees of Shift.............................................................................................................90 8. GIDS Scale by Fishman..............................................................................................149 9. Navajo according to GIDS...........................................................................................150 10. Schmidt and Dixon Scale...........................................................................................153 11. CHOICE by Werner Winter......................................................................................163 12. Social Factors in CHOICE........................................................................................164 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Many American Indian Languages today are spoken by fewer than one hundred people, yet Navajo is still spoken by over 100,000 people and has maintained regional as well as formal and informal dialects. However, the language is changing. While the Navajo population is gradually shifting from Navajo toward English, the “tip” in the shift has
Load more

Recommended publications
  • American Sign Language and the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
    University of Northern Iowa UNI ScholarWorks Presidential Scholars Theses (1990 – 2006) Honors Program 2005 Using space to describe space: American Sign Language and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Cindee Calton University of Northern Iowa Let us know how access to this document benefits ouy Copyright ©2005 - Cindee Calton Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uni.edu/pst Part of the American Sign Language Commons Recommended Citation Calton, Cindee, "Using space to describe space: American Sign Language and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis" (2005). Presidential Scholars Theses (1990 – 2006). 56. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/pst/56 This Open Access Presidential Scholars Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors Program at UNI ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Presidential Scholars Theses (1990 – 2006) by an authorized administrator of UNI ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Using Space to Describe Space: American Sign Language and the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Cindee Calton University of Northern Iowa Undergraduate Research April 2005 Faculty Advisor, Dr. Cynthia Dunn - - - -- - Abstract My study sought to combine two topics that have recently generated much interest among anthropologists. One of these topics is American Sign Language, the other is linguistic relativity. Although both topics have been a part of the literature for some time, neither has been studied extensively until the recent past. Both present exciting new horizons for understanding culture, particularly language and culture. The first of these two topics is the study of American Sign Language. The reason for its previous absence from the literature has to do with unfortunate prejudice which, for a long time, kept ASL from being recognized as a legitimate language.
    [Show full text]
  • Quichua-Spanish Language Contact in Salcedo, Ecuador: Revisiting Media Lengua Syncretic Language Practices
    QUICHUA-SPANISH LANGUAGE CONTACT IN SALCEDO, ECUADOR: REVISITING MEDIA LENGUA SYNCRETIC LANGUAGE PRACTICES BY MARCO SHAPPECK DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2011 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Hans Henrich Hock, Director of Research Professor Rajeshwari Vijay Pandharipande, Chair Associate Professor Anna María Escobar Professor José Ignacio Hualde Abstract The purpose of the current thesis is to develop a better understanding of the interaction between Spanish and Quichua in the Salcedo region and provide more information for the processes that might have given rise to Media Lengua, a ‘mixed’ language comprised of a Quichua grammar and Spanish lexicon. Muysken attributes the formation of Media Lengua to relexification, ruling out any influence from other bilingual phenomena. I argue that the only characteristic that distinguishes Media Lengua from other language contact varieties in central Ecuador is the quantity of the overall Spanish borrowings and not the type of processes that might have been employed by Quichua speakers during the genesis of Media Lengua. The results from the Salcedo data that I have collected show how processes such as adlexification, code-mixing, and structural convergence produce Media Lengua-type sentences, evidence that supports an alternative analysis to Muysken’s relexification hypothesis. Overall, this dissertation is developed around four main objectives: (1) to describe the variation of Spanish loanwords within a bilingual community in Salcedo; (2) to analyze some of the prominent and recent structural changes in Quichua and Spanish; (3) to determine whether Spanish loanword use can be explained by the relationship consultants have with particular social categories; and (4) to analyze the consultants’ language ideologies toward syncretic uses of Spanish and Quichua.
