United States Department of Agriculture

Forest service Fire Management

Volume 52, NO.2 1991 I 'I Notes

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_. , United States Department of Fire Agriculture Management Forest Service An international quarterly periodical Volume 52, NO.2 Notes devoted to forest fire management 1991

19 Summer Conference: Forest Fire Lookout Contents Association 3 Aviation in Fire Management: Its Beginning in 1919 27 Technical Fire Management Training and Today Reid M. Kenady and Laurie Perrett Fred A. Fuchs 29 Health Hazards of Smoke 7 Mark 1II Aerial Ignition: A Field Perspective Dick Mangan John Fort 37 Field Use of Improved Airtankers and Retardant 10 Workforce Diversity Projects: Creativity in Tanks Recruitment Dave Nelson Elizabeth Kalish and Brenden Tu 38 A Tribute to Smokejumpers: Dedication of the 13 CDF's Helicopter Program: What's Happening National Wildland Firefighters Memorial Arthur H. Trask Tracey Nimlos and Timothy Eldridge 15 Fire Behavior Training-a Look at Some Upcoming 43 Rebuilding FEPP Engines: A Nebraska Innovation Changes Improves Quality Donald W. Carlton Eric J. Rasmussen 22 A Fire Protection Analysis for the Beaver Creek Watershed: A Technical Fire Management Final Special Feature Project Thomas A. Wordell 20 Retired Firefighting Aircraft Go on Display Fred A. Fuchs 30 Improving Airtanker Delivery Performance Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the United Slates Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department. 40 The Heavy-Lift Helicopter and Fire Retardant Drops Subscriptions may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government at the Stormy Fire Complex Printing once, Washington, DC 20402.

Lynn R. Biddison Send suggestions and articles to Chief, Forest Service (Alln: Fire Management Notes), P.O. Box 96090, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20090--6090.

Edward R. Madigan, Secretary Francis R. Russ Short Features U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager F. Dale Robertson, Chief Doris N. Celarier >. Forest Service Editor 5 Seven Sharp Sherpas-"New" Planes Soaring in l.A. Amicarella, Director Popularity Fire and Aviation Management John Hecht U.s. Department of Agriculture programs, services,and employment are open to all on the basis of merit, without regard to race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, or disability. Any person who believes he or she has been discriminated against in any U.S. 6 Keeping Track of FEPP: Internal Control Department 01 Agriculture-related activity should immediately contact the Secretary of Francis R. Russ Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250.

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual Front Co~; Tanker 27, the first P-3A to be modilied as an air tanker, started service authors are responsible lor the technical accuracy 01 the materiel presented in Fire in 1990. Manegemerlt Notes.

2 Fire Management Notes Aviation in Fire Management: Its Beginning in 1919 and Today

Fred A. Fuchs

Assistant director, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC

This year the USDA Forest Serv­ Sixteen years after the first air­ ment and the military services and ice is celebrating the lOOth plane flight at Kitty Hawk in 1903, the support of the General Services anniversary of the beginning of the the Forest Service began using air­ Administration (GSA) and its Per­ National Forest System. Twenty­ craft in support of wildfire sonal Property Management Division eight years after the first forest suppression. Branch headed by Staff Director Stan reserve, the Yellowstone Park Tim­ Duda. All military excess property is ber Land Reserve, was set aside in transferred to Federal agencies 1891 and 16 years after the airplane through the GSA. first flew in 1903 at Kitty Hawk. Seven C-23A's (Sherpas), twin Another exciting accomplishment NC, the Forest Service began using turboprop aircraft used to support the in aircraft improvement is the aircraft in support of wildfire sup­ forces at North Atlantic Treaty Orga­ "remanufacture" of the last two For­ pression. This fledgling effort used nization's bases, were acquired as est Service DC-3's in operation. As the U.S. Army Ninth Corps. com­ U.S. Air Force excess property in the DC-3's-the backbone of the manded by Major Henry A. "Hap" 1990. The use of the Sherpas, pri­ smokejumper program for years­ Arnold, to fly World War I Curtiss marily in the smokejumper program, aged and their piston engines became IN-40's and de Havilland DH-4B's will increase fire suppression effec­ less reliable, most were replaced with on daily detection patrols. In 1919, tiveness and reduce costs: Operating de Havilland Twin Otters. The Twin during the first year of air patrol, the the Sherpas. which carry a large Otters, which were unable to carry a dozen of these aircraft used in Cal­ payload, is less expensive than using 20-person fire crew or as many ifornia from Mt. Lassen to the contract operators' airplanes. That smokejumpers as a DC-3, did not Mexican border discovered 550 fires. the fireflghting community now uses completely meet the needs of the The patrol team reported their fire the Sherpas. C-130A's, and P-3A's smokejumper program. After an information to fire control officers by is based in good part on the streogth extensive IO-year search for a DC-3 parachute or carrier pigeon in the of communication between Forest replacement aircraft. it was decided field. From this promising beginning, Service Fire and Aviation Manage- that modernization of the DC-3 was aviation has grown to occupy a major fire suppression role.

What's New in Aircraft in the 1990's

Several new and exciting equip­ ment developments in aviation for fire management are taking place right now. The older, piston-engined airplanes, now difficult to maintain because parts are in short supply, are being replaced with turbine-powered airplanes. In the 1990 fire season, the Forest Service extensively used four Lockheed C-130A's, two Lock­ heed P-3A's. and the S-2F with a Marsh turbine conversion-the''third generation" of turbine-powered air­ tankers in firefighting service. Closeup view of de Havilland DH-4 on fire detection patrol (1919).

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 3 the best option. The two remanufac­ tured aircraft with modem turboprop engines, aircraft systems, and rebuilt structures are operating this year in McCall, 10, and Missoula, MT.

The 1919 Aviation Goals and Evaluation Criteria Still Apply

As we entered the 1990's-the eighth decade of aviation in support of fire management activities-it is interesting to note that no matter how much technology has advanced, the basic policy questions in aviation for fire management that were asked in 1919 are still asked. Aviation uses found safe, efficient, and effective in 1919 continue; however, uses that failed in anyone of these areas have been abandoned. For example, the Pilot and copilot in de Havilland DH-4 prepared/or fire detection fttghs (1920), 1919 air fire patrol's work was judged to be effective (550 fires elusive-it is a challenge that we reported), efficient (compared favora­ cannot and do not give up on. On bly with alternate methods in dollar August 30, 1991, Dr. Richard and time costs), and safe enough, Jensen, Director of the Aviation Psy­ although several accidents and chology Laboratory of Ohio State fatalities took place. University, began an independent Of the safety, efficiency, and study on Forest Service internal flight effectiveness goals, safety is by far operations. Dr, Jensen's findings will the most frustrating and difficult to set forth alternative methods and achieve. The standards are not only techniques to enhance aviation safety difficult to define, but also the per­ performance. formance in meeting those standards. As the use of aviation has increased, The New Equipment-Does It safety has become an increasingly De Havilland DH-4 on fire detection patrol Help? important concern. Through the last near MI. Hood (about 1921). 30 years, tremendous efforts have The new aviation tools such as resulted in considerable reduction in tion use, safety performance is high; large helicopters and the turbine air accidents, injuries, and fatalities. The in others, more effort is needed. tankers used in balance with many questions of 1919 that fire managers Nearly 80 percent of fire support avi­ other firefighting tools improve fire­ still ask about safety are: What is an ation accidents are caused by human fighting effectiveness and efficiency. acceptable safety level? Can we error. Why do people make mistakes Their greater power reserve and flex­ achieve an acceptable safety level at that cause accidents? Fire managers ibility also improve safety-but a reasonable cost and, if so, how do search for the answer, but the search safety and containing its cost remain we do it? In some areas of fire avia- is often frustrating and the answer our greatest challenge. -

4 Fire Management Notes Seven Sharp Sherpas­ enhances the firefight because jumpers "The planes have about 4,500 "New" Planes Soaring in can better orient themselves to the hours each," said Ed Blakeslee, For­ conditions below." est Service aviation maintenance Popularity Four planes have been deployed specialist at BIFC. "That's equivalent into the field this fire season. The to getting a mid~1980's car with "New" airplanes added to the Forest Service has positioned its three 20,000 miles (32,186 km) on it." smokejumper fleet in 1991 promise to planes at Redding, CA; Redmond, New, the Sherpas cost about $3 move more smokejumpers more effi­ OR; and Missoula, MT. BLM has sta­ million each. The estimated price of ciently. The planes, known as tioned its plane at the Alaska Fire conversion to smokejurnper use from "Sherpas," were transferred from the Service (near Fairbanks). The remain­ the freighter configuration is about U. S. Air Force under the Federal ing three will be ready by next year: $110,000 per plane. The conversions Government's excess property two for BLM and one for the Forest are being handled by Western Air­ program. Service. craft, in Boise, under a contract Each twin-engine C-23A Sherpa Eighteen C-23A's were produced administered by the Forest Service. will carry 10 to 12 smokejumpers and for the U.S. Air Force between To prepare for smokejumping duty, their equipment. Fully loaded, the air­ 1982-84. They were used by the 10th windows, cabin insulation, and inte­ craft's cruising range is around 450 Military Airlift Squadron stationed at rior cabin linings were installed. There miles (724 Ian) at about 207 miles per Zweibrucken Air Force Base, located were some slight radio modifications, hour (333 km/h). When used as a in what was then known as West Ger­ and installation of smokejumper­ paracargo platform, it can carry about many. The freighters serviced 22 U.5. related equipment. The bodies were 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) with 3 hours Air Force bases in northern Europe. repainted to the colors of each agency. of fuel. "The planes are very well suited for the smokejumper and paraeargo missions," said Nels Jensen, USDA Forest Service national aviation opera­ tions officer at Boise Interagency Fire Center (BIFC) and now a Sherpa­ qualified pilot. "The performance is better than anticipated, with a good payload. It will save us a significant number of dollars in the future. " "Speed, visibility, and interior room" are the advantages of the Sherpa said Bureau of Land Manage­ ment (BLM) BIFC smokejumper Ken Franz, a 17-year veteran with almost 400 jumps. "Anything that delivers smoke­ jumpers more quickly will help stop fires before they get big," he said. "The Sherpa's interior space makes it possible to be comfortable even with a full fire load of cargo. The visibility (of the terrain) through the windows

