Fire today ManagementVolume 74 • No. 4 • 2015
Celebrating 75 Years of smokejumping
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Tom Harbour, Director Fire and Aviation Management
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December 2015
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On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point The Smokejumper Program—A Past Rich in History; A Program Revered Worldwide ...... 4 Tom Harbour History of Smokejumping ...... 5 Lincoln Bramwell What Does It Take To Become a Smokejumper? ...... 8 Daniel Cottrell First Jump ...... 10 Kyle Goldammer Rick Rataj and Don Graham, of the Smokejumper Innovation Used in Clandestine Operation ...... 12 Redding Smokejumpers, jumping Chuck Sheley on one of the August lightning fires on the Klamath during the 2014 fire Delivering Supplies From the Skies ...... 14 season. Fry Fire, Marble Mountain Christine Schuldheisz Wilderness, Klamath National Mechanical Trail Packer Hits the Silk (Reprint from 1956) ...... 16 Forest. Photo credit: Raleigh James Coppin, lead firefighter, Tahoe A.B. Everts Helitack (HT-514). Then and Now: Reflections of a Retired Smokejumper ...... 19 Jeff Davis Traditions Live on in the National Technology and Development Program ...... 21 Mark Vosburgh Fireworld: How a Firefighter’s Experience Informed a Career Focused on Climate Change ...... 24 Nicky Sundt The Anatomy of Smokejumping ...... 27 Katie Scheer Developing the Santa Ana Wildfire Threat Index ...... 29 The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management Staff has adopted a logo Tom Rolinski reflecting three central principles of wildland Assessing Firefighter Safety Zones Using LIDAR Remote Sensing . . .33 fire management: Philip E. Dennison, Gregory K. Fryer, Michael J. Campbell, • Innovation: We will respect and value Thomas J. Cova, and Bret W. Butler thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while Federal Excess Trucks Save Seven in High-Water Rescue . . . . .37 focusing on the greater good. Matt Weinell • Execution: We will do what we say we Smokejumper Invents the “Klump Pump” ...... 38 will do. Achieving program objectives, Jim Klump improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. short artiCles Fiscal, managerial, and operational Success Stories Wanted ...... 18 discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. Veteran Fire Corps ...... 28 Contributors Wanted ...... 39 Reflecting on the Legacy of the First African-American Smokejumpers ...... 40 Deidra L. McGee Fireline Explosives ...... 41 Junior Smokejumper Program ...... 42 Firefighter and public safety Molly Cottrell is our first priority. Safety Infographics ...... 44 Guidelines for Contributors ...... Inside Back Cover by Tom Harbour Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service
The smokejumper program—a past riCh in historY; a program revered WorldWide
of the Nation. Firefighting tools, aircraft to these remote areas, they “A forest firefighter who food, and water are dropped by must make smart decisions with parachutes to locations parachute to the firefighters after every action they take while under- otherwise difficult to reach.”— they land near the fire, making standing the increased complexity Merriam-Webster them self-sufficient for the first 48 of their jobs, just like every other hours. firefighter.
en and women involved in In this edition of Fire Management As fire managers, we are faced with our smokejumper program Today, you will learn more about difficult decisions as we review the Mmeet the Merriam-Webster smokejumper history, what it effectiveness, efficiency, and focus definition and do so much more takes to become a smokejumper, of each program that supports our work for the wildland fire com- and the program in general. You wildland firefighting mission, and, munity in addition to their daily just like the smokejumpers, we assignments. By parachuting into must make smart decisions and the most remote areas of the coun- In this edition of Fire understand the ramifications and complexities that come with mak- try, self-sufficient firefighters arrive Management Today, you fresh and ready for the strenuous ing those decisions. It is not always work of fighting fires in rugged ter- will learn more about easy. In fact, there are times when rain. smokejumper history, we find disparities in our missions what it takes to become within the interagency wildland First proposed in 1934 by T.V. a smokejumper, and the fire community that can lead to Pearson, the Forest Service differences in opinions. There are Intermountain Regional Forester, program in general. times when we must acknowledge as a means to quickly provide ini- those differences and agree to take tial attack on wildfires, our smoke- different paths, as is the case with jumper program is rich in history. will discover there are more than smokejumper delivery systems. The smokejumper program began 400 dedicated firefighters, both in 1939 as an experiment in the Forest Service and Bureau of Land The smokejumper program has Forest Service Pacific Northwest Management (BLM) employees played an integral role in the Region, with the first fire jump who have earned the right to be history of wildland firefighting made in 1940 on Idaho’s Nez Perce a part of an organization that is in America. We celebrate that National Forest in the Northern held in high esteem and is readily history and will concentrate on Region. Today, smokejumpers are recognized as having some of the each segment of the profession, a national resource. They travel most elite wildland firefighters in adapt and deal with uncertainties across the Nation to provide highly the world. Not only do these men encountered, and help to frame an trained, experienced firefighter and women meet stringent physi- appropriate program for the future leadership for quick initial attack cal fitness requirements and have grounded in the principles of fire on fires in the most remote parts the courage to deploy from moving doctrine and risk management. HistorY of smokejumping Lincoln Bramwell
his year celebrates the 75th anniversary of the first test of One of the smokejumper program’s defining Tone of fire management’s most characteristics is its commitment to iconic activities: smokejumping. Whether one counts as the true innovation—a constant refinement of equipment dawn of the smokejumper the first and techniques that hearkens back to the test jumps conducted in Winthrop, program’s earliest days. WA, in 1939, or the first live fire jump a year later, we can reflect on the early innovators who pioneered precipitated a review and subse- ing cargo and “bombing” fires one of the most unique fire and quent restriction of their use in with water by air. In the summer aviation activities in the world. firefighting. Without access to the of 1939, the agency moved the massive number of enrollees avail- program to the Pacific Northwest The successful use of aerial recon- able for fire suppression, the Forest Region under Assistant Chief of naissance in World War I sparked Service began looking for ways to Fire Control, David P. Godwin, and ideas for its application in civil- maximize its decreasing number of Lage Wernstedt. They immediately ian fire operations. After the fire personnel. focused on delivering firefighters war, Forest Service Chief Henry to incidents via parachute. Godwin S. Graves approached the Army In response to the impending claimed inspiration for the experi- Air Corps, and in 1925, joint loss of CCC enrollees, the Forest ment originated from observations experiments in aerial fire control Service expanded its Aerial Fire of German and Russian paratroops began. Lieutenant Nick Mamer Control Experimental Project that deployed in 1936. He established a and Lieutenant R.T. Freng of began in the Washington Office correspondence with the Russians the Washington National Guard in 1935. Between 1936 and 1939, who had successfully delivered launched the first aerial fire patrol the program focused on deliver- “parachute firemen” onto Russian in Spokane, WA. The first air cargo drop to ground forces on a fire inci- dent took place in 1929.
While spotting fires and delivering cargo by air was widely accepted, parachuting firefighters to the ground still seemed well beyond the realm of rational thought in the early 20th century. Soon, how- ever, events served to push serious consideration to smokechasers jumping into wildfires in the road- less backcountry. A disastrous fire in 1937 involving Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) enrollees
Lincoln Bramwell spent 10 years as a wild- land firefighter with the Uinta, Pike, and Santa Fe National Forests. He was also a hotshot in the Intermountain Region. Lincoln Bramwell is now the historian for the Forest Service in Washington, DC. steppe fires. Realizing the potential, Fort Benning, GA. He later took The decade ended in tragedy when Godwin set his sights on developing command of the 101st Airborne 12 smokejumpers and a fire guard the means to send American fire- Division and trained all American were killed on the Mann Gulch fire fighters into fires by parachute. troops for the D-Day invasion of in Montana. The incident represents Normandy as Chief of the U.S. the largest loss of life in the pro- From his base of operation on Airborne Command. gram’s history and was later memo- the Chelan National Forest in rialized in Norman Maclean’s best- Washington State, Godwin awarded The smokejumper program grew selling book Young Men and Fire. the Eagle Parachute Company after the war as veterans return- a contract to supply the equip- ing home with airborne experi- The smokejumper program proved ment, riggers, consultants, and ence replaced most of the civilian resilient despite the tragedy. jumpers, and he oversaw the first public service smokejumpers. By During the next two decades, the experimental jumps in October 1945, the agency maintained bases number of bases expanded and the 1939. Performing test jumps in Missoula, MT, McCall, ID, Cave U.S. Department of the Interior, onto an airfield was dangerous in Junction, OR, and Winthrop, WA. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 1939; attempting the same thing The Forest Service was so confident began employing smokejumpers. in rough, mountain terrain was in the program’s ability it cre- The program added bases in West an even more difficult enterprise. ated an air control area known as Yellowstone, ID, Boise, ID, and Two jumpers and local firefighters, the Continental Unit that covered Redding, CA along with sub, or Francis Lufkin and Glenn Smith, 2 million acres in the northern “booster” bases in Grangeville, ID, and a professional jumper with Rockies, was patrolled exclusively Idaho City, ID, and Silver City, NM. Eagle Parachute Company, made by air, and conducted fire suppres- In 1959, BLM established a base at the first jump into rough country. sion. Fairbanks, AK, which served as the The experiments continued and proved successful enough that in 1940 the Forest Service established a permanent base in Winthrop, WA, Smokejumping in World War II and another in Missoula, MT. World War II’s draft of able- fires were jumped. In 1945, the bodied men depleted the human number of jumpers increased to A momentous year for the smoke- resources available for the 235 with 1,236 jumps completed jumper program is 1940. On July smokejumper program. Despite on 296 fires for an estimated sav- 12th, Rufus Robinson and Earl its successful birth in 1939, and ings of $350,000. Cooley made the first successful enthusiastic adoption by the “live fire” jump on the Nez Perce Forest Service, only five experi- Later in the war, with the threat National Forest. Three days later, enced jumpers reported for duty of Japanese incendiary bombs Chester Derry, a Missoula smoke- in 1942. To supplement their tied to high altitude balloons jumper, jumped to aid an airplane numbers, the Forest Service designed to ride the Jetstream to crash on the Bitterroot National turned to the Civilian Public the west coast, the CPS jumper Forest. These events exhibit the Service (CPS), made up primar- numbers were supplemented diverse skill set and adapted use ily of conscientious objectors, to by the paratroopers from the of smokejumpers in the field that keep the program operational. 555th Battalion (also known as became a hallmark of the program. Hundreds of CPS jumpers served the Triple Nickles), an African- during the war, and, to bolster American unit that completed The early success of the program their efforts, the agency built two several jumps. Their unit suffered drew the attention of the military. more permanent bases in McCall, the first smokejumper fatality in They sent four U.S. Army officers ID, and Cave Junction, OR in 1945, when Private First Class, to study the parachute training 1943. That year, the CPS jumped Malvin Brown, was killed while camp and techniques in Missoula. 47 fires with an estimated sav- trying to extricate himself from Leading the contingent was Major ings of $75,000 in fire costs. The a tree he landed in during a fire Cary Lee, who applied what his following year, more than 100 jump. team learned to the Army’s first paratrooper training facility at and direction of the descent. With forward air speed up to 25 miles per hour (40 kilometers per hour), smokejumpers using the ram-air design could deploy to fires with overhead wind speeds that were previously too dangerous to jump with round chutes.