    [Show full text]
  • Rock Art of Dinetah: Stories of Heroes and Healing
    Rock Art of Dinetah: Stories of Heroes and Healing • Dinetah location: NW New Mexico • Navajo occupation: 1600’s and 1700’s • Time and place where Athabaskans and Puebloans combined and formed Navajo culture. • Location of the origin of many Navajo ceremonies. • When Navajos moved west to the Canyon de Chelly area, sandpaintinGs took the place of rock art for depiction of imaGes related to ceremonies. Characters • Ghaa’ask’idii--Humpback • Zaha’doolzhaai—Fringe Mouth • Haile—Head and Face Masks in Navaho Ceremonialism, p. 20 Hero Twins • Naayee’ Neizghani—Monster Slayer • Tobajishchini—Born for Water Berard Haile. Head and Face Masks in Navaho Ceremonialism, p. 46. Sun and Moon • Johonaa’ei—Sun Carrier • Tl’ehonaa’ei—Moon Carrier • Naadaa’--Corn • Ma’ii--Coyote • ‘Atsa--Eagle • Dahiitihi--Hummingbird • Jaa’abani--Bat • Shash--Bear • So’lani--Constellations • Ye’ii—Holy People or Supernatural Powers People • Kiis’aanii--Pueblo • Schaafsma—New Perspectives on Pottery Mound, p. 145 • Unidentified Stories • Jaa’abani’ Asdzaa’—Bat Woman • Tse dah hodziiltalii—The Kicker • Naahwiilbiihi—The Great Gambler Ceremonies • Hozhooji--Blessingway • Tl’ee’ji--Nightway • Dzil latahji--Mountainway • Hoozhonee--Beautyway • Haile, Oakes and Wyman—Beautyway, PlateVI. • Ceremonial? References Haile, Berard. Head and Face Masks in Navaho Ceremonialism. St. Michaels, AZ Press, 1947. AMS Reprint, 1978. Haile, Berard, Maud Oakes, and Leland Wyman. Beautyway: A Navaho Ceremonial. Bollingen Series LIII. Pantheon Books, 1957. Spencer, Katherine. Mythology and Values: An Analysis of Navaho Chantway Myths. Memoirs of the American Folklore Society, Volume 48, 1957. Witze, Alexandra. “When the Gambler Came to Chaco.” in American Archaeology, Vol. 22 No. 2, 2018. Pages 12- 17.
    [Show full text]
  • Modelling Mixed Languages: Some Remarks on the Case of Old Helsinki Slang1
    MODELLING MIXED LANGUAGES: SOME REMARKS ON THE CASE OF OLD HELSINKI SLANG1 Merlijn de Smit Stockholm University Abstract Old Helsinki Slang (OHS) a linguistic variety spoken in the working-class quarters of Helsinki from approx. 1900 to 1945, is marked by the usage of a virtually wholly Swedish vocabulary in a Finnish morphosyntactic framework. It has recently been subject of two interestingly contrasting treatments by Petri Kallio and Vesa Jarva. Kallio argues that the morphosyntactic base of OHS gives cause to analyzing it as unambiguously Finnic, and therefore Uralic, from a genetic perspective, whereas Jarva, drawing attention to the possible origins of OHS in frequent code-switching, believes it deserves consideration as a mixed language alongside such cases as Ma’a and Media Lengua. The contrasting approaches of the two authors involve contrasting presuppositions which deserve to be spelled out: should the genetic origin of a language be based on the pedigree of its structure (with mixed structures pointing to a mixed genetic origin) or on the sociolinguistic history of its speakers? Taking the latter course, I argue that the most valid model for the emergence of genetically mixed languages is the code-switching one proposed by Peter Auer. Measuring OHS against Auer’s model, however, it is a marginal case for a mixed language, particularly as Auer’s and similar models imply some composition in structural domains, which seems wholly absent in the case of OHS. Thus OHS is not a genetically mixed language, even if it may have developed as one, had early OHS taken a different course as it eventually did.