,I This article was previously published in The A Bureau ofLand Management smoke­ i Flame, 8(I) 1 and 4, Boise Interagency Fire jumper takes offfrom a C-23A Sherpa Land Management demonstration May 1, : Center, Boise, 10, during the joint Forest Service-Bureau of 1991, near Boise, IV. i

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 5 The Sherpas have a rear ramp, sim­ (285 kmlh); cruising speed for Keeping Track of FEPP: ilar to a C-130. However, the exit of smokejumpers--115 miles Internal Control smokejumpers will exit through the per hour (185 kmIh); maximum rare of climb at sea Jevel-J,] 80 port door, as will the paracargo. (The State Foresters using loaned USDA feet per minute (360 mlmin); door is removable and stored inside Forest Service Federal Excess I II the plane.) The rear ramp is used only service ceiling (maximum altitude Personal Property (FEPP) for fire for loading cargo, but unlike the aircraft can operate at, one protection must have adequate internal I C-130, does not open in the air. engine out-12,9oo feet (3,932 controls to safeguard the equipment. I At the beginning of the season, 17 m). Here are some actions the State Il pilots were certified for the aircraft. • Take-off distance. ISA-3,420 Forester can take to keep better track I Each has a minimum of 12 hours on feet (1,092 m); ISA plus 15 degrees-4,250 feet (1,295 m). of FEPP: I' the Sherpa and logged an average of • Separation of Duties. The many 'Il 7,000 hours total flying time. Of this • Landing distance. 3,650 feet duties connected with FEPP must be ! group, 11 will fly for the Forest Serv- (1,113 m). separated in such a way that no one , ice and 6 for the BLM. • Range. (With maximum fuel person has enough FEPP l 1 . Compared with the equivalent con- reserves for 45-minute hold and responsibilities to obscure actions I I tract smokejumper aircraft, the 50-mile (81 km) diven;ion)-225 from management oversight. I introduction of the Sherpa will bring miles (362 km) with 7,000 pound Segmenting duties protects the If an estimated savings of $160,000 (3,175 kg) payload; 770 miles program. annually per plane. with 5,000 pound (2,268 kg); • State Reviews and Audits. The I fuel consumption (averagc)--130 State Forester is encouraged to I gallons per hour (492 Uh). I Technical Facts conduct State reviews and audits and I • External dimensions. Span-74 to participate with the USDA Forest For a better idea about the feet, 8 inches (23 m); length-58 Service in Forest Service reviews. capabilities of the C-23A Sherpa, here feet (18 m); rear loading door­ I ! • Property Identification. All f height, 6 feet, 6 inches (2 m), are some of the basic technical facts I I FEPP on loan should be identified as I about the aircraft: and width, 6 feet, 6 inches Federal property with USDA Forest (2 m). I I • Manufacturer. The C-23A ,I Service furnished tags or labels or I' II Sherpa, manufactured by Shorts • Internal dimensions. Cabin­ with a State identification system Brothers PLC of Belfast, North­ maximum length, 29 feet, 10 I i approved by the USDA Forest ern Ireland, is a freighter version inches (9.1 m); maximum width, Service. 6 feet, 6 inches (2 m); maximum of the Shorts SD3-30 aircraft It • Training. Managers and users of is named after a Himalayan peo­ height, 6 feet, 6 inches (2 m); FEPP must be adequately trained. volume (all-cargo), 1,260 cubic plc ' 'renowned for their • Enforcement. When FEPP on durability, industry, and loyalty feet (29 m'); baggage compart­ loan is lost, damaged, or stolen, the while working in severe environ­ ment (nose), 45 cubic feet (1.3 State Forester must find out whether mental conditions." rn'). State employees have been negligent • Engines. The engine, manufac­ • Weights and loadings. Weight in the carrying out of their duties. If tured by Pratt & Whitney, is empty (includes crew of two)-­ negligence is determined, the State powered by twin-propellers and 15,370 pounds (6,972 kg); fuel employee should be subject to the (jet)-4,480 pounds (128 kg) is capable of developing 1,167 State's administrative regulations. - horsepower at 1,675 revolutions (670 gal or 2,536 L); maximum per minute. payload-7,000 pounds (3,175 • Performance. Allowable usable kg).• Francis R. Russ, property weight-22,400 pounds (10,161 management specialist, USDA Forest kg); elevation-lO,ooo feet Service, Fire and Aviation (3,048 rn); maximum cruising John Hecht, public affairs writer, Management, Washington, DC, and speed-2lS miles per hour Bureau ofLand Management, Boise chairman ofthe FEPP Study Group (351 kmlh); minimum cruising Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID speed-177 miles per hour

6 Fire Management Notes Mark III Aerial Ignition: A Field Perspective

John Fort

Zone fire management officer and forester, u.s. Fish and Wildlife Service, St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, St. Marks, FL

In the last 10 years the use of If agency goals are to be met, then inject glycol into a ping-pong ball aerial ignition in prescribed burning aerial ignition may be viewed as a containing potassium pennanganate. has grown dramatically nationwide. cost of doing business. After the ball is injected with glycol, It is now used extensively in the the machine kicks the ball out of the lower Coastal Plain of the South­ helicopter. Thirty to forty-five sec­ eastern United States. New land onds later the ball ignites in an managers, however, have had little 3,500 acres (1,416 hal of helitorch exothermic reaction. exposure to the use of aerial ignition, burning and 90,000 acres (36,424 hal and others are in need of more of "ping-pong" (Premo Mark III Effective Use of Aerial Ignition detailed information to better plan aerial ignition device) burning on and make budget decisions. Federal land, all of it prescribed fir­ How can aerial ignition work ing in the Coastal Plain. Ping-pong effectively in fuelsmanagement? Fire History on the Lower Coastal ignition has become the method of Answering that question requires tak­ Plain choice for most applications in the ing a step back and asking some lower Coastal Plain. Helitorch is specific questions: The lower Coastal Plain of the used to some extent, most often on • When would aerial ignition be Southeastern United States stretches site preparation bums and understory more desirable than hand ignition? roughly from Texas to Florida along bums on wetter sites. • What must be considered inplan­ the Gulf of Mexico and up the Atlan­ Thc Mark III device, mounted ning for the ignition? . tic Coast to Virginia. Historically, inside the helicopter, is a 61-pound • How much does it cost? this predominantly fire ecosystem (26.8 kg) aluminum and stainless The following observations, which burned in response to lightning steel frame with motor, pumps, respond to these questions, are based strikes and Native American fire sets. chutes, and liquid tanks used to on my field experience and a general Uplands, composed of species of southern yellow pine, burned fre­ quently (2- to IO-year intervals), while the wetter sites (swamps and stream areas) of bottomland hard­ wood trees and midstory brush normally burned in response to pro­ longed drought (50- to lOO-year intervals). In this century, prescribed fire has been extensively introduced in the area. The primary method of ignition has been by hand, and types of fire included backing, head (both spot and strip), and flanking. The onset of aerial ignition has added a new dimension to prescribed fire and given the land manager another tool.

Firsthand Experience

My field positions over the last A l-mile section ofMark III spots set to back into pine flatwoods on St. Marks National Wildlife 10 years have allowed me to oversee Refuge and head through marsh grass.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 7 understanding of issues affecting pre­ Advantages of Aerial burning. Planning Is Critical, Hours of scribed burning. They are not the Aerial ignition can allow goals to be planning should precede the brief result of a controlled scientific study. met within additional constraints. period of implementation (ignition). To Hand Burn or Ignite by Air. Aerial ignition allows the burnout of This means establishing the basics: An oversimplification of when to use specified areas in a much shorter The weather and fuel parameters, aerial ignition is almost whenever timeframe (hours instead of days) smoke criteria, and fireline sites. (and wherever) one would handbum. than handbuming. Fewer people can Variables unique t~ aerial ignition The manager is simply substituting cover more acres if the method of must be covered. Some of these vari­ one method of ignition for another. ignition is aerial. Short-lived ables are aviation safety concerns, Tlte goals of the land manager can be "weather windows" can be used to location of the closest helicopter and met by either hand or aerial ignition. full advantage. Smoke management fuel source, adequate landing sites, Hand ignition is an accepted and criteria can be met by compressing a effective communication, source of a expedient method of ignition. Aerial set volume of smoke into a large col­ Premo Mark 111 machine and ping­ ignition requires more preparation, umn and allowing for rapid dispersal. pong balls, coordination with local but the end results are often superior Smoke concerns become more com­ aviation authorities, and use of because the quantity of work can be pelling as the duration of the bum trained people. With proper planning, dramatically increased and the quality increases. Aerial ignition minimizes ignition by air can be straightforward of work can be better ensured. Here the duration of the bum. and as expedient as hand ignition. arc four examples of superior results: Although useful, aerial ignition is The actual firing mimics hand­ • Better coverage of an area not a panacea for all bums. Gener­ ignition methods. • Tighter control of the ignition ally, if an area is going to be a process concern with hand ignition, it wiIJ be The Costs • More effective smoke management a concern with aerial ignition. When • Burning goals achieved in a higher these areas are encountered, aerial Two of the most common planning quality manner firing might allow the manager to concerns are whether dollars will be Constraints on Burning. Land resolve the situation effectively and available and if satisfactory produc­ managers have a set of prescribed meet assigned goals. For example, tion can be realized. Table I may bum goals to achieve-acres burned, aerial ignition may allow the man­ help answer these questions. The tons of fuel reduced, certain under­ ager to take better advantage of table reports field data collected from story species targeted-and a finite marginal weather conditions or better 84 aerial ignitions at 5 reporting sta­ amount of resources---dollars, time, treatment of marginal fuels by gener­ tions for 5 years. The ignitions were favorable weather-to accomplish ating more or less heat. If an area by the Premo Mark 111 device and these goals. Recent political and can be easily handbumed, it can also were on 91,377 acres (36,980 hal of social changes have combined to be easily lit by air, allowing the Federal lands in the lower Coastal limit these resources, constraining lighting of several easy areas in a Plain. The bums occurred during the when bums may occur. Dollars are much shorter period of time and thus months of October through March fewer to fund the same (or greater) reducing cost per acre. and reflect various Federal land man­ goals. Personnel ceilings have limited agement goals, although the the number of people on the ground Aerial Ignition Planning dominant one is fuel reduction. A to do the burning. State smoke variety of weather and fuel condi­ management and air quality require­ How aerial ignition is used will tions is represented. The predominant ments limit the days when burning determine whether results are satis­ fire behavior model is No. 7 South­ is allowed-further constraining the factory and whether goals are ern Rough (Anderson 1982) and "weather window"-through successfully met. Success can be National Fire-Danger Rating System restrictive and necessary smoke insured by thorough planning and Model D (Deeming 1975). Various management criteria. proper implementation. types of helicopter contracts and