Carrying on in the tradition of Chester Derry, who made the first rescue jump, today’s smokejump- ers strive to provide a diverse set of crew, single resource, and overhead capabilities to meet mul- tiple needs beyond initial attack. Smokejumpers are emblematic of Francis Lufkin, 1939. Lufkin was one of five Forest Service personnel to make jumps today’s diverse fire and aviation during the 1939 experimental program. He continued his career as a smokejumper and base manager at Winthrop, WA, until his retirement in 1972 after 33 years as a mission. Looking back at their his- smokejumper. tory reminds us of the program’s bravery and commitment to excel- core of the State’s fire operation. In its commitment to innovation— a lence inaugurated by that group of 1969, the jump base in Boise tran- constant refinement of equipment air pioneers 75 years ago. sitioned into the Boise Interagency and techniques that hearkens back Fire Center (now the National to the program’s earliest days. In For more on smokejumper history Interagency Fire Center); it serves 1985, BLM smokejumpers unveiled see: as a regional supply depot, airbase, one of the program’s most rec- and management coordination cen- ognizable advances. After 5 years Aviation and Fire Management. 1980. History of smokejumping. R1-80-22. ter. The number of smokejumpers of development, BLM jumpers in Missoula, MT: Northern Region, Forest nationally peaked at 446 in 1970. In Alaska overhauled the traditional Service. 1981, female smokejumpers broke round parachute in favor of a rect- Godwin, D.P. 1939. Smoke jumping. American Forests. 45: 590–592. into the ranks and earned their angular chute design popular with Mauck, R. 1985. BLM smokejumpers jump wings. sport parachutists. The rectangular develop new parachute. Fire Management design acts as a fabric wing that Notes: 46(2): 26–29. Pyne, S.J. 1997. Fire in America: A cultural One of the smokejumper pro- “rams” air into its nose, allowing history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle: gram’s defining characteristics is the operator to control the speed University of Washington Press. What does it take to beCome a smokejumper? Daniel Cottrell
hat does it take to become a branches of the firefighter com- minimum physical and educational smokejumper is a question munity. Most of the smokejump- requirements to become a smoke- Wthat smokejumpers across ers worked on hotshot, helitack, jumper: the country are regularly asked, but district, or forest crews before they the answer is not simple. Each year, became smokejumpers. Many of Smokejumper there are hundreds of applicants them served in the military before Employment seeking to become smokejumpers. joining the Forest Service or the Requirements and On the most basic level, applicants U.S. Department of the Interior, must meet the minimum qualifica- Bureau of Land Management Qualifications tions: 1 year of general work experi- (BLM). The physical training test is admin- ence and 1 year of specialized expe- istered on the first day of rookie rience in the field of wildland fire- training. The Office of Personnel fighting. They must also complete Management (OPM) Physical the 45-pound (20 kg) pack test and Smokejumpers come Fitness Standards for smokejump- a more rigorous physical fitness from all over the ers are as follows: test including pull-ups, push-ups, country and represent and a 1.5-mile (2.4-km) timed run a very diverse and well- • Run 1.5 miles (2.4 km) that smokejumpers either look in 11:00 minutes or less forward to or dread. Smokejumper educated workforce. • Complete 7 pull-ups positions are extremely competi- • Complete 25 push-ups tive, and successful applicants gen- • Pack 110 pounds (50 kg) on level erally have far more experience, Smokejumpers are highly moti- terrain, 3 miles (4.8 km) in 90 qualifications, and fitness levels vated and enjoy working outdoors. minutes or less They also share a strong work than the minimum requirements. There is a maximum of 5 minutes ethic, a high level of physical fit- As legend has it, one aspiring of rest between exercises. applicant even camped out for days ness, and a passion to protect and restore public lands. Once accepted, on the lawn of the Missoula, MT, In addition to the OPM Standards, smokejumper applicants must base until he was offered a rookie the BLM Smokejumpers have estab- complete a 5-week rookie training smokejumper slot. lished their own guidelines:* program, which takes place every spring. This program is both men- Smokejumpers come from all over • Run 1.5 miles (2.4 km) tally and physically challenging, the country and represent a diverse in 9:30 minutes or run 3 miles and it prepares rookie candidates and well-educated workforce. A (4.8 km) in 22:30 minutes or less for the rigors of firefighting. The recent headcount poll of all the • Complete 10 pull-ups program also demonstrates how to smokejumper bases indicates that • Perform 60 sit-ups safely exit an aircraft and parachute approximately 10 percent of cur- • Complete 35 pushups into steep and rugged terrain. rent smokejumpers are women. • Pack 110 pounds (50 kg) on level Smokejumpers have been teachers, terrain for 3 miles (4.8 km) in 90 Due to its many challenges, about lawyers, accountants, mountain minutes or less men, navy seals, and even a smoke- 30 percent of rookie candidates fail jumping grandmother. More com- to complete the program. If you are interested in being a smokejumper, * With regard to physical standards and qualifications mon work backgrounds include all for continued employment, guidelines do not hold the you should begin a comprehen- same legal status as standards. Rookie smokejumpers can only legally be held to the National Smokejumper Daniel Cottrell is the assistant projects sive physical training program Physical Fitness standards as adopted by OPM. That foreman with the Forest Service’s smoke- immediately. The following are the said, the BLM Smokejumpers were not arbitrary in jumper base in Missoula, MT. the establishment of their guidelines. Rookie candidates are expected to Did you know? – A 4-year course of study above have basic firefighting skills and high school leading to a bach- working knowledge of fireline tac- Becoming a smokejumper is elor’s degree with either: (1) a tics before they are hired. Previous a highly competitive process. major study in forestry, range parachute training is neither Each year, between 60 and management, or agriculture, required nor advantageous. If you 80 rookie smokejumpers are OR (2) a major in a subject- lack the required fire experience, hired nationally by the BLM matter field directly related to you may want to consider applying and Forest Service. The McCall the position; OR for a position on an interagency Smokejumper Base alone – At least 24 semester hours hotshot crew, fuels crew, district receives almost 200 applica- in any combination of the helicopter, or engine crew. These tions a year for 8 to 10 spots. following courses: forestry, crews receive valuable experi- agriculture, crop or plant ence in fire suppression work, and science, range management, there are numerous crews located • Hearing: Must not have acute or watershed management, soil throughout the United States with chronic disease of the external, science, natural resources the majority being in the West. For middle, or inner ear. Using an (except marine biology and specific information, contact your audiometer for measurement, oceanography), outdoor rec- local Job Service, BLM, or Forest there should be no loss of 25 or reation management, civil or Service office. You can also browse more decibels in each ear at the forest engineering, or wildland for seasonal jobs online at:
2016 Events
SMOKEJUMPER EVENTS Contact: Chuck Sheley (cnkgsheley@ International Conference on Forest earthlink.net) | http://smokejumpers. Fires and Wildland-Urban Interface Bob Kersh Smokejumper Loft com/index.php/events/getall Fires | Aix-en-Provence, France | May Dedication | Redding, CA | January 25–27, 2016 | http://forestfire.irstea.fr/ 14, 2016 @ 11:00 a.m. PST | Contact: Scott Warner at 530- GENERAL FIRE MANAGEMENT Beyond Hazardous Fuels: Managing 515-1702 ([email protected]) | http:// CONFERENCES Fire for Social, Economic, and smokejumpers.com/index.php/events/ Wildland-Urban Interface Conference Ecological Benefits | Loews Ventana getall 2016 | Peppermill Resort, Reno, NV Canyon Resort, Tucson, AZ | November 28–December 2, 2016 | Organized Boise Smokejumper 30-Year | March 8–10, 2016 | http://www. by AFE and Southwest Fire Science Reunion | Boise, ID |May 27–29, 2016 iafc.org/micrositeWUI/homeWUI. cfm? Consortium | http://swfireconsortium. | Contact: Todd Jinkins (tjinkins@ ItemNumber=7987 org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ yahoo.com) | http://smokejumpers. 5th International Fire Behavior Save_the_date_flyer.pdf com/index.php/events/getall and Fuels Conference |Portland, 7th International Fire Ecology and Cave Junction Reunion | Cave OR, an Melbourne, Australia | Management Congress | Orlando, FL | Junction, OR | Jun 24–26, 2016 | April 11–15, 2016 | http://www. firebehaviorandfuelsconference.com/ November 2017 | http://fireecology. org/upcoming-conferences First jump Kyle Goldammer
irst load to the box.” Calmly, but with urgency, these words “Frolled through the intercom while I was in the loft working on a project for the afternoon. As the alarm sounded through the build- ing, I knew that meant we had a fire call, and without hesitation, I dropped everything and sprinted to the suit-up racks. I had my gear meticulously hung on the rack and began to suit up as fast as I could, knowing I had 2 minutes to be on the jump ship, ready to roll. With my heart pounding, I hurried and grabbed everything I could think of needing; it was possible that I could be gone for a couple weeks. On my Photo provided by Kyle Goldammer. way out the door, a couple of my open, guard your reserve!” the spot- rookie brothers were there to send ter yelled as I covered my reserve me off with a high-five and a “have I had never been to handle with my right hand. The a good jump!” cool air barreled in, and the beads Alaska, and there I of sweat streaming down my fore- Walking out on the tarmac, my was gazing down at head evaporated. I was second in personal gear (PG) bag in one hand fire #230; the terrain the door and had a front-row view and helmet and gloves in the other, looked like a different of the fire making runs and ripping the smell of fuel and the wind from across the tundra and spruce. I had the engines rushed over me and got world to me. never been to Alaska, and there I stronger as I made my way towards was gazing down at fire #230; the Jump 17. I climbed into the back terrain looked like a different world of the aircraft, what we call the to a fire near the Arctic Circle and to me. “CASA,” got to my seat, and buck- had a little flight time before we led myself and my gear in. We tax- reached our destination. Soon after, We circled a couple times, gather- ied out to the runway, and less than everybody sunk into their respec- ing intelligence on the fire and 6 minutes from when the siren tive area and tried to get a little bit trying to find the best possible started wailing, we were in the air of rest before the long shift ahead jump spot. We decided that we and on our way to a fire. of us. Riddled with excitement and would jump at the heel of the fire adrenaline, I shut my eyes, but and got into place so the spot- A few minutes into the flight, I was knew I was not going to get any ter could throw the streamers. I handed a map and other fire infor- sleep. watched them sail into the distance mation, which I then passed down and then, not long after, hit the to the jumper-in-charge. We all We got the 5-minute call, and ground. We flew around one more knew by then that we were headed everybody started on their pin time to throw the check set, and I and secondary equipment check. once again watched the streamers Kyle Goldammer is a smokejumper with Peering out of the CASA, I stared fall into the jump spot. The spot- the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau out as the column of the fire filled of Land Management in Alaska. His first ter called out “1,000 yards (914 m) jump was on May 31, 2014. in the small window. “Door coming on the streamers” as we climbed When the time came to pull my down into the tundra right next to drogue release handle, my canopy my JP. snapped open and just like that, the air felt calm. I found my JP just “I’m okay!” I yelled to him, ecstatic before he cranked out some bomb with the way the jump went. Full turns and slid into the pattern we of energy, I hurried to pack up my had talked about while circling gear so I could run and fetch cargo the fire. With a heightened sense as fast as I could to prove to the of awareness and with the rigor- other jumpers that this is where ous rookie training behind me, I I wanted to be. As I was packing Photo provided by Kyle Goldammer. felt confident. Regardless of all the up, my JP threw me a T-shirt that adrenaline and nerves, it all came said “AK SMJ est. 1959” and yelled to jump altitude. I immediately to me as second nature. I flew my “Congratulations!” I thought about started thinking about all the ways pattern, crabbing and making the the few guys who have been in this that I needed to fly my parachute in right adjustments to get where I position and felt grateful to be in high wind conditions to get to the wanted to go while maintaining the middle of Alaska working on a ground safely. enough space with my JP. I watched fire. It was official, I was an Alaska him land right in the spot as I slid smokejumper. We gathered up and “Ready and tight?” my jump part- my canopy into final. Turning into worked up the flanks of the fire. I ner (JP) asked. “Ready,” I yelled. the wind, the cells of the canopy had an uncontrollable grin from I had been ready for a lot longer started fluttering as I slowly drifted ear to ear all night as we worked than I needed to be, but I wanted into the midnight sun. to make sure that I was not going to fall behind the curve. We got into place, hooked our static lines Terms: up, and got our spotter briefing. Standing next to the door with Jump 17: The call sign for one of Final: The last portion of the nothing but open air and 3,000 feet the four jump ships assigned to parachute flight. Typically, this (914 m) to the ground in front of Alaska operations. portion begins at an elevation me, this was it. An overwhelming of 200 feet (61 m) above ground shot of adrenaline surged through Throw the check set: A second level and ends with the landing. my body as we turned and my JP set of streamers that the spot- moved into place in the door. I did ter throws to confirm the wind Streamers: The colored and my four-point check and was dialed drift shown on the initial set of weighted crepe paper that is in on my next move of getting streamers and to confirm that dropped by the smokejumper myself into the door. “Get ready!” the spotter has the correct exit spotter to determine wind veloc- the spotter yelled raising his arm point for round canopies. ity and any vertical component and slapping down on my JP’s to the air mass. Crepe paper is shoulder, his cue to hurl himself Jump count: A verbal count that approximately 8 inches (20 cm) into the open air. I waited for the the jumper performs to ensure wide, 20 feet (6 m) long. Blue, static line to clear and got down the main canopy is deployed at red, and yellow are the most into position. As the wind screamed the correct time. “Jump thou- commonly used colors. The by, cruising at around 100 knots sand. Look thousand, Reach paper is weighted by sand to (185 kph), I held my body tight thousand, Wait thousand, Pull duplicate the vertical descent rate against the plane. I felt the slap on thousand.” of an average size smokejumper my shoulder and, without any hesi- on a round canopy. tation, I launched myself out of the Bomb turns: A parachute turn door as hard as I could. As I plum- type executed by pulling a front CASA: Construcciones meted to the earth, I started my riser down that results in a high Aeronauticas SA. Refers to the jump count and I could see Jump vertical descent rate useful for manufacturer of the primary 17 speeding away from me. gaining vertical separation from jump ship type used in Alaska, a jump partner or partners. CASA 212. Smokejumper innovation used in Clandestine operation* Chuck Sheley