    [Show full text]
  • Negotiating Ludic Normativity in Facebook Meme Pages
    in ilburg apers ulture tudies 247 T P C S Negotiating Ludic Normativity in Facebook Meme Pages by Ondřej Procházka Tilburg University [email protected] December 2020 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/ Negotiating ludic normativity in Facebook meme pages Negotiating ludic normativity in Facebook meme pages PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan Tilburg University, op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof. dr. W.B.H.J. van de Donk, in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties aangewezen commissie in de Portrettenzaal van de Universiteit op maandag 7 december 2020 om 16.00 uur door Ondřej Procházka geboren te Kyjov, Tsjechië Promotores: prof. J.M.E. Blommaert prof. A.M. Backus Copromotor: dr. P.K. Varis Overige leden van de promotiecommissie: prof. A. Georgakopoulou prof. A. Jaworski prof. A.P.C. Swanenberg dr. R. Moore dr. T. Van Hout ISBN 978-94-6416-307-0 Cover design by Veronika Voglová Layout and editing by Karin Berkhout, Department of Culture Studies, Tilburg University Printed by Ridderprint BV, the Netherlands © Ondřej Procházka, 2020 The back cover contains a graphic reinterpretation of the material from the ‘Faceblock’ article posted by user ‘Taha Banoglu’ on the Polandball wiki and is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- Share Alike License. All rights reserved. No other parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any other means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without permission of the author.
    [Show full text]
  • Land Reform in the Navajo Nation Possibilities of Renewal for Our People
    Land Reform in the Navajo Nation possibilities of renewal for our people LAND REFORM IN THE NAVAJO NATION "1 Diné Policy Institute Franklin Sage, Ph.D., Director Michael Parrish, Policy Analyst Majerle Lister, Research Assistant 2017 Summer/Fall Data Collection Interns Ricki Draper, Appalachian State University Ashley Claw, Duke University Ashley Gray, Diné College Crystanna Begay, Diné College Mark Musngi, Diné College Chris Cruye, Diné College Alexandra Thompson, Dine College Terri Yazzie, Diné College Teresa Big, Diné College Shandiin Yazzie, Diné College Consultants Andrew Curley, Ph.D. Postdoctoral Research Fellow Department of Geography University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Yvonne Liu, Research Director Solidarity Research Center http://solidarityresearch.org/ Thanks to the generous financial support from Diana Lidu Benitz, The First Nations Development Institute, the staff Researcher time and support from The Solidarity Research Solidarity Research Center Center, and continued support from Diné College http://solidarityresearch.org/ LAND REFORM IN THE NAVAJO NATION "2 Introduction 4 1. History of Navajo Land Tenure 7 1.Traditional Land Use and Rights 7 2. Anglo-Colonization 9 2.2. Livestock Reduction and Grazing Permits 12 2.3. New Land Boundaries 16 2.4. Extractive Industries 18 2.5. Wage Labor 22 3. Methodology 24 4. Findings 26 4.2. Survey - Household and Employment 29 4.3. Survey - Land-Use and Grazing 31 4.4. Survey - Development 33 4.5. Transcribed - Interviews 36 4.6. Interviews - Grazing 37 4.7. Interviews - Land Conflict 43 4.8. Interviews - Governance 48 4.9. Interviews - Development 53 4.10. Interview - Little Colorado River Watershed Chapter Association 56 6.