8 Fire Management Notes Table l-Summary ofMark III ignition costs

Fiscal Number of Flight Flight Number of Cost of Miscellaneous Total year ignitions Unit Acres hours cost balls used balls cost cost 1991 8 St. Marks National Wildlife 8,915 25.8 $11,480 23,250 $ 3,138 $ 644 $ 15,262 Refuge, FL 1990 17 Wakulla Ranger District, FL 20,663 40.4 13,699 45,300 6,116 1,346 21,161 1989 5 Wakulla Ranger District, FL 7,400 19.5 5,710 35,500 4,792 504 11,006 1988 9 Wakulla Ranger District, FL 9,880 22.4 4,735 30,250 4,082 1,024 9,841 1987 13 Biloxi Rangel District, MS 6,670 11.4 1,833 20,250 2,735 1,934 6,502 1987 21 Wakulla Ranger District, FL 22,485 74.9 19,900 133,000 17,955 2,775 40,630 1987 3 Conecuh Ranger District, AL 6,326 14.5 2,334 23,600 3,186 1,901 7,421 1987 8 Apalachicola Ranger District, 9,038 13.2 2,124 23,000 3,103 1,240 6,467 FL Total 84 91,377 222.1 $61,815 334,150 $45,107 $11,368 $118,290

hourly flight rates were used, and Per acre costs for air ignition vary ment objectives to be attained in a three types of helicopters were widely and are tied directly to man­ quality, cost-effective manner .• flown. Other costs such as planning, agement goals and methods used to overhead, agency salaries, and carry out the bum. For example, a Literature Cited agency equipment are not included. reduction in the number of balls The acres column refers to those dropped or a modification of the fir­ Anderson, Hal E. 1982. Aids to determining acres actually burned. The flight cost ing pattern can lower the cost, or a fuel models for estimated fire behavior. is based on the hourly leasing rate of Gen. Tech. Rep. 1NT-122. Ogden, UT: decision to use aerial firing on small U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest the aircraft. The flight hours are areas for smoke management reasons Service, Intermountain Forest and Range those helicopter hours (from the can raise the cost. Costs must be Experiment Station. 22 p. ship's hour meter) needed to ferry viewed on a program level, and Deeming, John, E.; Burgan, Robert E.; ignition devices to the burn site, aerial ignition viewed as a tool to Cohen, Jack D. 1977. The National Fire­ observe the area, and light the bum. accomplish the entire bum program. Danger Rating Systern--l978. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-39. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department The flight cost is based on the hourly The overall saving in time-and of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intennoun­ rate of the aircraft. The cost of the therefore money-may outweigh the tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. ping-pong balls (aerial ignition additional cost of ignition. If agency 63 p. devices) is held constant at 13.5 goals are to be met, then aerial igni­ cents each. Some items included in tion may also be viewed as a cost of miscellaneous costs are for daily heli­ doing business. Goals of Prescribed Fire on copter availability, fuel truck, and In the Federal sector aerial ignition the Coastal Plain costs required by contract. is well established and increasing as A few observations drawn from more managers understand the proce­ • Site preparation for regeneration these ignitions follow: dure and are exposed to the benefits. • Cattle range improvement • The average total aerial ignition Most questions and issues connected • Understory fuel reduction cost per acre was $1.29. to aerial ignition can be resolved if a • Control of certain midstory plants • The average number of ping-pong thorough job of planning is done • Stimulation of understory species balls dropped per acre is 3.6, at a before executing the bum. Properly for wildlife cost of 49 cents per acre or 38 per­ applied, aerial ignition can comple­ • Restoration of ecosystems cent of the total per acre cost. ment hand ignition and open an • Visual enhancement • The average number of acres lit opportunity for future land manage- • Maintenance of marshes and per flight hour was 411. wetlands

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 9 Workforce Diversity Projects: Co~O Creativity in Recruitment University

Elizabeth Kalish and Brenden Tu

Graduate students in Cooperative Education Program; USDA Forest Service; Rocky Mountain Region; Air, Aviation, and Fire Management; Lakewood, CO

The Rocky Mountain Region, or Elizabeth Kalish In January 1991, I started work on Region 2, of the USDA Forest Serv­ my master's degree at CSU in forest ice has a cooperative education I started working in fire manage­ fire sciences with my funding also program that has as one of its goals ment in 1986 while taking time off coming from the cooperative educa­ to increase workforce diversity in fire from college to assess my career tion program. Through a joint effort management by investing in the goals. After spending 2'12 years at the between the USDI National Park education of professional fire man­ University of Arizona studying his­ Service and the USDA Forest Serv­ agers. We are two of the students tory and working with the athletic ice, I was able to work at the currently involved in the program department, both as an athlete and a Dinosaur National Monument, col­ and would like to tell you about the trainer, I took a job with Mesa Verde lecting data for my master's thesis. I program: Its advantages to the National Park helitack crew. I spent am developing a standardized live agency and to US. two extended seasons at the park fuel moisture sampling method for working in helitack and fire dispatch. sagebrush, a method for use in pre­ Brenden Tu At the beginning of 1988, I scribed fire planning. The method is returned to school, now at CSU, in designed to be cost-effective and I graduated from the University of the natural resources management easy for managers to use in the field. California, Davis (UC Davis) in program. I spent the following .resource science with a forestry summer working on a resource man­ What the Program Has Meant emphasis. My first experience with agement crew at Rocky Mountain to Us wildland fire was as a member of the National Park. During the fall of Davis handcrew organized by the 1988, I decided to pursue fire man­ The opportunities this program has Mendocino National Forest. I worked agement as a career and accepted a offered us have been outstanding. In for the Davis handcrew for three sea­ position as a cooperative education the summer of 1990, we collected sons, 1986-88. While in school, I forester in the Rocky Mountain data for a prescribed natural fire plan was also involved with the City of Region Cooperative Education Pro­ on the South Platte Ranger District of Davis Volunteer Fire Department. gram. I spent the first two summers the Pike National Forest. This is one After graduating from UC Davis, working in the prescribed fire pro­ of the first plans of this kind in the I decided to further pursue my gram on the Pike National Forest. I Rocky Mountain Region. During the interest in fire behavior and fire completed my bachelor's degree in schoolyear, we worked with the management. December of 1990. region's National Fire Management In August 1990, I started my mas­ ter's degree program at Colorado State University (CSU), funded by the Rocky Mountain Region Cooper­ ative Education Program. During the summer of 1991, I was detailed to the Redfeather Ranger District of the Arapaho and Roosevelt National For­ ests to collect data for my master's thesis. I am looking at the economics of rural fire protection-particularly Federal grants to volunteer fire departments. The evaluation of the rural fire protection programs could aid in the distribution of Federal funds to States and volunteer fire Elizabeth Kalish and Brenden Tu with Chief F. Dale Robertson on their trip to the USDA Forest departments. Service Washington Office.

10 Fire Management Notes Analysis System coordinator in the training professional fire managers given each of us the opportunity to Supervisor's Office on the Arapaho with natural resource backgrounds. pursue an advanced degree at a uni­ and Roosevelt National Forests. We Although we would both be studying versity with one of the leading fire have participated in training in many fire management and working in this programs in the United States. When areas-fire behavior, prescribed fire field, this program has allowed us to we graduate, the Forest Service will management, and fire suppression. pursue broader goals. This program have two employees from diverse In May of 1991, we visited both has expanded our knowledge of the backgrounds with an understanding the Intermountain Forest Fire Labora­ full range of fire management not only of fire management but of tory (IFFL) in Missoula, MT, and activities-research, suppression, and the agency.• prescribed fire. The program has