uring a 7-day span in May 1962, the U.S. intelligence Dcommunity had an extraordi- nary opportunity to collect intel- ligence from an abandoned Soviet research station in the Arctic. The effort, “Operation Coldfeet,” used an equipped B-17 to pick up two intelligence officers who parachut- ed to the ice several days earlier. The crew, including former smoke- jumper Toby Scott (McCall-57) and six other former smokejumpers, collected valuable information, including Soviet research on acous- tical systems to detect under-ice U.S. submarines. Three of the original crew from “Operation Coldfeet” pose for a photo at the 75th Anniversary of Smokejumping Reunion in Missoula, MT, in July 2015. Pictured left to right: Toby Scott, Bob Nicol, and Len Leschak. Photo provided by Chuck Sheley. In May 1961, the U.S. Navy report- ed that the Soviets had abandoned and caught by “horns” protrud- may not be anyone who can give one of their “ice stations” when ing from the nose of the pickup a firsthand account of this bit of it was assumed that it would be aircraft flying at low level. The history. In January 2010, I asked crushed by a pressure ridge and pickup was then winched into the former smokejumper Toby Scott to sink into the Arctic Ocean. The flying aircraft; a difficult, danger- write down his recollections of this abandoned Soviet station was too ous, and skillful operation. After operation. The following is Scott’s far into the ice pack to be reached many attempts in 1958, the system account of Operation Coldfeet, and by an icebreaker or helicopter. took its final shape and was called the development and use of the Skyhook. Skyhook system: Robert Fulton, a talented inventor, had developed a pickup system to The plan was to parachute two “When I first started working retrieve objects from the ground military jumpers from a modified with the Fulton Skyhook system with an airplane. The system B-17, collect data and equipment in February 1962, we were using involved a nylon line attached from the Soviet ice station, and the B-17G and retrieving dum- to the pickup aircraft that was then extract the equipment and mies through the ‘Joe Hole’ in raised by a helium-filled balloon men using the Skyhook system. the belly. After nearly crashing, The plan was turned over to Gar when the dummy started making Thorsrud (Missoula-46), President wild erratic circles and wrapping Chuck Sheley is the editor of of Intermountain Aviation in around the tail, we started bring- “Smokejumper” magazine. He was a Marana, AZ. ing the dummy in through the tail. smokejumper for 13 seasons and spent a total of 32 years fighting wildland This worked out well and proved fires with the Forest Service and the U.S There were several smokejumpers successful. By April 1962, we had Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land from Missoula, MT, and McCall, the system working well and would Management. ID, involved in Operation Coldfeet. consistently have the pickup on
* A portion of this article appeared in the January 2010 Those who were involved are board about 6 minutes after con- issue of Smokejumper magazine. aging; in a few more years there tact. The system was initially used Due to the classified nature of the mission, few, if any, photos exist of the nonmilitary B-17s used in “Operation Coldfeet.” While the two figures above depict Naval test aircraft, and not the B-17s to which the CIA would have had access, they illustrate how the Fulton Skyhook mechanism would have been operated. Photo provided by Chuck Sheley. to pick up a captured American close to the North Pole, a compass dummies off the ground a couple B-26 pilot in Indonesia. Sometime is not reliable. There was a peri- of times. Needless to say, there in May 1962, Attorney General scope in the nose roof through was great concern for the safety of Robert Kennedy negotiated the which he could observe the sun to Smith and Leschack. The weather release of the pilot. We were then navigate. Leschack was a young was going to get worse, so we stuck with a clandestine retrieval man, about 23, who had just decided to go ahead with the opera- system and nothing to do with it completed a hasty jump training tion. until Operation Coldfeet. course, and Smitty (Smith) was a seasoned airborne veteran about 35 Fortunately, we had two capable The United States and Soviet Union years old. They were well qualified and experienced pilots—Captain had maintained research and lis- for this project as they were both Connie ‘Seig’ Seigrist, who flew tening stations on the polar ice cap fluent in Russian. for General Chenault, and Captain for years. Large cracks had started Doug Price, who flew a C-119 forming in the ice pack near the We flew from Seattle, WA, to Point (‘Dollar Nineteen’) at Dien Bien Soviet runway in March 1962. They Barrow, AK, where we landed on a Phu. We retrieved the 150 pound packed up and made a hasty depar- 5,000-foot (1,524-m) runway and (68 kg) intelligence bundle first ture. They thought no one could stayed at the U.S. Naval Research and then picked up the two men retrieve intelligence from the site Station. We wound up making with no problems. Needless to say, in such a short timeframe because five trips out of Point Barrow that this entire operation was at the the runway would soon be unus- lasted about 12 to 14 hours each. time highly classified.” able. The first time out, we could not find the Soviet ice station, but with Besides Toby Scott and Gar The U.S. Navy and the Central the help of a Navy P-2V, we located Thorsrud, other former smoke- Intelligence Agency (CIA) decided it the second time out and dropped jumpers involved in the project this would be an excellent oppor- Smitty and Leschack and all their were Jack Wall (Missoula-48), Miles tunity for the Fulton Skyhook supplies. Johnson (McCall-53), Jerry Daniels system. We packed up all our gear (Missoula-58), and Bob Nicol in the B-17 and a C-46 and headed Back then, we did not have all the (Missoula-52). north. navigating tools that are available now, so when it came time to pick Years later, the CIA commissioned We stopped in Seattle, WA, and them up, it took three trips before artist Keith Woodcock to do a series picked up Air Force Major Jim we located them and the conditions of paintings that would be perma- Smith, Lieutenant Leonard were far from perfect. There was nently displayed in the lobby of CIA Leschack (USNR), and Pan- about a 30-mph (48 kph) ground headquarters at Langley, VA. One of American Airlines navigator Bill wind and an 800-foot (244 m) ceil- these paintings portrays the B-17 Jordan. Jordan rode in the nose ing. In the development stage of pickup during Operation Coldfeet; with me, and he knew how to navi- the Skyhook system when there it is still on display in Langley. gate using sun lines. When you are were high winds, we bounced the Delivering supplies from the skies Christine Schuldheisz
mokejumping can be a danger- ous and arduous job for the Shundreds of Forest Service and U.S. Department of the Interior smokejumpers who make it their career. Their job can be even more challenging without the proper nourishment, equipment, and sup- plies. Para-cargo drops provide both aid and relief. Para-cargo is a cost-effective and expedient way of delivering large and small payloads to personnel in the field. Para- cargo is an essential part of provid- ing logistical needs to the boots on the ground.
“If it can fit into the plane, we can para-cargo it out,” said Jarrod Readying a saw for para cargo: (1) Put saw in box (dawgs down); (2) Fit in a Sigg bottle of Sayer, air operations foreman for oil (bubble wrapped), tool kit, bar with chain, and cover. the McCall Smokejumper base in Idaho. “We are capable of provid- ing food, water, pumps, saws, medi- In 2013, the McCall para-cargo program cal gear, fuel, and most items from dropped more than 900 bundles of the warehouse cache.” standard and special para-cargo totaling In addition to the long list of para- 53,000 pounds (2,404 kg) to support fire cargo supplies, there is an option personnel on the ground on fire incidents. to drop fresh food to ground per- sonnel. Hand and helitack crews have been receiving fresh food; Safety is a top priority for smoke- fresh food is also becoming popular jumpers, and that extends over to with smokejumpers. The McCall the para-cargo program. In the para-cargo program has a standard last 20 years, there has not been an menu that provides 3 days of fresh incident where an aviation accident food to smokejumpers. “There are occurred during para-cargo opera- pros and cons to any type of nour- tions. “Para-cargo provides a safer ishment provided on the fire line alternative to helicopters and/or such as hot buckets, meals ready to vehicle support and the word is get- eat (MREs), and sack lunches,” says ting out that it’s a viable option,” Sayer. “But the cost, nutritional said Sayer. value, variety, and crew morale supersedes the time to prepare the fresh food meals.” Early Years In the early 1940s, transporting Christine Schuldheisz is a public affairs spe- supplies to smokejumpers was a cialist with the Forest Service at the National bit more difficult due to the lack of Packaged big wheel. Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID. 1 2 3
technology. Communication from the ground to the aircraft was all done with two pieces of “stream- ers,” known in the Forest Service as the “Visual Signal Code.” If a resupply was needed, a plane would have to fly to the incident, look at the two pieces of streamers that were placed on the ground, and decipher what was being requested. For example, the letter “U” would signify more drinking water, and the letter “F” meant food. They would then come back to the smokejumper base and load up whatever equipment the jump- ers needed. This was the primary process for resupply via para-cargo until the advent of the two-way radio.
Current Program In 2013, the McCall para-cargo program dropped more than 900 bundles of standard and special para-cargo totaling 53,000 pounds (2,404 kg) to support fire person- nel on the ground on fire incidents. There were a total of 24 para-cargo missions on 12 separate fires; 14 of them were fresh-food missions.
In closing, the para-cargo program 4 is a proven cost-efficient, timely, and safe way to provide meals and Clockwise from top left: (1) and (2) double action packer; (3) finished saw box; and supplies to firefighters in the field. (4) burn kit. Whatever firefighters need on the ground to do their job, they will receive it by air through the para- cargo program. MeChaniCal trail paCker hits the silk* A.B. Everts
n the July 1955 issue of Fire Control Notes, District Ranger IParks of the Payette National Forest reported on a “mechani- cal mule.” In a footnote the editor remarked, “At least five other mod- els of this versatile machine are being designed, tested, or produced by private and government agen- cies.” This article reports on one of the commercial models and some of the modifications that have been made to it (figure 1).
There are at least thirty of these machines in use in the region, most of them by trail crews. They are so common that they are no longer a topic of conversation; it is quite probable that we have not heard some of the interesting sto- ries regarding their use. Packing mer, and accessories, weighs 655 piles in connection with a clear-cut lookouts in and out of their sta- pounds (302 kg), including the slash-disposal experiment. It was tions is commonplace. Considerable weight of the packer. also a Mt. Hood two-person trail ingenuity has been exercised by crew that made a 70-mile (113 km), various individuals for improving The Mt. Hood National Forest has 10-day, trail-opening expedition in the units for trail use. Stands of used the packer for transporting which all their tools and supplies various kinds have been devised rolls of paper for covering brush were transported on a packer. to hold the loaded packer upright while loading and unloading and during trail stops.
The Wenatchee National Forest has one equipped with a winch which is used to pull out small stumps on a trail construction job. This forest has also recently completed a proj- ect in which it modified a packer into a mobile trail-compressor unit. The unit, complete with compres- sor, drill steel and bits, jackham-
A.B. Everts was an equipment engineer, Figure 1.–This model of the packer weighs 175 pounds and is powered with a 2 1/2-hp, Division of Fire Control, Pacific Northwest 4-cycle motor. Gasoline consumption is 16 miles to the gallon; two speeds, 5 m.p.h., and Region, Forest Service. 2.5 m.p.h.
* This article originally appeared in 1956 Fire Control Notes Volume 17, No. 3, 10-13. The Wallowa-Whitman National grader” that gets excellent results many types of fuel, the grader will Forest has a trail kitchen packer, on trail construction jobs. This unit do the work of 6 to 10 people with complete with plywood built-ins, has considerable promise as a fire- hand tools. which brings a touch of conve- line digger and, while the manu- nience, if not luxury, to an isolated facturer does have some figures on Francis Lufkin, aerial project camp (figure 2). rates of fireline construction, it is foreman of the North Cascade not yet ready to release the unit Smokejumper Unit, has brought The manufacturer of the packer has without more field experience. The up the idea of using the packer to a companion unit called the “trail manufacturer does believe that in retrieve smokejumper equipment. Lufkin has demonstrated that his idea is sound. A smokejumper’s “come-out” equipment, including his fire tools, which are dropped to him, weighs about 105 pounds (48 kg). This is a sizeable load, even for the young huskies who hit the silk on these back-country fires.