    [Show full text]
  • Multilingualism in Cyberspace: Indigenous Languages for Empowerment
    REGIONAL CONFERENCE FOR CENTRAL AMERICA CONFERENCE REPORT MULTILINGUALISM IN CYBERSPACE: INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES FOR EMPOWERMENT 27 and 28 November 2015 San José, 2015 – 2 – Published in 2015 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France and UNESCO Field Office in San José, Costa Rica © UNESCO 2015 Editor: José Manuel Valverde Rojas Coordinator: Günther Cyranek UNESCO team: Pilar Alvarez-Liso, Director and Representative, UNESCO Cluster Office Central America in San José, Costa Rica Boyan Radoykov, Chief, Section for Universal Access and Preservation, Knowledge Societies Division, Communication and Information Sector, UNESCO Irmgarda Kasinskaite-Buddeberg, Programme specialist, Section for Universal Access and Preservation, Knowledge Societies Division, Communication and Information Sector, UNESCO – 3 – CONTENTS Page PREFACE .............................................................................................................................. 6 SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 8 1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT OF THE REGIONAL EXPERT CONFERENCE. ......... 10 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PARTNERS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE EVENT .......... 12 2. CONCEPT NOTE. .......................................................................................................... 15 2.1 Multilingual information and knowledge are key determinants of wealth creation, social transformation and human
    [Show full text]
  • The Language of Humor: Navajo Ruth E. Cisneros, Joey Alexanian, Jalon
    The Language of Humor: Navajo Ruth E. Cisneros, Joey Alexanian, Jalon Begay, Megan Goldberg University of New Mexico 1. Introduction We all laugh at jokes, exchange humorous stories for entertainment and information, tease one another, and trade clever insults for amusement on a daily basis. Scientists have told us that laughing is good for our health. But what makes something funny? Prior definitions of humor, like this one by Victor Raskin (1985), have categorized humor as a universal human trait: "responding to humor is part of human behavior, ability or competence, other parts of which comprise such important social and psychological manifestations of homo sapiens as language, morality, logic, faith, etc. Just as all of those, humor may be described as partly natural and partly acquired" (Raskin 1985: 2). The purpose and end result of humor, much like that of language, is the externalization of human thought and conceptualization. This externalization carries multiple meanings, partly as an outlet to express certain emotions, partly as a social device, and partly as an exercise of the intellect. The active engagement of this human ability allows some to earn their livelihood from a career in making jokes. Thus, there is the possibility in a culture to broadcast one’s own personal opinion and world view in a series of jokes. Chafe explains that this is an intrinsic attribute of Homo sapiens; it is "The essence of human understanding: the ability to interpret particular experiences as manifestations of lager encompassing systems" (1994: 9). Humor acts to level the field, allowing people who identify with each other to create social groups.
    [Show full text]
  • The Cultural Politics of English As an International Language Alastair Pennycook
    The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language A much-cited and highly influential text by Alastair Pennycook, one of the world authorities in sociolinguistics and English language education, The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language explores the globalization of English by examining its colonial ori- gins, its connections to linguistics and applied linguistics, and its relationships to the global spread of teaching practices. Nine chap- ters cover a wide range of key topics including: • international politics • colonial history • critical pedagogy • postcolonialliterature. The book provides a critical understanding of the concept of the 'worldliness of English', or the idea that English can never be removed from the social, cultural, economic or political contexts in which it is used. Reissued with a substantial preface, this Routledge Linguistics Classic remains a landmark text, which led a much-needed critical and ideologically informed investigation into the burgeoning topic of World Englishes. Key reading for all those working in the areas of Applied Linguistics, Sociolinguistics and World Englishes. Alastair Pennycook is Distinguished Professor of Language in Edu- cation at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia. He is the author of many titles, including BAAL book prize winner 2008: Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows (Routledge, 2007), Language as a Local Practice (Routledge, 2010), and Metrolingualism: Language in the City (co- authored with Emi Otsuji, Routledge, 2015). ROUTLEDGE LINGUISTICS CLASSICS Authority in Language Investigating Standard English James Milroy and Lesley Milroy Local Literacies Reading and Writing in One Community David Barton and Mary Hamilton Verbal Hygiene Deborah Cameron Vocabulary Applied Linguistic Perspectives Previously published as part of the Ronald Carter Language in Social Life Series, Power and Politeness in the Workplace edited by Professor Christopher N.