"The opportunities this program has offered us have been A TaskForce Recommendation-Funding for Special outstanding."-Elizabeth Kalish and Brenden Tu Projects "Designate annual funding of mitted project proposals, "bidding" $580,000 per year for special proj­ for shares of the $580,000. The the Washington Office. Al Roberts, ects" to recruit and retain minorities Rocky Mountain Region's project-to regional coordinator of the coopera­ and women in the workforce, Fire and add four cooperative education posi­ tive education program, took us to Aviation Management's workforce tions in the Air, Aviation, and Fire Missoula for the IFFL open house. diversity taskforce recommended in its Management unit-e-was one of the There we were able to observe ongo­ report, "A Model for Workforce projects selected for funding. ing research and talk to the scientists Diversity." published in April 1990. Program Goals. The goals of the ahout their work. During our 2-day The taskforce was established in 1987 Rocky Mountain Region Cooperative to help Fire and Aviation Management Education program are to diversify the visit to Washington, we attended the work toward the workforce diversity Fire and Aviation Management work­ daily meeting of Chief and Staff goal articulated in the Forest Service force by proactively recruiting and where we met Chief F. Dale vision statement, "Caring for the training professional fire managers Robertson. At the State and Private Land and Serving People": "We will with a natural resource background. Forestry staff meeting, we met Dep­ have a workforce that better reflects Students are introduced to many For­ uty Chief Al West. We had a chance the national diversity." Chief F. Dale est Service programs from the district to discuss with Forest Service Fire Robertson and others have reaffirmed to the national level. Although their and Aviation Management Director this message many times since. The university tuition is not paid, students L.A. (Mic) Amicarella and National taskforce annual funding recom­ have worked summer seasons at the Park Service Fire Management Direc­ mendation rests firmly on the old district level on the Pike and San Isa­ tor Elmer Hurd the agencies' challenge-"Put your money where bel and the Arapaho and Roosevelt your mouth is!" -and the realistic National Forests in recreation, timber, different fire policies and how Fed­ insight that to build a diverse work­ and fire management. Throughout the eral agencies work together to force in fire management requires an scnoolyear. part-time employment has manage fire despite their different investment in students and their been available at the forest super­ land management missions. The trips education. visor's office, working with the to IFFL and the Washington Office National Fire Management Analysis gave us the opportunity to discuss A Winning Project Proposal From System (NFMAS). The cooperative OUf thesis topics with scientists and the Rocky Mountain Region education program positions give Fire fire management specialists. and Aviation Management the oppor­ The main goal of the program is to Cooperative Education. In tunity to recruit university students diversify the fire management work­ response to this opportunity to build a directly into fire management. force by actively recruiting and diverse workforce, each region sub-

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 11

D I,

People Behind Ihe Scenes working on the Malheur National Karen Ogle. Karen fell in love Forest, with the outdoors as a child during the Many people have devoted time and Aaron Ortega. Originally from 2 years she spent living in an energy to develop this quality program Lafayette, CO, Aaroo Ortega-a undeveloped subdivision of for the cooperative education students. water-skiing, wind-surfing, and rock­ Anchorage, AK, where there was Al Roberts, regional team leader for climbing buff-became interested in woods and wildlife. Later, when her the Prescribed Fire and Fuels Manage­ forestry while teaching biology to family moved to Denver, she hiked on ment Program. spearheaded the effort sixth-grade students at an outdoor lab­ many weekends and for one summer to get the cooperative education pro­ oratory. He was particularly fascinated worked at Rocky Mountain National gram underway and coordinated the with the effects of fire on the natural Park in the Yoath Conservation Corps activities. Rocky Mountain Region processes in different ecosystems. The (YCC). During thai summer with the Air, Aviation, and Fire Management cooperative education program YCe, she decided to pursue a career director. Ray Evans, has shown enabled him to pursue this interest as in natural resource management when exceptional commitment to the well as others. she was older. advancement of this program. The The cooperative education program In 1981, she enrolled in the forestry Washington Office of State and Pri­ did something else important for program at CSU and ;0 1985 gradu­ vate Forestry Fire and Aviation Aaron-a solid introduction to many ated with a fire management degree. Management funded the program and different types of field operations con­ During the summer of 1985, she offered strong support. The tie binding ducted by the Forest Service. During worked as a firefighter on the Eagle the Rocky Mountain Region's cooper­ the past 2 years, he trained in fire pre­ Ranger District of the White River ative education program together with vention and suppression, timber National Forest, and at the end of the CSU starts with the enthusiasm and inventory, trail building and mainte­ summer met with Al Roberts, team cooperation of Dr. Phil Omi, pro­ nance, and recreation, and has two leader for the Prescribed Fire and fessor of forest fire science. more working summers before cern­ Fuels Management Program in' the pleting his degree at esu. He says, Rocky Mountain Region, to discuss Looking 10 Ihe Future "I feel very fortunate to participate in pennanent employment. Out of this Universities, particularly those with the program and believe it has given discussion the cooperative education forestry schools. are excellent SOUrces me the support to complete my goals program was born. In 1988, she of future professional fire managers. successfully. " received her Master of Science degree Recruitment and training of these stu­ Michelle Lyon. Michelle Lyon in fire ecology from CSU. dents in this program gives students devoted little time to the outdoors Her first job with the Forest Service an opportunity to learn about the while growing up in Baltimore. MD. was on the San Juan National Forest importance and the nature of programs But when she graduated from the Uni­ in southwestern Colorado. There she in the agency, especially fire manage­ versity of New Hampshire in May of worked on the forest's National Fire ment. Students gain work experience 1991 with a degree in forest science, Management Analysis System and can move as productive, informed she had not only become someone (NFMAS} runs for several months employees into the agency workforce who enjoys hiking, biking, sailing, before she transferred to the Malheur when they graduate. and skiing, but someone closely National Forest in eastern Oregon as acquainted with the challenges of land the forest fire planner and fuels spe­ The Students management. Interested at first in con­ cialist. In 19&9. Karen was detailed to tinuing her study of forest decline. the Redmond Interagency Hotshot The program currently employs four which she had begun as an under­ Crew and experienced many kinds of students from Colorado State Univer­ graduate, she decided to pursue fire firefighting situations. She returned sity (CSU). Besides Breodeo Tu and management after witnessing a small for 2 years to the Malheur National Elizabeth Kalish, Aaron Ortega, an prescribed bum in New Hampshire. Forest supervisor's office to update undergraduate student in forestry with As a graduate student at esu, NFMAS runs and is currently a fuels an emphasis in fire management, and Michelle is focusing on how fire has forester in charge of the burning ProM Michelle Lyon, master's degree stu­ been manipulated and suppressed in gram on the Prairie City Ranger dent in forest fire science. are also in the past to create the forests, fire District on the Malheur. She will the program. Karen Ogle. a past coop­ regimes, and fire behavior we have manage the suppression program on erative education student, is currently today. the district in the summer of 1992. •

12 Fire Management Notes , CDF's Helicopter Program: What's Happening

Arthur H. Trask

Helicopter program manager, California Department ofForestry and Fire Protection, Sacramento, CA

New Helicopter Maintenance These Hueys are acquired by the For­ each), these refurbished, converted Facility est Service and then loaned to FEPP helicopters with an expected agencies such as CDF for use in operational life of 20 years are truly The California Department of For­ wildland fire suppression. The refur­ a bargain. estry and Fire Protection (CDF) bishment and conversion process is The Copter 202, the second CDF recently opened a new helicopter both extensive and-at a cost of "H" model to go into service. maintenance facility at Yolo County $505,000 per helicopter-expensive. became a part of the Bieber Helitack Airport. Unlike the previous mainte­ Helicopters playa critical role in the Unit on April 2, 1991. The first nance vendor located at Stockton, CDF fire suppression program, and "H" model, Copter 205, went into CA, maintenance at the Yolo County given the cost for the commercial service before the 1990 fire season facility is dedicated strictly to CDF alternative (a Bell 212 helicopter and has subsequently flown approx­ helicopters. This facility with its 10­ with a purchase price of $4 million imately 675 hours.

person, fulltime workforce should .--"---""~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~--, improve accountability-tracking parts, completing repairs, and con­ trolling quality-and, it is hoped, result in overall cost savings.

Help From FEPP

Shop Equipment and Replace­ ment Parts. The CDF equipped the shop with tools and spare replace­ ment parts. Most of the shop tooling came through the USDA Forest Serv­ ice Federal Excess Personal Property (FEPP) Program. Use of FEPP has been extremely cost effective for the State, saving, for instance, approx­ The EH-1H helicopter as obtained from rhe U.S. Army and Copter 202 CDF conversion. imately $250,000 in shop tools alone. The CDF ultimately intends to establish one centralized maintenance facility for both airplanes and heli­ copters at Mather Air Force Base. The present helicopter maintenance contract contains the flexibility to relocate to Mather whenever space becomes available. The "Super Huey.? The accom­ panying "before" and "after" photograph shows the EH-IH heli­ copter as it looked when obtained from the U.S. Army and the CDF's recently completed conversion, the Copter 202, a highly modified "H" model nicknamed "Super Huey." The Coprer 205, CDF'sfirsr conversion a/the UH-IH.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 13 Based on our operational Given the alternative---a Bell 212 • 885 flight hours spent dropping experience with Copter 205, we have with a purchase price of $4 million foam made minor changes to the VHF each-these refurbished, converted • Over 3 million gallons (I I million radio equipment and design of the FEPP helicopters with an expected L) of foam or water (dropped on instrument panel in the Copter 202. operational life of 20 years are average of 3,450 gal or 13,000 L To ensure a completely standardized truly a bargain. per flight hour) fleet---essential to flight safety-all • 2,482 firefighters transported future "H" models will be a clone • 125,857 pounds (57 kg) of equip­ of Copter 202. To do this, the fol­ ment transported lowing equipment must be installed • Aircraft stripping and repainting, • 100 flight hours assisting in earth­ or changed: inside and out quake relief • High-skid gear (increases ground • Complete replacement of flexible clearance) and rotor brake (reduces fuel and oil lines Private Sector Concern rotor coastdown time significantly) • Solid-state inverters • 205Al tailboom with 212 tail-rotor • Radar altimeter with expanded In response to concerns from the components (commercial standard) helicopter scale private sector, CDF conducted an • New particle separator (engine air • New audio control panels with rear extensive cost-analysis study of the filter) cabin public address system agency-operated program. This • Engine upgrade (greater horse­ • Public address system with siren recently completed study clearly power output): -l3BA to the -703 activation button on pilots' collec­ shows the benefits of the program: used in the Cobra (AH-15) tive pitch control • Standardized flight operations • Teledyne Avionics Power Analyzer The recent acquisition of .. H" • Increased capabilities and and Recorder models was very timely since CDP's perfonnance • Fuel management system coupled existing fleet of 10 UH-IF's are • Vastly improved safety record to the navigational radio (Loran C) faced with a critical shortage of spare • Reduced cost • Main rotor transmission upgrade: replacement parts. • Year-round availability eight planetary gears with heavy­ While the "F" models have per­ • Helicopter modified specifically for duty input quill formed yeoman service for CDF fire suppression mission • Becker Avionics self-contained during the past 10 years (18,000 • Experienced forestry pilots VHF radio stack hours), the helitack bases are anxious CDF attributes much of the heli­ • Blind altitude encoder coupled to to receive their new "H" models copter program's success to these Loran C because of their increased perform­ benefits and results. - • Wulfsberg Flexcom FM system ance and reliability. with control head (ClOOO) • Wulfsberg 9600 VHF FM with Value of Helitack Program control head (C962A) • Wire strike kit (wirecutter) Perhaps the best indicator of the • Cargo hook load cell (extemalload value of CDF's helitack program can weighing system) be found in the annual review of • Computer system for fire mapping activity and accomplishment. For • Video and infrared system example, during the 1989 fire sea­ • Pilot and copilot mirrors for under­ son, which was a relatively quiet fire aircraft viewing year for CDF, the eight UH-IF • Foam concentrate tanks built into helitack units performed as follows: passenger steps (20 gal or 76 L) .2,817.7 total flight hours