In times past, it was procedure for smokejumpers to backpack their equipment out to the nearest trail, where it would be picked up by a packstring. This still occurs, but in this changing world, packstrings certainly are not increasing in number. Packing is beginning to be spoken of as a lost art. There are still plenty of mules; however, the Figure 2.–The Wallowa-Whitman Forests trail unit with built-in plywood box. Complete unit includes the following equipment: Two axes, one haze hoe, one crosscut saw, one same cannot be said of packers. The pruning saw, two canteens, three sleeping bags, three knapsacks (personal), a three- result is that smokejumpers back- person mess kit, one gasoline lantern, one gasoline two-burner stove, one tarp, groceries pack their equipment all the way for three people for 1 week. Approximate load is 300 pounds. out on many fires.
Lufkin wants to change this, at least on the long packs, and it looks as though he is going to do it. He made some changes to the packer. He changed the clutch arrange- ment to contain its own tighteners for easier control. He also added side stands to hold the machine upright while motionless. Finally, he added a crazy wheel in the rear to eliminate the need for fore and aft balancing. Then Lufkin devised a way to break the machine down into two parts; with the accessories, it was too heavy and too awkward to get it out of the aircraft door eas- Figure 3.–Packer, in two sections, packaged for dropping. Note the padding under the ily (figure 3). engine on the left-hand section, designed to lessen the landing impact. There was one more important step, training. After successfully completing test drops, a few smoke- jumpers were trained to assemble the unit, how to start the engine, how to use the clutch, how to tighten the belt, etc. They had confidence in the machine before it ever came drifting down to them “out of the blue,” as it did shortly afterward on the Hungry Ridge fires. There were two fires, both Figure 4--Smokejumpersstarted by lightening, a little over a coming from quarterthe Hungry of a mile apart. Four jump- Ridge fire overers old went sheep down, two to a fire. They got to their fires and mopped them driveway. up. Then they loaded their equip- ment on the packer, 410 pounds (186 kg), and headed out (figure 4).
The packer has its limitations, but Figure 4.–Smokejumpers coming from the Hungry Ridge fire over old sheep driveway. its area of operation is increas- ing. The Pacific Northwest Region There is no doubt about it; the people who are pioneering their is beginning to talk about better mechanical trail packer is here use, “Sure, there’s work connected trail maintenance and a different to stay. It is not at all improbable with them. So what! You don’t have kind of water bar. Fording streams that within 5 years, one or two of to round ‘em up when you crawl is a problem. Wenatchee National these units will be standard equip- out of the sack in the morning. And Forest personnel say that, in many ment at many ranger districts; at you don’t have to feed ‘em all win- crossings, they can solve this by least on those districts that have ter long like you do the long-eared stretching a small cable across the an extensive trail system. You will hay burners.” stream. They simply hook the pack- hear repeatedly as you talk to the er to the cable and skyline it across, load and all.
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Fire Management Today 24681012141618 Then and noW: refleCtions of a retired smokejumper Jeff Davis
y career with the Forest Service spanned 28 years, The mission was the same back then as it Mfrom 1957 through 1984. I is today. The methods, tools, and rules for remained an active smokejumper for 22 of those years, until I hurt accomplishing that mission, however, were my back on a jump in Montana in different back then than those of today. 1978. I started with the smoke- jumpers in Missoula, MT, in June 1957. I worked out of the largest affects parachutes and aircraft alike; Physical Training training base for smokejumpers the thinner the air, the harder the Tough physical fitness standards in the country: the Aerial Fire descent. Depot (AFD). Getting a position were in place then as they are now. We ran 0.5 miles (805 m) for on the “spike crew” going to the I made the 1958 Gila National time, but we did not run in sweats Gila National Forest near Silver Forest crew, and, by hook or crook, or running shoes. We ran it right City, NM, was considered a “plum.” I also made the next three con- down the asphalt ramp in work (A “spike crew” is our term for a secutive seasons in New Mexico. clothes and White’s, Western-style smokejumper base that did not I missed the 1961 season because logger boots that weigh 6 pounds offer year-round training and was I was the new squad leader in (3 kg) each. only activated during the fire sea- Montana for a tough fire sea- son.) Because of the large number son there. I returned to the Gila We were familiar with the obstacle of fires on the Gila National Forest, National Forest and jumped from course, too, but we ran it for endur- smokejumpers from all the bases 1962 to 1966. While I was there, I ance not for time. The first time I vied for positions on this 20-person made well over 50 jumps and also went to the course, I saw a squad crew. had a few on the Cibola National leader positioned at each sawdust Forest and Apache National pit and I wondered why. After three I put in a heavy pitch for the Forest. We mainly covered the times around the course, I found “plum” as often as I could, begin- Gila National Forest, and we were out why: they used their boots to ning in my second season in 1958 usually only requested for fires in kick us to our feet as we collapsed when I first qualified for the posi- the wilderness area of the forest. into the pits from sheer exhaustion. tion. The AFD did not accept first- Firefighters dispatched in vehicles, year rookie smokejumpers for the on foot, or on horseback could Gila National Forest because of access the roads and the less ardu- Pay the intensity of the action and the ous areas, which cost less than My beginning wage as a smoke- tough jumping conditions. The smokejumpers. Helitack was basi- jumper was less than $5 an hour. rocky, steep terrain, the unpre- cally unknown in those days, so we As a foreman, I never made more dictable winds, and high-density covered a lot of the backcountry than $9 an hour. It was all straight altitude makes for dangerous that is now mostly covered by heli- time, but no time and a half and parachute jumping in nearly all copters. no hazard pay. We called it straight situations. High-density altitude is time, overtime. the result of a combination of high The mission was the same back elevation and hot temperatures. then as it is today. The methods, Clothing This leads to thin air. Thin air tools, and rules for accomplishing Nomex was unknown then, so we that mission, however, were differ- Jeff Davis was a smokejumper from 1957 to fought fire in 14-ounce (397 g) ent back then than those of today. 1978. He was also an equipment specialist cotton denim Levi’s or “Can’t Bust until 1984 with the Forest Service. ‘em” Frisco jeans. In my opinion, kg) bags carried by some nowadays. 17-ounce (482 g) canvas duck with 14-ounce (397 g) cotton beats I carried a pair of socks, my “tin 0.25-inch (6 mm) felt padding. My 7-ounce (198 g) Nomex every time coat,” and a carton of Lucky Strike first helmet was leather, sporting for protection against heat and fire cigarettes in mine. the familiar wire mesh mask. Our ash. It proved to work well dur- jump boots were one of two mod- ing direct attacks, right up against The cost of our gear then was com- els, no exceptions; the same log- the flaming front of those fires. mensurate with the times, when ger boots used today and a similar Hardhats were unknown; therefore, cigarettes cost 25 cents a pack and boot made by Buffalo. The “Buffs” we wore the logger’s “crusher” felt gas was 25 cents a gallon. My first went extinct after a couple of sea- hats or no hats at all. pair of boots cost $29.95. I thought sons, and we jumped only in logger that was pretty steep, but now they boots. Support Equipment run about $450. When I started as a smokejumper, Aircraft we did not have radios. Ground- Initial Attack My first jump was out of a Ford to-air communication was accom- In those days, we hit the running tri-motor. The second person out plished by laying out the orange front of those fires directly, not as of the Ford was a difficult feat crepe paper signal streamers they do today where they attack indeed. I usually managed just to we carried in our rope pockets, the flanks and gradually work get myself out the door, ignoring a “double L,” signaling that all towards the head and pinch it off. exit position, and worrying about smokejumpers were down and Two-person fires were common. A that on the way down when it was okay. The first radio I used was in 16-person or 32-person fire was the too late. 1958, in New Mexico on the Gila biggest we ever had; most of them National Forest. It was a huge occurred on the Salmon River. I We also flew in a small fabric and Motorola, about 12 inches (30 cm) will never forget the dreaded call, wood job called a Curtis Wright long, weighing several pounds. We “Sixteen men to the Salmon.” It Travelaire for two-person fires. jumped with them slung under ran chills down my spine. our reserves. Chainsaws were also Our prime carrier, as it was with unknown; we were all familiar Smokejumper Gear the airborne, was the DC-3 or C-47. with the two-person crosscut saws, A dependable workhorse until it Our first parachutes were FS-2 can- which we called “misery-whips.” wore out from lack of replacement opy-first deployed “candy-striped” parts. We also had a DC-2, the only 28 footers (9 m). We called them We had fire shelters, but we were one I have ever seen. The days of “flat wraps,” and they opened with not required to wear them on the the Twin Otter were still far in the a bang. Many times, we jumped line. We left them with our person- future for me, as were the more in a haze of stars streaking across al gear, ready to use if we needed sophisticated retardant ships. We our vision. Our harness was the old them. relied on the one tanker available at cotton “H-1,” where the four con- the time, the torpedo bomber medi- necting straps joined in a single- We carried our 120-pound (54 kg) um. It carried a load of 500 gallons point box release at the center of loads out on small wooden frames (1,893 L), which at that time was our bodies. A pull of the cotter pin called “clack frames.” They often borate, a caustic chemical that ster- safety and a quarter turn counter- broke during the drop, and we ilized soil when it was dropped. clockwise released all four straps at patched them together with fiber- once. I recall one time, upon land- glass tape or whatever else we had As I look back on those 22 years ing, I gave my release box a crank on hand. Pack-outs were common. of smokejumping, it was the and found that I had locked it The only choppers we had then finest experience of my life. instead of releasing it. It was open were G3-B Bells, and there were Smokejumpers watch out for each all the way down. If I had touched precious few of them. I remember other, we rescue and protect the that thing in midair I would have my longest pack-out being about 23 injured ones, and we hold the ones found myself in freefall. miles (37 km), but 5 miles (8 km) that die in our arms. We are broth- or so was the norm. Our personal ers, and we do not leave anyone The jumpsuits were more or less gear bags were small and light in behind. Those were the best years, the same design then as they comparison with the 40-pound (18 the best of times. are today, but the material was
20 Traditions live on in the national teChnologY and development program Mark Vosburgh
n the late 1940s, a small group started development activities for “The smokejumper program has always been very Ismokejumper and cargo dropping innovative, and this really is because the seven in the Northern Region, headquar- tered in Missoula, MT. Under this Forest Service smokejumper bases are involved program, regular aircraft patrols with the development work.” were used to detect fire, and meth- ods were developed to parachute firefighters and supplies to remote takes to get the smokejumper from explained: “One of the things that fires. In 1953, largely because the airplane to the ground, includ- makes the smokejumper program of the Northern Region’s success ing the airplane itself. If there is successful is that any smokejumper in the use of aircraft for fighting anything on that aircraft that is can show up at any of the seven forest fires, the Missoula Aerial unique to the smokejumper mis- Forest Service and two BLM jump- Equipment Development Center sion, then MTDC oversees the stan- bases and the equipment and pro- (currently Missoula Technology dardization and, in some instances, cedures are the same. When you Development Center or MTDC) was the fabrication and maintenance of get on that airplane, it is config- established. that piece of equipment.” ured the same, and the spotter will put you out the door of that aircraft These humble beginnings were the Despite current differences in para- consistently and safely.” predecessor of the current National chute systems between the Forest Technology and Development Service and the U.S. Department “The smokejumper program has Program (T&D), which applies always been very innovative, and technology and equipment to save this really is because the seven lives and money across all areas of Forest Service smokejumper bases the Forest Service. T&D centers Grob’s technology allows are involved with the development are located in San Dimas, CA, and us to really see what is work,” Kovalicky said. “If you do Missoula, MT. going on. Sometimes not get the ideas right from the ground up, the chances of success John Kovalicky, now a smoke- we see things that have are really reduced,” he added. jumper equipment specialist, been going on for a started as a Missoula smokejumper long time, and it is not Kovalicky works closely with the in 1988, progressing to the posi- what we thought was Forest Service Smokejumper Base tions of training and loft fore- Manager’s Council, providing rec- man. Following in the tradition happening. ommendations derived from devel- of those innovative smokejumpers opment work on equipment and who started the program, Kovalicky how it is implemented, utilized, and joined MTDC as an equipment of the Interior, Bureau of Land maintained. The council has the specialist in 2007. According to Management (BLM), standardiza- final say as to whether an individual Kovalicky, his job “is to maintain tion of equipment and procedures piece of equipment is implemented. standardization and to continue allows jumpers from these agencies development work on everything it and, sometimes, Canadian smoke- An example of Kovalicky’s work is jumpers to perform side by side a cargo delivery project to reduce as an aerial-delivered firefighting Mark Vosburgh is the fire and aviation the exposure of pilots, jumpers, program leader for the Forest Service’s resources. Describing the impor- Missoula Technology and Development and spotters to the risk of low-level Center. tance of standardization, Kovalicky mountain flight. Currently, for a cargo orientation, aircraft speed, Another project headed by typical load of 10 jumpers, it can etc.) involved. As often happens in Kovalicky was the development of take up to 7 passes to deliver the technology development work, the a flight data recorder for smoke- tools and supplies that are critical original concept was discarded, les- jumpers. Working with engineers to the smokejumper mission. Cargo sons learned were carried forward, and developers in the private sector, runs are conducted at 150 feet and a new solution was developed. Kovalicky envisioned a “pie in the to 200 feet (46 m to 61 m) above sky” device that he could “strap on ground level (figure 1). The second phase of the proj- a jumper” and retrieve hard data on ect is to develop and standardize parachute performance. This data Describing the first attempt to the equipment needed to “stack” could be used to remove subjectiv- solve the problem, Kovalicky said: cargo by strapping it together, ity and variability in feedback from “We saw there was an opportunity doubling the amount per pass and individual jumpers. to drop (cargo) from higher alti- reducing flight exposure by 50 tudes to give pilots more decision percent. Meanwhile, the reusable The device, according to Kovalicky, space if something went wrong.” timed-release device originally “allows us to know with precision Cargo was dropped with the para- tested has found use in deploying the current parachute performance chutes reefed (not fully deployed) parachutes during torso dummy capabilities we have” and compare until a height of 150 feet (46-m) test drops. Previously, pyrotechnic it to other parachutes of inter- above ground level, where a timer- cutters costing $50 per drop were est. A micro SD card in the device activated release system allowed the used for this purpose. The timed- records numerous variables includ- cargo chute to deploy. Kovalicky release device, with further devel- ing, altitude, rate of descent, rate described the system as “simple in opment, has potential for use as a of turn, and air speed. An internal concept, but difficult in practical- backup parachute actuation device gyro captures body position, and an ity” due to the large number of for jumpers experiencing their first accelerometer measures parachute variables (wind speed, cargo shape, training jumps. opening and landing shock. Data from the device has proved valuable in understanding how parachute modifications affect parachute performance. The data also allows jumpers to examine their jumps to see exactly how critical parameters such as altitude loss and separa- tion distance (between jumpers) are affected by various maneuvers.