    [Show full text]
  • A Model for the Implementation of Non-Formal Language Acquisition in Language Revitalization: the Case Study of Irish
    A Model for the Implementation Of Non-Formal Language Acquisition In Language Revitalization: The Case Study of Irish Anne Beltman 12299448 MA Thesis Language and Society University of Amsterdam Supervisor: prof. F. Gobbo 06-08-2019 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Prof. dr. Gobbo, my thesis supervisor, for his guidance throughout this project. In agreeing to take on this project, he has taught me a lot about sociolinguistics, but also about academia itself. I would like to thank my friends and family for all their support, for proofreading all the drafts I sent and calming me down in cases of panic. Finally, my thanks to Fien, Kim, Zach and Jenna for being there always. 2 Abstract Non-formal language acquisition (NFLA) is language acquisition that is embedded in planned activities that are not explicitly designated as learning and is intentional from the learner’s point of view (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004). Using existing frameworks, a model was created to test whether a threatened language has enough support to implement NFLA- based programs, in order to help revitalization of the language. To test the proposed model, it has been applied to Irish. From this case study, it can be concluded that while the model provides a good basis, there are still improvements to be made. 3 Table of contents 1. Introduction 6 1.1. Background 6 1.2. Relevance 7 1.3. Research question 8 2. Methodology 10 3. Theoretical Background 11 3.1 Non-formal language acquisition 11 3.2 Terminology 12 3.3 Language Revitalization 12 3.4 Frameworks 14 3.4.1.
    [Show full text]
  • Intrinsic Motivation
    Reading and the Native American Learner Research Report Dr. Terry Bergeson State Superintendent of Public Instruction Andrew Griffin, Ed.D. Director Higher Education, Community Outreach, and Staff Development Denny Hurtado, Program Supervisor Indian Education/Title I Program This material available in alternative format upon request. Contact Curriculum and Assessment, 360/753-3449, TTY 360/664-3631. The Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction complies with all federal and state rules and regulations and does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability, age, or marital status. June 2000 ii This report was prepared by: Joe St. Charles, M.P.A. Magda Costantino, Ph.D. The Evergreen Center for Educational Improvement The Evergreen State College In collaboration with the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Office of Indian Education With special thanks to the following reviewers: Diane Brewer Sally Brownfield William Demmert Roy DeBoer R. Joseph Hoptowit Mike Jetty Acknowledgement to Lynne Adair for her assistance with the project. iii Table of Contents INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................... 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................3 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN INDIAN EDUCATION ................................................................... 9 SOURCES OF EDUCATIONAL DIFFICULTIES
    [Show full text]
  • Open Research Online Oro.Open.Ac.Uk
    Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs “You can just give those documents to myself’: Untriggered reflexive pronouns in 21st century spoken British English Book Section How to cite: Paterson, Laura (2018). “You can just give those documents to myself’: Untriggered reflexive pronouns in 21st century spoken British English. In: Brezina, Vaclav; Love, Robbie and Aijmer, Karin eds. Corpus Approaches to Contemporary British Speech. Sociolinguistic Studies of the Spoken (BNC2014). Abingdon: Routledge. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2018 Routledge Version: Accepted Manuscript Link(s) to article on publisher’s website: https://www.routledge.com/Corpus-Approaches-to-Contemporary-British-Speech-Sociolinguistic-Studies/Brezina-Love-Aijmer/p/book/9781138287273 Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk You can just give those documents to myself’: Untriggered reflexive pronouns in 21st century spoken British English Laura L. Paterson, The Open University, UK 1. Introduction Reflexive pronouns, such as myself, herself, yourselves, share a real-world referent with other components of the clause (or local domain) in which they occur. As such, they require a coreferent noun phrase (NP) to fulfil their syntactic criteria. In the sentence ‘The cat washes herself’, the NP the cat and the reflexive pronoun herself correspond to the same entity and share a syntactic bond. However, despite formal syntactic constraints, reflexive pronouns are used without coreferent NPs in (some varieties of) English (Parker, Riley and Meyer 1990).
    [Show full text]