14 Fire Management Notes Fire Behavior Training-a Look at Some Upcoming Changes

Donald W. Carlton

Fire planning specialist. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR Ii

The Fire Behavior Committee and The Fire Behavior Committee's the HP-71 B (Susott and Burgan Its Goals highest priority task is the revision 1986) and using the BEHAVE Sys­ of the fire behavior curriculum to tem on a mainframe or personal In April 1990, a group of fire satisfy users in wildfire suppression computer (Andrews 1986, Andrews behavior subject matter experts was and prescribed fire management. and Chase 1989). As each of these formed to work with the National fire behavior processors came online, Wildfire Coordinating Group's additional fire behavior prediction (NWCG) Training Working Team models were developed to predict fuel moisture (Rothermel 1983 and (TWT) on fire behavior issues­ ifornia Department of Forestry and especially fire behavior training. The Fire Protection (CDF) and TWT liai­ Rothermel et aJ. 1986), spotting dis­ tance (Albini 1979, 1981, 1983), fire group, or Fire Behavior Committee son, CDF Training Academy, lone, (committee), as it is known, together CA. containment (Albini and Chase with TWT. focuses its work on the 1980). scorch height (Van Wagner development and maintenance of The Fire Behavior Curriculum­ 1973), and tree mortality (Ryan and national, regional, and local inter­ How It Developed Reinhardt 1988). The most recent agency fire behavior training addition is a program in the curriculum and courses. The NWCG The current core structure of fire BEHAVE System called RxWIN­ TWT and the Prescribed Fire and behavior training is a result of sev­ DOW (Andrews and Bradshaw Fire Effects Working Team eral courses developed independently 1990). A fire behavior specialist can (PFFEWT) have been working on over the past 10 to 15 years. each at calculate the environmental condi­ fire behavior training revisions since a different time. These courses­ tions (fuel moisture, windspeed, and 1988. The committee's highest pri­ S-190 Introduction to Fire Behavior. wind direction in various combina­ ority task is the revision of the fire S-390 Fire Behavior, and S-590 Fire tions) for an acceptable range of fire behavior curriculum to satisfy users Behavior Analyst-were developed behavior (intensity, rate of spread, in wildfire suppression and pre­ primarily in response to advances in and flame length). The program is scribed fire management. The fire behavior prediction technology or particularly useful in prescribed committee is also available to agen­ methodology. In 1976, for example, burning. cies needing expert advice on other the fire behavior prediction nomo­ This technology has been trans­ problems related to fire behavior. grams were introduced by Frank A. ferred to the field through national The committee is made up of the Albini (I976) and used in the first training courses, which taught following members: Don Carlton, Fire Behavior Officer-now S-590 instructors how to transfer this tech­ Chair, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Fire Behavior Analyst-s-course. nology to others (TI-59, BEHAVE, Northwest Region, Portland, OR; These nomograms. together with area and HP-7IB). Formal fire behavior Bill Clark, USDl National Park Serv­ and perimeter models, provided the prediction courses such as S-390 and ice, Washington Office at Boise. ID; basis for the Fire Behavior Prediction S-590 also included this technology. Greg Zschaechner, USDl Bureau of System (FBPS) (Rothermel 1983). Land Management, Colorado State In 1979, with the introduction of Expanded Curriculum Office, Denver, CO; Paul Werth, the fire behavior program on the National Weather Service, Boise TI-59 calculator, fire behavior To support the TWT's efforts and Weather Service Office. Boise, ID; calculations could be made elec­ give direction nationally to fire Mike Wallace, USDl Bureau of tronically (Burgan 1979). By the behavior training efforts, the commit­ Indian Affairs, Washington Office at mid-1980's, further equipment and tee has structured a four-course core Boise, ID; Pat Andrews, Intermoun­ programming developments resulted curriculum; tain Fire Sciences Laboratory, in FBPS outputs being processed • 5-190 Introduction to Wildland Missoula, MT; and Dan Francis, Cal- using a handheld "computer" called Fire Behavior

1991 Volume .52, Number 2 15 'I

• S~290 Intermediate Wildland Fire that strike team and task force review 5-190 to recommend revi­ Behavior leaders and Incident Commanders sions, if needed, to the course in • S~390 Introduction to Wildland Type III do need the knowledge and fiscal year 1992. The film, "Fire Fire Behavior Calculations skill to do calculations. This decision Weather," an integral part of S-190, • S-490 Advanced Wildland Fire required splitting the S-390 course, is being revised. Testing will occur Behavior Calculations 1981 version, into two courses, sepa­ in fiscal year 1993. S-290 and S-490 are new to the rating the qualitative and quantitative 8-290 Intermediate Wildland national curriculum, while S~390 has parts into S~290 and S~390, respec­ Fire Behavior and 8-390 Introduc­ been substantially changed. To meet tively. The courses will be updated tion to Wildland Fire Behavior specific needs, application modules to include the latest technology and Calculations. The major changes will be developed. One or more core information. from the existing S-390, 1981 ver­ courses will be required to be com­ The need for additional fire sion, to the new courses are: pleted before taking an application behavior predictive capability to sup­ • Developed S-290 as an instructor­ module. For example, S-490 is a port suppression activities on large taught course with a strong pre­ prerequisite for S-590 Fire Behavior fires as well as the planning and work component. The course is Analyst, a I-week application execution of both management­ proposed as a requirement for the module. ignited and prescribed-natural fire single resource boss. Classroom The committee has worked with provided the impetus for the S-490 time is estimated at 24 hours. the NWCG Incident Command Sys­ course. • In S-290, included a unit where tem Working Team and the TWT to As the curriculum was expanded, the student leams how to analyze integrate into the fire behavior the courses were carefully revised. the influences of combined topo­ courses the information and activities Care was taken to introduce and graphic, weather, and fuel factors necessary to develop the skills to per­ develop concepts, the models based on fire behavior. A job aid (step­ form the tasks required in fire on these concepts, and the processors by-step explanation of task) will suppression positions. Currently, that (tables and computers) needed to be developed which the student integration is taking place in the make the calculations so that a logi­ can easily carry to the fireline. course revision. cal and orderly curriculum was • In S-290, developed an in-depth developed. For instance, in S-190 unit on the concepts of fire Broad Outline of Course Changes and S-290, fire behavior concepts behavior in the third dimension and Why Changes Were Made are introduced and carefully (extreme or severe fire behavior). explained. In S-390, the concepts This unit includes many of the S-190 will still be a required reviewed and fire behavior prediction concepts taught in the existing course for the basic firefighter. The models are introduced. In S-490, the S-490 lesson on this subject. course will be updated but with little student learns to use the processors • Developed S-390 as an instructor­ change in course objectives. Much and make the most complex fire taught course with a strong pre­ discussion has focused on which sup­ behavior calculations, The courses work component. Classroom time pression and prescribed fire positions build on each other, making use of is estimated at 16 hours, and it is • require the knowledge and skill to what has been introduced, spiraling proposed that this course be calculate fire behavior variables such to the learning of more advanced required for strike team and task as spread rate and flame length as concepts taught in upper-level force leaders as well as the Inci­ currently taught in the 1981 version courses. dent Commander Type Ill. of S-390. For fire suppression, the • In S-390, replaced the calculation The Course Content and Develop­ committee recommended that the sin­ of fire behavior values using tables ment Schedule gle resource boss does not need to do with fire behavior nomograms. fire behavior calculations; on the 8-190 Introduction to Fire • Wrote detailed lesson plans and other hand, the committee concluded Behavior. The committee will produced effective audio-visual