High-speed photography has been utilized in the T&D program for many years. In describing how rapidly developing technology of high-speed photography has revo- lutionized the assessment of para- chute performance, Kovalicky said: “When I came to T&D 8 years ago, I thought the photography that Ian Grob (MTDC photographer) provided was really cool, but now he can shoot clearer, crisper foot- age from farther away (more than 1 mile [1.6km]) and process it much Figure 1.–Still images captured from over a mile away with a high-speed video recorder, more quickly.” visually documenting an experiment to double the size of jumper cargo drops (tools and supplies) in an effort to find better ways to safely deliver cargo and reduce the number of low-level aircraft passes required to supply smokejumpers on the ground.
22 Figure 2.–Technology using high-speed imagery capture employed in analyzing practice jumps.
Explaining how high-speed imagery Videos are shared with smoke- quickly abandoning the original benefits smokejumper and T&D jumper trainers to show the effect modifications and moving on to programs, Kovalicky said: “In a nor- of body position on the deployment more promising options. mal jump, the trainer can see the of the canopy. The impacts of para- effects of (jumper) body position chute modifications can be care- The innovations of early smoke- on the deployment of the canopy, fully analyzed. Kovalicky described jumpers continue today through either good or bad.” He continued, analyzing videos from a series of the collaborative efforts of the “From a T&D perspective, any time dummy test drops where he could national smokejumper program we make a modification, Grob’s clearly see details that he said “hap- and the Forest Service’s T&D pro- technology allows us to really see pened in the blink of an eye and gram at the MTDC. what is going on. Sometimes we were not even noticeable from the see things that have been going on ground.” These details revealed a For more information, visit for a long time, and it is not what serious problem with a test modi-
t was August 30, 1987; the sum- mer was drawing to a close. After Forests were being viewed as potential I3 years of drought and a hot sum- carbon sinks that would partially offset the mer, fuel conditions in northern California and southern Oregon need to curb fossil fuel emissions. were primed for fires. That eve- ning, dry thunderstorms pounded that region with more than 1,600 Even though my firefighting work (U.C.), Berkeley, I received a letter lightning strikes. I was among the for the Forest Service ended in that dramatically altered the course smokejumpers who were dropped 1990, I have drawn on my Forest of my summer and my subsequent in southwestern Oregon on a fire Service experience frequently. I career. It was from the Umatilla that had explosive potential. Two have addressed the extensive and National Forest in Oregon. “We months later, on November 9, 1987, crucial interconnections between are pleased to offer you a GS-3 the fire was finally controlled. It climate change, wildfires, and pub- forestry aid (fire) position,” it said. became known as the Silver Fire, lic policy. I accepted the Forest Service job and it burned almost 100,000 acres and, the next day, started hitchhik- (404 km2). At that time, it was the 1976–1981: Graduate ing to Oregon. I was assigned to biggest fire in Oregon since the School and Initial a helitack crew, but it was a cool legendary Tillamook Burn of 1933. Firefighting Experience and damp season with few fires. In The suppression cost was about $20 contrast, the 1977 fire season was million. In mid-June 1976, after graduat- very active, and I stayed busy as a ing with a Bachelor of Science in member of the Wallowa-Whitman By the time the Silver Fire was con- Conservation and Resource stud- Interregional Crew stationed out of trolled, I was back in Washington, ies at the University of California La Grande, OR. DC, at the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment. I was working on the Forest Service’s first climate change assessment. Up until then, my firefighting career in the West had been loosely intertwined with my career in DC, which focused on national energy, environment, and natural resource policy.
But, over the next 2 years, the two strands became tightly linked around the climate change issue.
Nicky Sundt is the climate change com- munications director at the World Wildlife Fund. He was a firefighter, hotshot, and smokejumper for the Forest Service from Nicky Sundt and his brother Matthew, Redmond Air Center, Deschutes National Forest, 1976 to 1990. Redmond, OR, Summer 1983. Both Nicky and Matthew were smokejumpers in 1983. Photo provided by Nicky Sundt.
24 In the fall of 1977, I began gradu- However, I was increasingly concerned that the ate studies with U.C. Berkeley’s Energy and Resources Group. opposite could happen: forests could become Instead of spending the summer net carbon sources, with wildfires accelerating of 1978 firefighting, I worked as the transition while creating a voracious an intern with the Energy and demand for fire suppression funds. Power Subcommittee of the House Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee. That was the beginning of my policy work in Washington, cants. That experience worked to DC. my advantage. I was offered the job and accepted it in April 1982. The following summer, after com- For the first time, my career was pleting course work for my master’s bumped forward unexpectedly by degree, I worked on the Bridger- my firefighting background. Teton National Forest helitack crew based in Jackson, WY. That fall, I Although I skipped the 1982 fire headed back to DC to look for work season, I was able to go back relating to energy, the environ- to Redmond to jump in 1983. I ment, and policy. Before I could worked at the North Cascades find work, the Deschutes National Smokejumper base (Okanogan Photo provided by Nicky Sundt. Forest in Bend, OR, offered me National Forest) outside of funds. Carbon stocks could liter- a smokejumper position at the Winthrop, WA, in 1985 and 1987— ally go up in smoke, increasing the Redmond Air Center for the sum- the year of the Silver Fire. Each fall need for sharp reductions in fossil mer of 1980. After an eventful after jumping, I returned to work fuels. This concern was reflected in season as a rookie smokejumper, I at OTA, where managers were very the 1991 assessment report, which once again returned to DC in the tolerant of my unusual seasonal warned that climate-change-induced fall of 1980 to resume my search pastime. changes in the frequency and inten- for full-time, permanent work. sity of episodic disturbances, such With the economy in recession, I During my final stint at OTA, from as wildfires, “could hinder efforts to did not find what I was looking for. the fall of 1987 to the summer of reduce deforestation or increase car- So, I returned to Redmond for a 1990, I worked on OTA’s first cli- bon,” and could “have greater effects second season of smokejumping in mate assessment, which culminated on forest biomass and composition the summer of 1981. in the publication of “Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce than would changes in average con- ditions.” 1982–1990: The Greenhouse Gases” in February 1991. In the middle of that period Congressional Office of were the extraordinary drought, In October 1988, I participated in Technology Assessment heat, and wildfires of 1988. There a workshop on Wildfire Severity and Final Years was a surge of interest in and con- and Global Climate Change at the Firefighting cern about climate change. Forests National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, CO. I told The following winter, I applied for were being viewed as potential carbon sinks that would partially the workshop participants about work at the Congressional Office of my first-hand experience fighting Technology Assessment (OTA). At offset the need to curb fossil fuel emissions. fires and my growing concerns that the time, OTA was launching an Americans were not responding assessment on wood use: U.S. com- adequately to the threat of climate petitiveness and technology (report I was increasingly concerned, how- ever, that the opposite could happen: change. The following year, in July published in 1983). Although I did 1989, I presented a paper at the not have the forestry experience forests could become net carbon sources, with wildfires accelerating 14th Annual Hazards Research of some of the other applicants, I and Applications Workshop on was the only experienced firefighter the transition while creating a vora- cious demand for fire suppression “Budgetary Levels and Flexibility: and smokejumper among the appli- The 1988 Fire Season and Beyond.” The 21st Century Frustrated by the lack of policy U.S. mid-elevation conifer forests progress around climate change by 650%. Climate outweighed other In late 2000, I joined the coordina- and alarmed about wildfire trends, factors in determining burned area tion office of the U.S. Global Change I wrote a piece for the Huffington in the western U.S. from 1916 to Research Program (USGCRP) as the Post in September 2012. In the 2003 …. More wildfires are pro- communications director. In 2008, I piece, titled “To Politicians Napping jected as climate change continues, shifted over to a similar position in on the Fireline: Wake Up, Smell the including a doubling of burned area a different organization, the World Smoke and Act on Climate Change,” in the southern Rockies, and up to Wildlife Fund (WWF). While with I urged national elected officials to 74% more fires in California.” For the USGCRP, I did what I could take climate change seriously. the Pacific Northwest, where I had within the USGCRP to raise concerns spent my entire firefighting career, about the issue. Once I joined WWF, Since then, published research the report warned: “By the 2080s, I was able to more actively communi- results have confirmed the con- the median annual area burned in cate around the matter and, over the cerns I have expressed since 1988. the Northwest would quadruple last 6 years, I have done so periodi- In 2012, the Forest Service report relative to the 1916–2007 period to cally. on Effect of Climatic Variability 2 million acres (13,355 km2), range and Change on Forest Ecosystems: 0.2 to 9.8 million acres (809 km2 to As I had feared since the 1980s, A Comprehensive Science 39,659 km2), under a scenario that wildfires have grown larger, along Synthesis for the U.S. Forest Sector assumes continued increases in with expenditures of public funds said that, “Recent forest sector emissions through midcentury and for fire suppression. During my projection scenarios for the 2010 gradual declines thereafter.” first decade of firefighting (1976– Resource Planning Act Assessment 1985), wildfires burned a little less 2 suggest that … U.S. forests could And so, nearly 40 years after my than 3.3 million acres (13,355 km ) become a net C emitter of 10s firefighting career started with a annually. Over the last decade to 100s of TgC/year within a few job offer from the Umatilla National (2004–2013), average annual acre- decades.” And, 18 months later, Forest, and nearly 25 years after I last age burned amounted to nearly 7.3 2 USGCRP concluded in its report, fought fire, circumstances still con- million acres (29,542 km )—more Climate Change Impacts in the tinue to compel me to weave what I than twice the acreage burned 30 United States: “Climate change learned on the fireline into my efforts years earlier. Fire suppression is exacerbating the major factors to influence U.S. climate policy. budgets have grown dramatically that lead to wildfire: heat, drought, Wildfires and climate change contin- as well, from an annual average of and dead trees. Between 1970 and ue for me to be burning issues. $400 million in the decade from 2003, warmer and drier conditions 1985 to 1994, to an annual average increased burned area in western of $1.5 billion from 2004 to 2013.