16 Fire Management Notes material for all fire behavior S-290 and S-390 was held in Boise. C. Wildland Fire Behavior courses. !D, January 6-10, 1992. This course on Slopes • Updated and standardized termi­ also served to train instructors for the D. Large Wildland Fire nology throughout the fire other three test courses. The other Prediction and Behavior behavior curriculum. test courses were held in California E. Calibration The course outlines are as follows: January 27-31, the Southeast March F. Fire Whirls 2...{j, and the Southwest March 9-13. G. Wildland Fire Behavior 5-290 Intermediate Wildland Regional agency representatives in the Third Dimension Fire Behavior attending courses were invited to cri­ tique them. Final revision, which Unit 3 Optional Regional Lessons Unit 0 Introduction will include the evaluation of A. Calculation Proficiency Unit I The Fire Environment trainees, instructors, and agencies, Assessment Unit 2 Basic Weather Processes will occur following the test courses B. Prework Review­ Unit 3 Temperature/Humidity with course revision completed by HP-7IB Relationships October 1, 1992. C. Prework Review­ Unit 4 Atmospheric Stability and 8-490 Advanced Wildland Fire Slope Determination Clouds Behavior Calculations. S-490, with D. Prework Review­ Unit 5 General and Local Winds its adjustments to regional conditions Mid-flame Wind Unit 6 Topographic Influences on has been tested and will be available E. Prework Review­ Fire Behavior in mid-1992. Test course develop­ Nomograms Unit 7 Fuels ment, geared to the regions, is on F. Prework Review­ Unit 8 Fuel Moisture schedule. The course outline is as Fine Fuel Moisture Unit 9 Keeping Current with the follows: Determination Weather G. Prework Review- Unit 10 Wildland Fire Behavior in 5-490 Advanced Wildland Fire BEHAVE the Third Dimension Behavior Calculations H. Bum Fuelbed Unit II Combining Influences Affect I. MOISTURE Module Basic Fire Behavior Unit 0 Introduction 1. CONTAIN Module Unit 12 Regional Lessons (Optional) Unit I Wildland Fire Behavior Inputs Other Training Materials and 5-390 Introduction to Wildland A. Use of Models Courses, Technology Transfer, and Fire Behavior Calculations B. Fuel Moisture Equipment C. Fuels Unit 0 Introduction D. Atmospheric Stability Review of Materials in the Pub­ Unit I Fire Behavior Inputs E. Wind lications Management System. The Unit 2 Fire Behavior Calculations F. Securing, Adapting, committee is reviewing the materials Unit 3 Fire Behavior Applications and Verification of currently in the Publications Manage­ Weather Forecasts ment System (PMS) at Boise The committee structured a Interagency Fire Center that support development plan for S-290 and Unit 2 Wildland Fire Growth fire behavior and fuels management S-390, allowing for the completion Projections training. The committee is providing of draft courses for both S-290 and A. Basic Wildland Fire the leadership to research the pub­ S-390 in fiscal year 1991, four test Growth from a Point lications needed for training or courses in fiscal year 1992, and Source operational purposes. The Mack Lake course distribution in fiscal year B. Spotting and Ignition Fire (Simard 1983) and relative 1993. The first test course for humidity tables are now available.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 17

A "

I,

Commonly used items in fire cover the use and application of the 2575; Pat Andrews, Intermountain behavior training such as the fire Fire Behavior Prediction System and Fire Sciences Laboratory-FTS 584­ " behavior worksheets in standard other technology in the planning and 4827 or 406-329--4827; Dan Francis, packs by worksheet type, fire execution of management-ignited and CDF and TWT liaison, CDF Train­ behavior nomograms, BEHAVE pro­ prescribed-natural fire. It will include ing Academy-916-322-7912; and gram computer disks, and a fire current state-of-the-art methodologies Don Carlton, Forest Service-FTS behavior field reference to support for both short- and long-term fire 423-2931 or 503-326-493f.,. S--49O will be stocked by PMS in the behavior projections. future. Users should consult the Alternatives to the HP-71B for Literature Cited NWCG National Fire Equipment Field Use. The committee is explor­ System Catalog, Part 2: Publications ing the use of IBM-compatible laptop Albini, Frank A. 1976. Estimating wildfire for instructions on how to order and and palmtop personal computers to behavior and effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT­ 30. Ogden, U'F: V.S. Department of Agri­ availability. run the programs in the BEHAVE culture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Newsletter. The committee con­ system. A literature search is occur­ and Range Experiment Station. 92 p. tinues to explore ways to improve ring as well as field testing of a Albini, Frank A. 1979. Spot fire distance from communication within the fire palmtop personal computer with burning trees-a predictive modeL Gen. behavior community. An informa­ printer and modem that runs only on Tech. Rep. INT-56. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, tional fire management newsletter. alkaline batteries. The results will be Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment under the leadership of Robert compiled following the 1991 fire Station. 73 p. Mutch, Forest Service technology season. Albini, Frank A. 1981. Spot fire distance from transfer specialist at Intermountain isolated sources-extensions of a predictive Fire Sciences Laboratory Missoula, Information-Contact Your model. Res. Note INT-309. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest MT, will be published periodically. Agency Representative Service, Intermountain Forest and Range The newsletter, titled "Interactions," Experiment Station. 9 p. will share new infonnation and Through the Fire Behavior Com­ Albini, Frank A. 198.3. Potential spotting dis­ update fire behavior and fire manage­ mittee's efforts, many benefits have tance from wind-driven surface fires. Res. ment developments. already been realized-particularly in Paper INT-309. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Prescribed Fire Training Sup­ developing fire behavior curriculum Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment port. The committee is working and courses more effective in training Station. 27 p. closely with the NWCG Prescribed fire managers and officers in carrying Albini, Frank A.; Chase, Carolyn H. 1980. Fire and Fire Effects Working Team out the fire suppression and pre­ Fire containment equations fOT pocket cal­ to formulate draft national prescribed scribed fire program. The proper use culators. Res. Note INT~268. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest fire qualifications and training stand­ and application of fire behavior pre­ Service, Intermountain Forest and Range ards. Fire behavior knowledge and diction technology is critical to the Experiment Station. 17 p. skills will be identified for prescribed execution of both programs. If you Andrews, Patricia L. 1986. BEHAVE: fire fire positions allowing for the inte­ need more information on the behavior prediction and fuel modeling • gration of these in the core fire activities of the committee or wish to system-BURN subsystem, Part I. Gen. behavior courses. In addition, some Tech. Rep. INT-194. Ogden, UT: U.S. assist in its efforts, please contact Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, knowledge and skills will be taught your agency representative. Their Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment through the development of pre­ telephone numbers are: Bill Clark, Station. 130 p. scribed fire courses. One of these NPS-FTS 554-9414 or 208-334­ Andrews, Patrica L.; Chase, Carolyn H. 1989. courses is currently under develop­ 9414; Greg Zschaechner, BLM-FTS BEHAVE: fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system-BURN subsystem, Part ment and will be taught for the first 554-3808 or 303-239-3808; Paul 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-260. Ogden, D'F: time at the National Advanced Werth, NWS-FTS 554-9862 or U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Resource Technology Center in 208-334-9862; Mike Wallace, Service, Intermountain Forest and Range November 1992. This course will BlA-FTS 554-2575 or 208-389- Experiment Station. 93 p.

18 Fire Management Notes Andrews, Patricia L.; Bradshaw, Larry S. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ Summer Conference: 1990. RxWINDOW: Defining windows of ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest acceptable burning conditions based on and Range Experiment Station. 61 p. Forest Fire Lookout desired fire behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. Ryan, Kevin C.; Reinhardt, Elizabeth. 1988. Association INT-273. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Predicting post-fire mortality of seven west­ Agriculture, Forest Service, lntennountain ern conifers. Canadian Journal of Forest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 54 p. Research. 18:1291-97. Rothermel, Richard C. 1983. How to predict Suscott, Ronald A.; Burgan, Robert E. 1986. On August 8-9, 1992, the Forest Fire the spread and intensity of forest and range Fire behavior computations with the Lookout Association holds its summer fires. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden, Hewlett-Packard HP-7IB calculator. Gen. conference at Weeks State Park, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Tech. Rep. INT-202. Ogden, UT: U.S. 1 Lancaster, NH. At the conference Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Keith Argow, president of American Experiment Station. 161 p. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Resources Group, a nonprofit Rothermel, Richard C.; Wilson, Ralph A.; Station. 80 p. organization for nonindustrial private Morris, Glen A.; Sackett, Stephen S. 1986. Van Wagner, C.E. 1973. Height of crown woodland owners that publishes Modeling moisture content of fine dead scorch in forest fires. Canadian Journal of wildland fuels: Input to the BEHAVE fire Forest Research. 3:373-378. National Woodlands Magazine, will prediction system. Res. Paper INT-359. present New Hampshire Division of Forests and Lands with a certificate placing Me Prospect Firetower on the National Historic Lookout Register. The Mt. Prospect tower was built in 1912 by John weeks-c-of Weeks Act fame. The register, sponsored by the American Resources Group, currently lists 43 towers nationwide. These guys wantyoutostop On the evening of August 8, Karl Roenke, forest archaeologist on the wastingyourtaxdollars. White Mountain National Forest, will lecture on the history of New Hampshire firetowers. Along with field trips and a publications exhibit, the conference will display 50 years of. fire prevention and Smokey Bear posters. For more information, contact J. Chris Haartz, P,O, Box 162, Campton, NH 03223; Iris W, Baird, II Richardson Street, Lancaster, NH 03584; Dave Govatski, Route 115, Jefferson, NH.03583, FrS 661-2626 or Wildfires in our country are a terri.ble waste. A waste of natural resources. A waste of natural beauty. A waste of money. 603-869-2626;: or Karl Roenke, White Yet every single year, over one billion in tax dollars goes up in smoke. Mountain National Forest, P.O. Box That's what it costs to protect our nation's resources and fight wildfires. 638, Laconia, NH 03247, So, think of these famous faces next time you're in the great FrS 834-3773 or 603-528-8773, • outdoors. And remember, only you can prevent forest fires. A Puh/ic Serviceo/This Newspaper & TheAdvertising Council m

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 19 II. ", \. ~ , "I~ir-.~~~~~;:::-;;·~··!~~=d• ~·r -Co~=. C'-'-'.~.-'C~.__",__,)1

I .1

This primary trainer for the U.S. Navy, the Navy N3N or "Yellow Peril," was first manufactured in 1937. Modified for borate bombing, it was the first airtanker on contract with the Forest Service. Operated by Jensen FLying Service of Sacramento, CA, the aircraft was stored after the airtanker contract terminated. Unrestored. it is displayed in original colors and condition.

Tanker 21 is a Grumman AF-2S or "Guardian." a torpedo bomber modified for retardant Tanker 63 is the only Fairchild C-123 thatfiew as an bombing, operated by the Aero Union Corp. from 1950-57 on Forest Service and California airtanker. It was on contract at Santa Barbra, CA, Department ofForestry contracts. from 1984 through 1988 and operated by TBM, Inc.