26 The anatomY of smokejumping Katie Scheer
hat separates the sexes, accomplished female firefighters, snow and, while taking a moment other than our anatomy, is but there are far more men. Again, to rest, falling backwards into a Woftentimes more obscure and I think it is less of a gender issue tree and remaining there, strug- benign than people think. I found and more one of taste. We ladies gling until I was pulled free. I do that as a female smokejumper, it are as horrified to expose, as men not remember how many hours we was size and weight, not gender, are to discover, that after 2 weeks of slogged through snow or what it which was divisive. I have worked no showers we can often outshine felt like when I heard the truck’s with tall, strapping women as well them in both odor and general lack horn sound in the dimming light, as small, wiry men. While grinding of hygiene. I felt quite at home signaling our proximity to the road. through a heavy pack-out, I was among my malodorous comrades, What I do recall, with an almost often jealous of my larger counter- but I am sure that not every female crystalline quality, is riding home parts. Watch them land, however, with my coworker and fellow pack- and the envy is short lived. While out sufferer, Mark Hentze, late my parachute landing falls were Firefighting, especially that night. I was balanced on the perhaps not the most graceful, luggage rack of his scooter, jump some of my larger counterparts hit smokejumping, is an helmet on, with the rush of warm awfully hard. Speaking as a female, exercise in outlasting night air on my face as we zipped I find that gender differences trend the uncomfortable. I and swerved along the silent streets more towards irritation than seg- think it has little to do of Redmond, OR. regation. Bodily functions and the search for decent cover are the with gender; rather, I could regale you with tales of bane of every female firefighter. it is each individual’s exquisite alpine lakes jumped; of assessment and towering tamaracks, tiny jump Firefighting, especially smoke- subsequent reaction to spots, and the fear of treeing jumping, is an exercise in outlast- a given situation. up; and of botched exits, clumsy ing the uncomfortable. Men and parachute-landing falls, and center women have different tolerance punching the jump spot. I could thresholds. I think it has little to tell tales of the dismay you experi- do with gender; rather, it is each would feel as comfortable, and for ence when you find you are the individual’s assessment and subse- that matter, not every male would recipient of a food box whose only quent reaction to a given situation. either. If lack of sleep, stinky feet, ingredient is meal, ready-to-eat Can women go without showers, and incessant fretting over one’s meatloaf, and the delight when you eat crappy food, pack out 100-plus toilet paper supply does not raise find a packet of M&M’s ® stuffed pounds (45 kg), be on the road for an eyebrow, it seems only natural inside your chainsaw box. Other months, get dirty, run a chainsaw, that fellow firefighters would have tales include watching your friends climb trees, endure poison oak similar constitutions. auger into rocks or land like feath- and foot rot? Of course they can; ers and hoping that the pilot nails it has been proven. A more perti- Over the years, I have worked on the cargo; making late-evening nent question to ask is, perhaps, do countless fires. Thinking back, it is jumps as the sun is setting and they want to? In my experience, not only hard to separate one fire going on long walks in the dark the answer has often been “not so from another, but also to separate trying to find the fire; as well as much.” Certainly, there are many the good from the bad. It has all going on prescribed fires in the melded together for me by some South and the depression that sets evolutionary trick; the bad seems Katie Scheer is a hotshot in Prineville, in when you realize that the only OR. She was a smokejumper for the Forest to always dim before the good. I food served in town is barbecue Service in both the Redmond, OR, and remember packing out in the deep or deep fried; or of laying under Redding, CA, smokejumper bases. the stars on a “two manner” fixing from Alaska to Southern California, that those men, as much as women, the world’s problems and working but I was neither injured nor mis- are in need of friends. To the older through the night on a “gobbler” treated. At times it was blazing men, we are the daughters. To with multiple loads. hot, while other times I froze. I lit the younger men, we are sisters fires all along the Southern States and friends. At times, we are also I jumped, fell, slipped, and star- and climbed countless trees while mothers to the men with whom we fished out of a variety of airplanes hunting for the Asian Long Horned work. I have made friends that will more than 100 times. I worked for Beetle in Massachusetts. I rode last a lifetime. It is those friend- both the Redmond and Redding in vehicles more than I jumped, ships that I value the most from my Forest Service smokejumper bases though I would have preferred the years as a smokejumper and wild- and had the pleasure of boosting reverse. land firefighter. Undoubtedly, there many different bases and satellite are amazing people in all walks of airports. It was as exciting as it was My experience working with a life; I just happened to meet most tedious. I jumped big and little fires majority of males has taught me of my favorites as a firefighter.
Veterans Fire Corps
In its third year, the Veterans employment in the wildland fire- Apprenticeship Program, which Fire Corps program is operated fighting field. can lead to journey-level positions. as a partnership between the Forest Service and the Student Crews work directly with the Forest The training can lead to Conservation Association. The Service and receive training and full-time positions working initiative builds on the knowl- hands-on work experience in for- as smokejumpers, as heavy equip- edge, leadership experience, estry and firefighting skills through ment operators, on engine and and training of men and women the California Conservation Corps helitack crews, as hotshots, and as who served in the armed forces, (CCC) Veterans Program. Funding dispatchers. retraining them and refocusing for the crews is provided by the their mission to protecting public Forest Service through a partner- Programs such as these are a win- lands from the threat of wildfire. ship with the CCC, as well from the win for veterans, as well as the operating budget of the California Forest Service. It gives veter-ans The experience and training State Assembly. an opportunity to learn a new provided in the program are skill and determine if firefighting designed to prepare participants After completing 500 hours of could become a second career. to meet pressing conservation work experience, veterans may needs on public lands while pro- become eligible for the Forest For additional information, please viding job training for future Service’s Wildland Firefighter visit:
28 Developing the santa ana Wildfire threat index By: Tom Rolinski
Introduction impact Santa Ana winds could Office boundaries, and local news have on the residents of southern media market areas. SAWTI is also very fall and winter, fierce Santa California beyond the casual effects a tool to help the general public Ana winds blow across southern of windy, dry weather. During the prepare for impending events that California from Ventura County E past 3.5 years, the Forest Service could lead to catastrophic fires. southward. Fuels are driest during (through Predictive Services) has Using the various zones simplifies this time of year, which can lead to collaborated with the San Diego the index and makes it more acces- the gathering of the necessary com- Gas and Electric utility and the sible for all user groups. ponents for large catastrophic fires University of California at Los to occur. Such instances happened Angeles (UCLA) to develop the in 1993, 2003, 2007, and 2008. The Methodology Santa Ana Wildfire Threat Index 2007 firestorm generated interest (SAWTI), which is a more mature Large Fire Potential–Weather in developing an index to categorize version of the original index that Component Santa Ana winds. With the develop- Predictive Services developed. Since the index relates Santa Ana ment of a wind index, fire agencies, winds to anticipated fire activity first responders, private industry, The SAWTI domain covers the or fire behavior, we first examined and the general public would have coastal, valley, and mountainous our definition of fire potential. access to information about an areas of southern California from We defined fire potential (or large event’s potential impact on their Point Conception southward to the fire potential) as the ability for an city. By providing value-added Mexican border (figure 1). The area ignition to reach or exceed 250 information about an impending has four zones based in part on the acres (1 km2). This number is event, the index could also help the different offshore flow scenarios valid for the lower elevations of National Weather Service’s “Fire that occur across the region. Other southern California and is signifi- Weather Watch” and “Red Flag factors that led to the division of cant because, based on historical Warning” systems. zones were changes in terrain, records, this is usually when more National Weather Service Forecast resources are brought in from Santa Ana wind events vary in frequency, intensity, and spatial coverage from month to month and from year to year, thus making them difficult to categorize. The Predictive Services Unit, function- ing out of the Geographic Area Coordination Center in Riverside, CA, includes several meteorologists employed by the Forest Service. In 2009, Predictive Services developed the Offshore Flow Severity Index, which categorizes Santa Ana wind events based on the potential for a large fire to occur. This unique approach addresses the main
Tom Rolinski is the predictive services program manager for the Forest Service in Riverside, CA. Figure 1.–Santa Ana Wildfire Threat Index zones. outside the fire origin. The SAWTI °F (21 °C) or more have been asso- fewer than 8 hours of windy, dry incorporates weather and fuel con- ciated with warm events. While this conditions may not have a signifi- ditions, using high-resolution com- may seem trivial, cold Santa Ana cant impact on the fire environ- puter model data. wind events with surface tempera- ment and, in some cases, may not tures 60 °F (16 °C) or below are even be classified as a Santa Ana By making the assumption that usually not associated with large wind event. fuels are fully cured and support- fires. This may be due in part to ive of rapid fire growth, large fire lower fuel temperatures because, Large Fire Potential– potential is greatest beginning with in those cases, more time would be Fuel Moisture the antecedent weather conditions, needed to reach the ignition tem- Component namely how windy and how dry the perature. atmosphere is. Thus, the weather Large fire potential is also depen- component of the index consists These two weather parameters dent on the state of the fuels. Given of the surface wind speed and a are part of a mathematical equa- the complexity of the fuel environ- measure of low-level atmospheric tion, calculated at many computer ment (e.g., fuel type, continuity, dryness or the surface dew point model grid points across southern loading, etc.), we decided to focus depression (dew point depression California over an 8-hour period more on fuel moisture. The index is the difference between the air (figure 2). When plotted on a map, incorporates three different types temperature and the dew point it is easy to see where the worst of fuel moisture variables: dead temperature). Dew point depression Santa Ana conditions (from a fuel moisture, live fuel moisture, depicts the dryness at the surface weather perspective) are occurring and the state of green-up/curing of well and has a profound impact on or are forecast to occur. We chose the annual grasses. Each of these fuel conditions. Also, dew point an 8-hour time period for two three moisture variables has been depression can sometimes differ- major reasons. The first reason is combined into one term referred to entiate better between warm and that 8 hours is about the amount of as the Fuel Moisture Component. cold Santa Ana events than relative time needed for the lighter fuels to While the variables within this fuels humidity can. Historically, larger respond to the atmospheric condi- component often act in coopera- dew point depression values of 70 tions. The second reason is because tion, there are times when they are out of phase with one another due to the variability in precipita- tion (frequency and amount) across southern California in the winter.
Dead fuel moisture can be assessed by a variety of indices from the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS). For the purposes of this index, we used a combination of the Energy Release Component (ERC) and the 10-hour dead fuel moisture time- lag. Combining these two indices is important because the 10-hour dead fuel moisture time-lag does well in detecting short-term chang- es in dead fuel moisture and the ERC captures long-term dryness. This becomes critical in the context of a Santa Ana wind event because a 2- or 3-day event will cause the Figure 2.–Large fire potential due to the combination of wind and low-level dryness. dead fuels to dry, so much so that
30 during the first day of the event, venting new ignitions from occur- are not expected or that if Santa the dead fuels may be too wet to ring or reducing the rate of spread Ana winds are forecast, they will support large fires, but by the sec- among new fires. In years when not result in significant fire activ- ond or third day, large fires become little rainfall occurs, green-up ity. For example, if a strong Santa possible. is either greatly minimized or is Ana wind event were to occur after nonexistent. This leads to a greater appreciable rains or when fuels are Live fuel moisture among the potential for large-fire activity dur- wet, the event would be a “no rat- Chaparral species typically peaks ing the winter months, especially ing.” Tied to each threat level is a sometime in the spring and reaches during Santa Ana events. The index list of recommended actions that a minimum value around early to incorporates a method to approxi- the public should take to better mid-October. Live fuel moisture mate the amount of green-up or prepare for an impending event. is a difficult parameter to evaluate curing that has taken place among Examples of some of these actions because of the irregularities asso- the annual grasses. include: “Clean debris away from ciated with observed values. For your house, charge your cell phone, instance, fire agencies take samples The fuel moisture component and make sure you have plenty of different species of native shrubs modifies fire potential particularly of gas.” The list of recommended twice a month across southern in cases where fuels have not fully actions expands as the threat level California. However, the sample cured and are still inhibiting fire increases. This aspect of the prod- times often differ between agencies, spread. This fuel modifier can uct is critical, as it serves to link and the equipment used to dry and become so influential that it will categories of severity with public weigh the samples may vary from reduce or even eliminate the poten- awareness messages. place to place. Also, sample site tial for large fire occurrence despite locations are irregular in distribu- favorable meteorological conditions The product consists of an online tion and observations from these for rapid fire growth. Webpage that displays a 6-day fore- sites may be taken sporadically. cast of the above-mentioned cat- UCLA developed a proxy using The Product egories for each of the four zones soil moisture to estimate live fuel across southern California (figure The SAWTI has five categories of moisture among Chamise. Once 3). A map of the region stands as severity ratings, ranging from “no- live fuel moisture values begin to the centerpiece of the page and rating” to “extreme.” A “no-rating” exceed 80 percent, the threat of shows the categories that are color can either mean Santa Ana winds large fires diminishes. But, dur- ing extended periods of warm, dry, and windy weather in the winter, large fires have happened despite the higher live fuel moisture levels. While Santa Ana winds have little or no impact on live fuel moisture, this aspect of fuel moisture does play a significant role in large-fire potential.