20 Fire Management Notes Retired Firefighting Aircraft Go On Display

Six retired firefighting aircraft are now on display in Pima Air Museum in Tucson, AZ. In April 1990, Pima Air Museum and the USDA Forest Service signed an agreement to display historic firefighting aircraft on loan from the Forest Service. The Pima Air Museum, a nonprofit, educational museum started in 1976, is the third largest aviation museum in the United States with 228 aircraft on display. Through extensive coordination between John Roberts, fire man­ agement officer, on the Coronado National Forest and Ned Robinson, director of the Pima Air Museum, plans are moving ahead to add more aircraft such as the Fairchild C-II9 and Lockheed P2V and to set aside a separate firefighting aircraft display area at the museum. Photographs of five of the six aircraft now on display in the museum are shown in The Stearman NS Kaydet. modified for borate bombing, was used from /934 into the 1940's this photo story. • as a training aircraft for basic training in the U.S. military. The first airtanker fleet, five Fred A. Fuchs, assistant director, Stearmans from Willows, CA, was organizedfor the Forest Service by Joseph Ely ofthe USDA Forest Service, Fire and Mendocino National Forest and Willows Flying Service and used through equipment rental Aviation Management, Washington, agreements with Willows. DC

The Cessna 310 was the first twin-engine leadpiane widely used by the Forest Service to lead and direct ainankers on retardant drops in 1968-69.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 21 A Fire Protection Analysis for the Beaver Creek Watershed: A Technical Fire Management Final Project

Thomas A. Wordell

Union hotshot superintendent, USDA Forest Service, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, La Grande Ranger District, La Grande, OR

The Beaver Creek Watershed fire shed. When compared with developed maximum impact "thresh­ protection analysis was undertaken to occurrence in the past 20 years, fire olds" or limits against which the evaluate the current La Grande occurrence has more than doubled in effects of the alternatives could be Ranger District preplanned suppres­ the watershed during the last S years. compared, by reviewing forest plan sion response strategy in the This change in fire occurrence and guidelines, discussing wildlife con­ wate~shed. The analysis also served buildup of natural fuels pressed fire cerns (cover, edges, and effects on to satisfy the final requirement-a managers to evaluate the current pre­ diversity), determining suppression case study and written report-of planned suppression response strategy capabilities, and using a computer Technical Fire Management (TFM), for the Beaver Creek Watershed to sediment yield model to estimate a series of courses offered by Wash­ find out whether protection was ade­ allowable fire size (by intensity level) ington Institute, Inc., in conjunction quate. Current fuel profiles, fire that would not cause detrimental with Colorado State University, to occurrence, weather, economics, and effects. Fire effects were assumed to individuals with a background in fire fire effects were examined. These be acceptable if fires were contained management in public agencies who objectives were accomplished by the below the threshold size and unac­ wish to improve their technical profi­ following: ceptable if they exceeded the ciency in fire ecology, fire behavior, • Developing a range of preplanned threshold size. fuels management, data analysis, and suppression response alternatives economics. for the Beaver Creek Watershed The Alternatives using lAS ELECT (an initial attack computer analyzation model Three alternatives were quantifia­ Beaver Creek Watershed developed by Marc Wiitala, bly compared and evaluated in this Pacific Northwest Region). analysis. They are briefly described The Beaver Creek Watershed con­ • Modeling the alternatives with below: sists of approximately 15,000 acres fuels, weather, and fire occurrence Alternative 1 (No Action). This (6,071 hal, At the time of analysis, data to evaluate their economical alternative called for no change to Beaver Creek Watershed provided 6S outcomes and effectiveness. .. the 1990 dispatch response strategy percent of the municipal water supply • Determining the risk of exceeding used by the La Grande Fire Zone for for the City of La Grande, OR, The the maximum tolerable fire event the Beaver Creek Watershed. It La Grande Ranger District of the that could adversely affect water assumed all resources listed in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, quality or other resource values preplanned dispatch cards would be which administers the area, is within the watershed for each sent to each fire as specified by responsible for maintaining water alternative. response level. quality while managing other Alternative 2. This alternative resources in the watershed. Most of How Allowable Impacts Were used lASELECT to select the the area is roadless and inaccessible Determined resources responding to each fire sit­ by vehicles in elevations ranging uation that resulted in the least from 4,500 to 6,500 feet (l,372 to Information from the Land and overall cost (suppression, mop-up, 1,981 m). The plant communities in Resource Management Plan for the and resource loss). Mitigation the watershed range from mixed­ Wallowa-Whitman National Forest measures were used to reduce conifer to sub-alpine fir. and specific input from resource environmental effects by dozers and Since the mid-1970's, tree mor­ specialists was used to determine aerial retardant application. tality caused by insect infestations allowable impacts. An interdisciplin­ Alternative 3. Alternative 3 modi­ and sustained drought conditions in ary team (JD team), consisting of a fied the suppression strategy for all eastern Oregon has substantially wildlife biologist, fisheries biologist, preplanned response levels except increased the natural fuel loadings silviculturalist, hydrologist, and fuels extreme level (where sufficient within the boundaries of the water- or fire specialist, was formed. They resources appeared to be currentIy in

22 Fire Management Noles - --~ ------

place). Trial runs were made, using Fire managers using IASELECT weather station (RAWS). Fifteen various suppression resources, in with procedures similar to those years of weather data (1975-89) was order to develop a reasonable alterna­ used in the Beaver Creek Water­ collected from Fort Collins Computer tive that balanced risk, expected shed analysis could gain valuable Center and downloaded into burned acres, and expected annual insight useful in improving the pre­ PCFIRDAT, a personal computer cost-plus-loss. planning of initial suppression program developed by the California responses and mitigating the costs Department of Forestry (CDF). Methods Used in Evaluating of undesirable fire events. PCFIRDAT was used to produce a Alternatives cumulative frequency graph of energy release component (ERC) per­ Information on fire occurrence, centiles. On Wallowa-Whitman fuels, weather, fire behavior esti­ could be represented by NFFL fuel National Forest, these percentiles are mates, risk assessment, and expected model 8 and 55.7 percent by NFFL used to determine action class levels. burned acres and economic costs fuel model 10. The fuel moisture data were then were assembled and used to evaluate Weather. Weather data for only grouped into four ERC ranges, which the alternatives. the months of June I through Octo­ correlated to the different preplanned Fire Occurrence. Fire history rec­ ber 30 were collected from a dispatch response levels (fig. I). ords for the last 20 years (from representative remote automated Database manager, REFLEX, was 1970--90) on the La Grande District were examined to determine probable Estimatedannual fire occurrenceper fire occurrence rates for the study 15,000 acres Predispatch Rate of area. During this period, according to (6,071 hal Fuelmodel response level Windspeed range occurrence

the records, 0.11 fires occurred each { P(High wind} '" 0.13 0.0101 year per 1,000 acres (405 hal. This 009 P(Moderale wind} '" 0,72 0,0559 P(EXI"mei P(LowWind) 0.0117 is the figure used in this analysis of I '" 0.15 alternatives. { P(High Wind} '= 0.13 0.0325 P(Hlgh} 029 P(Moderale wind) '" 0,72 0,1803 Fuels. A fuels inventory using the P(Lowwind) '= 0.15 0.0376 planar-transect method (Brown 1974) P(Fuel model 10) ~ was conducted in the fall of 1989 to 0.557 { P(High Wind} '= 0.13 0.0236 P(Mod",tei 0 21 P(Moderale wind} '" 0.72 0,1305 obtain current information on the fuel l P(Lowwind) eo 0.15 0.0272

profiles in the watershed. Information { P(High wind} '" 0.13 0.0460 from 195 data plots taken in 3 ran­ P(Low} 041 P(Moderale wind} '" 0.72 0.2549 dom planar transects was gathered P(Lowwind) = 0.15 0,0531 ~I 1.55 and statistically analyzed using { P(High wind> =0,13 O.ODBO 'r P(Exlreme) 0.09 P(Moderale wind) = 0.72 0,0445 REFLEX, a computer database man­ P(Lowwind) = 0.15 0.0093 ager. The data indicated 92.3 percent { P(High Wind) = 0.13 0.0259 of the plots were quite consistent P(High) 0.29 P(Moderate wind) = 0.72 0,1434 with the standardized Northern Forest P(Low Wind) = 0.15 0.0299 P(Fuel model 8) Fire Laboratory (NFFL) fuel models 0,443 { P(High wind) = 0.13 0.0187 8 and 10 (Anderson 1982; Andrews P(Moderate) 0.21 p(Moderale wind) = 0.72 0.1038 1986). After the fuels inventory was P(Low Wind) = 0.15 0.0216 completed, information was gathered { P(High wind) '" 0,13 0.0366 P(Low) 0041 P(Moderale wind) = 0.72 0.2027 from the 453 stands in the watershed P(Low Wind} = 0,15 0.0422 to obtain a weighted representation of the fuel models by area. It was deter­ Figure 1-Graph ofpredispatch response levels and action classes determined by cumulativefre­ mined that 44.3 percent of the area quency distribution of energy release components from 1970-90. Taken from PCFlRDAT.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 23