Once significant wetting rains begin to commence later in the fall, green-up of the annual grasses soon follows. While the timing and duration of green-up fluctu- ates from year to year, new grass is usually present by mid-December across southern California. During the green-up phase, grasses will begin to hinder fire spread, pre- Figure 3.–Santa Ana Wildfire Threat Index as shown for November 2, 2014. coded ranging from grey (no rat- tating fires. The index performed performed especially well during ing) to purple (extreme). The prod- well in capturing all the events that the Santa Ana wind events that uct is issued once daily but will be occurred during the fall of 2013 resulted in the Camarillo Springs updated more frequently if condi- through the spring of 2014, which Fire, the Colby Fire, the Etiwanda tions warrant. The Webpage allows ranged from “no rating” to “high.” Fire, and the fires across northern users to get more information, Fire agencies that had access to San Diego County. Since the offi- such as viewing the latest weather the index during this time used the cial release to the public, the index observation from select stations product to make critical decisions has received positive feedback from when zoomed in on the map. The about the allocation and mobiliza- fire agencies and the press. While Webpage will also display active and tion of shared fire resources before not many Santa Ana wind events nonactive fires, via icons on the significant fire activity occurred. have occurred since the index map, when such activity is pres- The product was released to the was released to the public, it has ent. Selecting one of these icons public on September 17, 2014. continued to perform well and the will provide the user with specific Since that time, the product has Webpage has been frequently vis- fire information, such as acreage been used by local news media ited by users throughout the United burned, percent contained, and across the San Diego and Los States and other parts of the world. links to more data. Angeles metropolitan areas, as well In the future, the goal is to have as The Weather Channel. SAWTI become more integrated The product was beta tested for and used by the local media and a year before becoming a public Summary the National Weather Service Red product in the fall of 2014. During Flag Warning System. For more During the beta test phase, the the beta test phase, there were information, visit http://www. index proved to be successful in many Santa Ana wind events, some santaanawildfirethreat.com. capturing the severity of Santa Ana of which resulted in large, devas- wind events. In particular, the index
32 Assessing firefighter safetY Zones using lidar remote sensing Philip E. Dennison, Gregory K. Fryer, Michael J. Campbell, Thomas J. Cova, and Bret W. Butler
Safety Zones afety zones are designated areas that reduce firefighter Sheat exposure to tolerable levels by providing separation between personnel and fuels. Along with Lookouts, Communications, and Escape routes, Safety zones are a component of the “LCES” procedures for reducing risk of injury and fatality (Gleason 1991). Firefighter safety and entrapment avoidance are dependent on accu- rate determination and effective use of safety zones. Guidelines Figure 1.–A potential safety zone in Sierra National Forest near the study area used in have been developed for determin- Dennison, Fryer, and Cova (2014). ing the safe separation distance that the SSD should increase sig- personnel, to determine safety zone (SSD) needed between fuels and nificantly as wind speed exceeds 5 suitability. Additional outputs such firefighters (Butler 2014a), and miles (3 km) per hour or as slope as distance to the closest road and minimum-safety-zone size can be exceeds 25 percent (Butler 2014b). the presence of isolated trees can calculated by using the SSD and be used to further assess whether adding the area required for the Safety zones are typically deter- a safety zone might be appropriate number of personnel and equip- mined onsite, based on perceptions for use by firefighters under speci- ment needing protection (figure 1). of safety zone suitability and antici- fied conditions. Based on modeled radiative heat pated weather and fire conditions. exposure, Butler and Cohen (1998) However, perceptions of appropriate LIDAR recommended that SSD should SSD and safety zone size may be LIDAR remote sensing uses pulses exceed a minimum of four times flawed (Steele and others 2000). of laser light to measure distance the flame height. The National Light Detection and Ranging between the instrument and one Wildfire Coordinating Group has (LIDAR) remote sensing can be more reflecting surfaces. Typically used this four-times-flame-height used to map vegetation height, acquired from an aircraft, discrete guideline for SSD, but also recom- providing fire managers with the elevations of both the vegetation mends increasing SSD downwind ability to assess potential safety canopy and the ground surface can or upslope from a fire (National zones and their suitability over be determined using LIDAR data. Wildfire Coordinating Group 2014). large areas prior to fire events. This Vegetation height can be calculated Continuing research suggests article describes a spatial model for using the difference between the automated mapping of safety zones “first return” from the top of the Philip Dennison and Thomas Cova are pro- presented in Dennison, Fryer, and fessors, and Michael Campbell is a Ph.D. canopy and a “bare earth” elevation Cova (2014). The model used high- student in the Department of Geography model calculated for the ground at the University of Utah. Gregory Fryer resolution imagery and LIDAR data, surface. Figure 2 contains a profile is a captain of the Cedar City Interagency along with adjustable parameters, Hotshot Crew. Bret Butler is a mechani- of first return and bare earth eleva- such as flame height, maximum cal engineer at the Forest Service, Rocky tions, showing vegetation height Mountain Research Station. safety zone slope, and number of as the difference between the two www.opentopography.org). Both height for flame heights ranging elevations. vegetation height and ground sur- from 7 feet to 46 feet (2 m to 14 face slope were calculated from the m) in 3-foot (1-m) increments. Dennison, Fryer, and Cova (2014) elevation models at 3-foot (1-m) The SSD buffered all cells with a used a study area comprised of resolution over the entire study LIDAR-derived vegetation height of mixed conifer forest in the Sierra area. Color infrared orthoimagery, greater than 3 feet (1 m). The study National Forest in California. also at 3-foot (1-m) resolution, was evaluated remaining unbuffered LIDAR data was collected over used to calculate a vegetation index cells below the vegetation height an area of 5,400 acres (22 km2) for separating vegetated cells from threshold as potential safety zone in August 2010 by the National nonvegetated cells. cells using a decision tree. The veg- Center for Airborne Laser Mapping. etation height threshold and deci- Gridded 3-foot (1-m) first-return Safety Zone Mapping sion rules were empirically deter- and bare-earth elevation models mined using the LIDAR and ortho- Dennison, Fryer, and Cova (2014) were made available through the image data, but could easily be calculated SSD as four times flame Open Topography Project (http:// adjusted based on expert knowledge or training using known safety zone attributes. Safety zone cells were required to have vegetation height of less than 0.7 feet (0.2 m), a con- tiguous area of unbuffered cells at least 512 feet2 (156 m2) sufficient for 20 firefighters and 2 vehicles, and slope less than 10 degrees. Additional criteria and decision-tree details are described in Dennison, Fryer, and Cova (2014).
Some potential safety zones might become adequate with treatment. Figure 2.–An elevation transect showing individual tree canopies and a potential safety zone. For example, a few isolated trees in Vegetation height is the difference between the first return and bare earth elevation models. a large meadow could be removed. Scaling on the Y-axis has been exaggerated to improve visibility of vegetation height. To increase safety zone size in situations where fuels treatment might be possible, an 82-foot (25- m) kernel was used to calculate the percentage of cells exceeding the 3-foot (1-m) vegetation height threshold. If less than 10 percent of the cells in the 82-foot by 82-foot (25-m by 25-m) matrix kernel exceeded the vegetation height threshold, then tree cover was con- sidered sparse and the cell was not buffered by the SSD. Safety zones calculated using no kernel and safety zones calculated using the 82-foot (25-m) kernel were com- pared.
Figure 3.–Safety zones mapped within the study area for 13-foot (4-m) and 33-foot Most of the study area was found (10-m) flame heights. LIDAR-derived vegetation height shown in the background is to be unsuitable for use as safety scaled from 0 feet to 200 feet (0 m to 60 m). The 82-foot (25-m) kernel was used for this example. The white box indicates the subset area shown in figures 4–6. zones due to vegetation height or
34 slope exclusions. For a flame height 2 vehicles. Within the entire study the closest road, both important of 13 feet (4 m) and no kernel used area, no safety zones were found for considerations for safety zone to exclude isolated trees from being flame heights greater than 13 feet selection. At 13-foot (4-m) flame buffered, 42 safety zones were (14 m) (56 m SSD). height, three potential safety zones found. These safety zones covered are within a short distance of a less than 0.2 percent of the 5,400- Spatial modeling allows determina- road (figure 6). Two of these safety acre (22 km2) study area. As flame tion of both the area within each zones are relatively small, however. height increased, the number and safety zone and the distance to Only one of the three safety zones size of safety zones decreased. At 20-foot (6-m) flame height, 13 safe- Figure 4.–Safety zones ty zones were found. At 33-foot (10- calculated for 13-foot (4-m) and 20-foot (6-m) m) flame height, only three safety flame heights. The zones were found. Using a kernel background image is a to exclude isolated trees from near infrared false color composite derived from being buffered resulted in a modest the orthoimagery, with increase in the number of safety live vegetation displayed zones; 75 were found at 13-foot in red tones. Subset area (4-m) flame height, 30 were found is approximately 62 acres (0.5 km2). at 20-foot (6-m) flame height, and 5 were found at 33-foot (10-m) flame height (figure 3). Mean safety zone size increased when the kernel was used.
Figure 4 shows an example of safety zones determined by the spatial model for an approximately 62 acre (0.5 km2) subset of the study area. The subset has a much higher density of clearings relative to the study area as a whole (figure 3) but was selected to provide examples Figure 5.–The maximum flame height that permits of mapped safety zones with a each cell to be part of a range of characteristics. At 13-foot safety zone, while still (4-m) flame height (52 feet SSD maintaining sufficient space for 20 firefighters from the forest edge), a total of six and 2 vehicles. The safety zones were found. The por- background image is a tions of the clearings not shown as shaded, first-return surface showing individual tree safety zones were excluded because canopies. of SSD, slope, and/or vegetation height criteria. At 20-foot (6-m) flame height (24 m SSD), only 2 of the safety zones are large enough to contain 20 firefighters and 2 vehicles. Figure 5 presents the same safety zones, but coded by the maximum flame height calculated for each cell in the safety zone. The safety zone in the lower left corner of the subset permits up to 33-foot (10-m) flame heights, while still sheltering 20 firefighters and Figure 6.–Safety zones slope. The authors of this article calculated for 13-foot are currently working on compar- (4-m) flame height. Distance to a road (shown ing how LIDAR-assessed safety zone as a white line) is indicated characteristics change when differ- by colors within each ent safety zone guidelines are used. safety zone, while italicized numbers represent the Travel time to safety zones and total area of each safety accessibility, both on foot and using zone. vehicles (Fryer, Dennison, and Cova 2013), will also be included in future versions of safety zone spatial models. LIDAR identification of safety zones may be useful in the wildland-urban interface for deter- mining whether structures have sufficient defensible space and for assessing structures and locations that may be suitable for shelter actions (Cova and others 2009).
References Butler, B.W. 2014a. Wildland firefighter safety zones: a review of past science and summary of future needs. International exceeding 0.25 acres (1,000 km2) ments that may be required to Journal of Wildland Fire. 23(3): 295-308. is close to a road. Longer distances make a safety zone suitable for use. Butler, B.W. 2014b. The how, what, and where of safety zones: recent find-ings. from the road and intervening ter- Mapping of safety zones in advance
36 Federal exCess truCks save seven in high-Water resCue Matt Weinell
ight after the Havana and The Florida Forest Service recently Concord Volunteer Fire began leasing the new cargo RDepartments in Gadsden trucks to rural fire departments County, Florida, leased two new after acquiring them through the Federal excess trucks from the Firefighter Property Program. For Florida Forest Service, the trucks decades, the Florida Forest Service were called to action and used to has helped rural fire departments rescue seven people from a flood in obtain no-cost lease equipment late December 2014. through this program.
Just 16 days after receiving the “These trucks were chosen for their two Federal excess 2.5-ton, cab- ability to enhance the capabilities over cargo trucks, firefighters were of our rural fire departments,” said prepping them for new paint jobs. State Forester Jim Karels. “The A critical midnight call, however, Firefighter Property Program has put the cosmetic transformation been the backbone for rural and on hold. Heavy rainfall had caused volunteer fire departments across the Ochlockonee River to flood, Photo provided by Matt Weinell. the State.” closing Fairbanks Ferry Road. The above flood waters, the roof. With Havana and Concord Volunteer Fire The Florida Forest Service Departments responded quickly, no time to spare, firefighters used the other Federal excess truck to manages more than 1 million taking both of the Federal excess acres (4,046 km2) of public for- trucks. They found two individuals maneuver close enough to facilitate rescue. The firefighters then used est land while protecting 26 stranded on the hood of a car. The 2 ropes to bring the group to safety. million acres (105,218 km ) of firefighters noticed that the car homes, forest land, and natural was leaning precariously against a “I don’t know what we would resources from the devastat- guardrail. They acted swiftly, navi- ing effects of wildfire. To learn gating one of the trucks through have done if we hadn’t had those [Federal excess] trucks,” said more about Florida Forest the high water to rescue the two Service programs, visit http:// people. The firefighters were able Concord Fire Chief John Browning. “It was a very close call.” www.FloridaForestService.com to drive close enough to pull them . to safety on the back of the truck’s cargo bed.
Six hours later, firefighters received a call that another car had driven past the barricades at Fairbanks Ferry and completely washed the vehicle off the road. This time, there were five people stranded and in danger. The group stood atop the only portion of the car that was
Matt Weinell is a fire resource manager for the Florida Forest Service. Photo provided by Matt Weinell. Smokejumper invents the “klump pump” Jim Klump
grew up in a logging camp in In 1974, I became the division chief Siskiyou County in northern on the Truckee District of the Tahoe I California. One afternoon, my National Forest. Looking back, father and another logger took becoming a division chief at such me to a small lightning fire on an early age was a mistake on my company land. I was 13 or 14 part. I was a good firefighter; but years old. As we were working meetings and all the other activities this fire, I could see other fires that go in at that level were not my across the Scott River in the Marble forte. I lived from fire season to fire Mountains. From a distance, I season and still enjoyed putting out noticed the smokejumpers work- fires. I worked my way up to Type ing those fires. They amazed me. II Incident Commander and Type I Photo provided by Jim Klump. I knew from that moment on that Operations Section Chief. Pump.” The Klump Pump is a one day that I would become a standard piece of equipment, outfit- smokejumper. I retired on February 20, 1993, ted with pump, hose, fittings, and which happened to be my 50th foam. The idea was that it could be In 1959, I began fighting fires sea- birthday and the last day of the pay easily delivered to an incident and sonally at 16 years old. The sum- period. I started a business, which transported individually, by two- or mer I turned 18, I hiked into a fire was successful, but I could not stop three-unit trailers. on the Klamath with a buddy of thinking about an idea for a mobile, mine; it took all night. As we were self-contained apparatus for fight- Next came the problem of financ- approaching the fire in the morn- ing fire in remote locations. Several ing; I felt I needed an investor. ing, an aircraft came over and four years went by. One morning, I got Finally, one day I spoke to a guy jumpers parachuted out of the up at 2:30 or 3:00 a.m., went to my who said, “If it is such a good idea, plane. After we got a line on the kitchen dining table, and started why not spend your own money?” fire, one of the jumpers asked what writing and drawing. This became So, I mortgaged my house, spent time we had started our hike into the format for a U.S. patent and my life savings, and borrowed some the fire. I told him before 6 p.m. my business plan for the “Klump money. It was a risk to do some- the evening before. He chuckled and said, “At 6 o’clock last night, we were having pizza.” I had never heard of pizza, much less eaten it.
Three years later, in 1964, I became a smokejumper. I was 21 years old, and I was a retread jumper for the next 10 seasons. In the summer of 1964, we were the first Forest Service crew to both rappel and parachute from a helicopter.
Jim Klump was a smokejumper for the Forest Service from 1964 to 1974 in Redding, CA.
As noted, the use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Photo provided by Jim Klump.
38 thing like this when you are in cage alongside is 2,200 feet (670 m) fires. I have built the fleet up to 11 your fifties, but after overcoming of hose, fittings, foam, and a tool machines. We always send a com- many challenges, the project came kit. The unit weighs about 1,600 pany representative to the incident together. pounds (726 kg) when it is fully to keep time and provide technical outfitted. Around the rim of the assistance. The concept of the Klump Pump tank are four hard points where is quite simple. In essence, it is a the lifting harness is attached. Next season will be my 12th year 1,000-gallon (3,785 L) fire truck Helicopters transport the machine on this adventure with the Klump without a chassis. The 1,000-gal- empty and then fill it at its drop Pump. I am looking at retiring, lon (3,785 L) open-topped tank has site with the helicopter bucket. again, and passing the business on leveling jacks with articulating feet Unlike many portable systems, the to someone who has the passion to on each corner. The rectangular Klump Pump can be moved with keep it going. In closing, if a young frame is 7 feet wide, 10 feet long, ease several times during the day. jumper came up to me today and and 3 feet high (2 m x 3 m x 1 m). asked, “So, Mr. Klump, what is it Three feet (1 m) of one end of the The Klump Pump has been used all about?” I would tell that person machine contains the pump, the on almost 90 fires in 3 Western that I have got it narrowed down to plumbing, a 5-gallon (19 L) fuel States; everything from initial three things: lots of oats, pizza, and cell, and an operator’s panel. In a attack, extended attack, and project a clean exit.
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Volume 74 • No. 4 • 2015 3579111315171921232527293133353739 RefleCting on the legaCY of the first afriCan-ameriCan smokejumpers Deidra L. McGee, Forest Service
group of valiant men known States. In the end, less than 300 of conference room after the Triple as the Triple Nickles, the first the incendiary devices were known Nickles in its newly renovated A African-American smokejump- to have reached North America. national headquarters office in ers, paved the way for so many in The Triple Nickles were, nonethe- Washington, DC. the smokejumping cadre. less, instrumental in helping the Forest Service fight wildfires. They During World War II, a time when answered about 30 fire calls and segregation was still a part of made hundreds of jumps in the everyday life, 17 brave men took summer of 1945. the plunge to serve their country. The battalion’s original goal–to join Private First Class Malvin L. Brown, the fight in Europe–was thwarted a member of the Triple Nickles, when military leaders in Europe became the first smokejumper feared racial tensions would dis- killed when he jumped on a fire on rupt operations. At about the same August 6, 1945. He was the only time, the Forest Service and the Triple Nickle to perish on duty. A military were working together to special ceremony to commemorate minimize the damage by balloon the 70th anniversary of Malvin bombs, which were launched by the Brown’s death was held during the Japanese with the intent of starting annual Triple Nickles’ reunion in forest fires in the Western United Baltimore in the fall of 2015.
Private First Class Malvin L. Brown’s In honor of the paratroopers, the headstone at Mt. Calvary Cemetery near Forest Service recently named a Baltimore, MD.
Loadmasters from the 555th heave smokejumping gear into a C-47 in Pendleton, OR.
Deidra McGee is the national liaison for Minerals & Geology Management, National Early morning, August 6, 1945, Captain Richard (Black Daddy) Williams, battalion Forest System for the Forest Service in executive officer, and 1st Lieutenant Clifford (Jabo) Allen, jumpmaster, peer through the Washington, DC. open door of the C-47 at the spot where they will drop the 555th’s firefighting team.
40 Fireline Explosives The Missoula smokejumper pro- gram has been directly involved with managing the use of Detagel Presplit X, a water-gel slurry high explosive. The Missoula smoke- jumper program has been using such explosives for both fire and field work since the 1960s. The smokejumper bases in Missoula and West Yellowstone, MT, are currently the only bases in the country that have a blasting pro- gram with qualified blasters. Fireline explosives are also effec- cutting and/or digging hand- What Are Fireline tive in falling hazard trees during line is required, particularly in Explosives? line construction, but even more so heavy fuels or ground cover. An Fireline explosives are linear during the mop-up and rehabilita- increased speed of building the explosives that enable crews to tion phase of a fire. Hazard trees line can save wildland resourc- construct fireline under certain that cannot be safely cut by a quali- es. Sometimes smaller crews conditions much faster and with fied sawyer can be brought down equipped with explosives can less environmental impact than using explosives by a qualified be delivered to a fire faster than conventional methods. The qual- blaster in a safe and cost-effective larger, conventionally equipped ity of line constructed varies from manner. Using explosives reduces crews. a nearly finished line in light the overall exposure to risk associ- brush or grass fuels to a lower ated with working under a hazard Other advantages include: quality line than required in tree by allowing a blaster to quickly heavy brush and slash fuel types. attach explosives to the tree and • Mineral soil in the line is loos- Even in heavy brush and slash, then bring it down from a safe dis- ened and is then easy to dig for the cleaning action of explosives tance. use in hotspotting and mop-up. can enhance access and effective- • A fine layer of soil dusts fuels ness of fire crews who finish the Advantages close to the line and acts as a retardant. line. Often, firelines in these fuel As labor and overhead costs rise, • Blasting is generally more types can be “cleaned out” using fireline blasting offers real time environmentally sound than a small crew using hand tools and savings. Smaller crews may be using chainsaws, handtools, or a leaf blower. used to suppress fires because less dozers. • Fireline explosives are approved for use in designated wilderness areas. • Fireline explosives can be delivered by para-cargo into extremely remote locations.
For more information on fireline explosives, please contact: Steve Reed, assistant loadmaster fore- man, Forest Service, Missoula Smokejumper Base. Email: [email protected].
41 Junior smokejumper program Molly Cottrell
n the Forest Service, we developed 4 to 16. More than 1,400 children of fire in a safe environment. The the Missoula, MT, junior smoke- have attended, along with approxi- lesson introduces the concept of Ijumper program to educate chil- mately 500 adults. The majority the fire triangle and explores how dren about fire ecology, fire man- of the participants come from the forest fires start and how they are agement, and smokejumping in an Missoula area, but some have come suppressed. We use the matchstick exciting and interactive learning from other parts of the country forest (20 matches on a sloped environment. We marked our sixth and/or abroad. board) to show how fire spreads successful year of the program in and how fire can be contained. We 2014. In the program, we target We start the program with a fire choose one child to be the “fire- children ages 6 to 12, but we have behavior lesson. For some kids, fighter” and give him/her a spray welcomed participants from ages this is the best part of the experi- bottle to squirt water on the blaze, ence because they get to watch the usually to the relief of parents and Molly Cottrell is the junior smokejumper program manager in Missoula, MT. instructor demonstrate the effects chaperones alike.
42 The kids then try out the smoke- For the final part of the program, jumper physical fitness test. They we give groups tours in the smoke- attempt to do pull-ups, push-ups, jumper facility. In the tour, they get and sit-ups. The highlight for a better understanding about the the group is usually the pull-ups. function of the gear, parachutes, Occasionally, we get a kid who can cargo, and tools. The kids are do the smokejumper-required seven encouraged to try on a jumpsuit pull-ups! and helmet, all in children’s sizes.
Finally, the group meets a smoke- jumper who walks them through a “practice jump” from a plane parked on the tarmac.
We then ask the kids to recount one thing they learned and their favorite part of the experience. After this, they receive an official “Junior Smokejumper” T-shirt or string backpack to take home with them. The junior smokejumper program is looking forward to another suc- cessful season of educating the next generation of Forest Service smokejumpers!
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