" used to obtain average fuel moisture mated annual burned acres and costs various containment times or fire values by size class for each range. plus net value change needed to sizes. For additional information on • Associated probabilities were derived evaluate the protection alternatives. IASELECT, contact Marc R. Wiitala by dividing the number of days in Fire Behavior. Estimates of fire of the Pacific Northwest Region. each ERC range by the total number behavior for each of the possible The first step in modeling suppres­ of days in the database. These aver­ combinations of windspeed and fuel sion outcomes with lASELECT was age fuel moisture values were moisture for each fuel model shown to create from the BEHAVE-run subsequently used in BEHAVE runs in figure 1 were derived from multi­ information fireline-containment time to estimate fire behavior (table I). ple modeling runs using the PC scenarios. These were input to a The probability of occurrence for version 3.3 of BEHAVE. Informa­ spreadsheet template in IASELECT. each ERC range is as follows: 0--39 tion on area and perimeter growth Twenty-four scenarios were created = 0.41; 40-49 = 0.21; 50--66 = over time along with fireline intensity using the fire area and perimeter 0.29; and 67-100 = 0.09. and flame length were then entered growth outputs from BEHAVE for Three windspeed ranges were into a suppression model for analysis the various fuel moistures and wind­ established from historical weather and the development of alternatives. speeds previously discussed. Fire size data to determine average 20-foot Modeling Suppression Outcomes. and perimeter growth were entered in (6.I-m) windspeeds, average mid­ lASELECT was used to model sup­ one-half hour intervals. flame windspeeds and associated pression outcomes against the fire The next step in setting up probabilities for each range. These behavior associated with each branch lAS ELECT was determining a master values were also used as inputs to the of the decision tree (fig. 2) for suppression resource list using the BEHAVE runs for estimating fire each alternative. IASELECT is a preplanned dispatch cards and normal behavior. (Statistical confidence computer-based analysis tool available resources able to respond to intervals were determined for the designed to evaluate a wide range of an ignition'in the watershed. average fuel moisture and windspeed economic considerations in the use of Response times were calculated and values obtained. Because of the large fire suppression resources for initial entered for each resource listed. sample size, I was 95 percent certain attack decisions (Wiitala 1989). The These included getaway, driving, that the calculated average values program permits the user to mix and flight, and average walk-in times. were plus or minus 0.2 of the true match predicted fire behavior esti­ The master list could then be manip­ average values.) mates with available suppression ulated to allow only certain resources The probabilities and rates of resources in order to arrive at con­ to respond for each of the alterna­ occurrence on the branches of the tainment times and estimated costs. It tives developed. All lASELECT runs decision tree shown in figure 2 sum­ also allows the user to ,. optimize" were made under the assumption marize the environmental conditions available resources to arrive at the there was a single ignition, and all j this project used to derive the esti- least cost-pius-loss combinations for

Table I-Averagefuel moistures by size class for preplanned response levels

ERG range (NFDRS fuel model G) Fuel moisturelevel and preplanned response level' 0-39 40·49 50-66 67-10 Low Medium High Extreme Average 1-hour fuel moisture 12.1 6.8 5.3 4.1 Average 10-hourfuel moisture 18.5 10.8 9.1 7.6 Average 100-hour fuel moisture 15.2 10.6 8.0 6.0 Live woody fuel moisture 133.9 107.7 88.0 66.5 Probability of occurrencefor each ERC range 0.41 0.21 0.29 0.09

'ERe = energy release component; NFDRS - National Fire-Danger Rating System

24 Fire Management Notes from a three-district cost analysis Predispatch Energy Release Release completed for the years 1986-90. Level ComponentIndex Data on net resource value loss were drawn from "composite acre" net value change (NYC) used in the 94 - • Wallowa-Whitman National Forest fire planning process. The composite­ j 84 - / acre NYC is the total of all the cal­ culated or estimated values per 74 - resource. The values used were cal­ / culated by the forest fuels specialist 64 - for the 1991 NFMAS runs on the 54 - Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. . - -~------: Determination of expected ~ 44 - burned acres and economic costs. . - ~- -- -- .> The economic consequences of each 34 - fire event for each alternative were »> modeled using IASELECT. For each 24 run, a graph was generated to show ~( the final fire size, containment time, 14 and associated costs. A list of initial attack resources required to meet or 4 - , , exceed the amount of fireline needed o I I ) I , o 20 : 40 I 60: 80 : 100 for each containment time was also I I Cumulative Frequency I I produced. I I (percentile) I I

2 3(low) 3{high) 4 I 5 I Evaluating the Alternatives Action Class

Figure 2-Dedsion tree probabilities and rates of occurrence used for alternative analysis. The alternatives were evaluated (Based on estimated annual rate of occurrence per 15,000 acres.) based on the risk of exceeding the acceptable "threshold" acreage size resources listed for each alternative computation template included in as determined by the district resource were available, IASELECT. This spreadsheet com­ specialists (see section above, "How Fireline production rates were then putes travel, personnel, equipment, To Find Allowable Impacts"), entered into IASELECT for each machinery, and clean-up costs (when expected burned acres, and economic suppression resource based on pro­ applicable) for each of the resources consequences from differences in duction tables in the FireJine depending on dispatch response suppression responses. Handbook NWCG Handbook 3 times, distance to fire, and so on. Risk of Undesirable Outcomes. (1989), Airtanker Performance Guide The final requirement for selling For this project the probability (risk) (1979), and input from district sup­ up IASELECT was to arrive at a of one or more fires having unaccept­ pression specialists for each fuel comprehensive estimate of total cost­ able fire effects was determined over model. All production rates were plus-net resource loss for each fire time using Poisson's Distribution. entered in chains per hour. event. IASELECT requires per-acre Poisson's Distribution states: Hourly and fixed suppression costs mop-up costs and composite net e)-") (ct)k were then calculated for each of the change for resource values. Average suppression resources using a cost mop-up costs per acre were derived P(k) k!

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 25

'I " Where: c = Expected rate of fires occurrence for each branch on the from a more aggressive suppression per 15,000 acres decision tree for each alternative. strategy. • (6,071 hal (calculated The expected annual results for each Based on 2 p.m. weather observa­ from runs resulting in fire event were then added to obtain tions, fire growth exceeded initial a final fire size the expected annual totals for size attack capabilities 34.5 percent of the exceeding the pre­ and cost-plus-loss for each alternative time under the 1990 dispatch strategy determined threshold as shown in Table 3. (Alternative I). Many of those fires size for each alterna­ Alternative 2 had the least were contained with secondary sup­ tive) expected annual cost-plus-loss and pression resources, but cost and risk t = Time in years burned acres, but was based on could both be substantially reduced k = Number of fires selections made exclusively by by a more aggressive response of e = The base of the natu­ lAS ELECT from a list of all initial attack forces as shown by ral system of resources available for initial attack Alternatives 2 and 3. logarithms having a in the La Grande area. Alternative 3. The results of Alternative 2 were numerical value of which increased initial attack forces based completely on optimized runs approximately on the preplanned dispatch cards from lAS ELECT. Many of the runs 2.718 ... from prevailing levels, indicated required suppression forces that were that overall cost-plus-loss and unrealistic. Consequently. Alternative To find the probability of one or burned acres would decrease from 2 did not offer a viable option to the more fire events exceeding the pre­ the current situation shown with district. determined acceptable limits, the Alternative 1. Alternative 3. through the rein­ probability of no unacceptable fires forcement of additional resources, cut (P(O)) was calculated and then sub­ Conclusion-a More Aggressive expected annual costs by $2,643, tracted from I. This was done to Strategy reduced the expected annual burned ascertain the level of risk district acres by 6.05 acres (2.4 hal. and managers could expect under each Within the limitations of this most importantly decreased the risk altemati ve assuming weather and fuel analysis---evaluating the 1990 pre­ of exceeding an acceptable fire size loadings remained constant over suppression response strategy for the in the watershed by 33.7 percent time. Beaver Creek Watershed-it over a IO-year period from Alterna­ Risk was determined annually and appeared the district could benefit tive I. then over a 10- to IS-year period, which correlated to the approximate Table 2---Risk of unacceptable fire events in specified time periods time that would be required to carry , out a remedial fuels management Expected Annual risk of 10-year risk of 15-year risk of unacceptable unacceptable program (see table 2). unacceptable unacceptable. Altemative annual rate fire event fire event fire event Table 2 shows that Alternative I No.1 0.1122 0.1061 0.674 0.814 incurred approximately twice the risk No.2 0.0426 0.0417 0.347 0.472 i over time of experiencing one or No.3 0.0426 0.0417 0.347 0.472 more fires exceeding the threshold fire size as Alternative 2 or 3. Table 3-Annual expected burned acres and cost-pius-loss by alternative Expected Burned Acres and Economic Cost of Alternatives. The Expected annual Expected annual economic consequences and expected Alternative bumed acreage cost-plus-loss (dollars) burned acres were determined by No.1 16.75 $11,383 multiplying the modeled fire size or NO.2 3.50 $ 4,400 cost-plus-loss by the expected rate of No.3 10.70 $ 8,740

26 Fire Management Notes Due to the sensitivity of the water­ Wallowa-Whitman National Forest Land and Attack Resource Selector-user's manual. shed, I recommended increasing Resource Management Plan. 1990. U.S. [Draft.] Portland, OR: U.S. Department of preplanned suppression resources as Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific North­ Pacific Northwest Region. west Region, Aviation and Fire suggested in Alternative 3 until a Wiitala, M.R. 1989. IASELECT: Initial Management. 33 p. fuels management plan could be implemented. This recommendation was presented to the La Grande fire management officer and was imple­ the fire planning and management mented during the 1991 preplanned Technical Fire skills of its fire-related personnel. In dispatch review with the Oregon Management Training cooperation with the University of State Department of Forestry. Washington in Seattle, a course of Other changes were also made to Technical Fire Management (TFM) instruction was created. After the ini­ strengthen the suppression response is fire training at a high academic tial I8-month series of courses, for the dispatch blocks adjacent to level. The objective of TFM is to another series was held 2 years later. the watershed. improve the technical proficiency of From 1986 to the present, TFM mod­ Based on this experience, fire fire management specialists and to ules have been conducted every year, managers using lASELECT with pro­ teach the basic concepts in economics with a new series starting when the cedures similar to those outlined in and statistics. preceding series has been completed. Each of the seven modules is 2 Washington Institute took on the this report could gain valuable insight weeks long except for the first and administration of the training in 1985 that they could use to improve the last, which are I week each. The first after the University of Washington preplanning of initial suppression is an optional brush-up course in basic chose to drop it. A working relation­ responses and help mitigate the costs mathematics and the use of personal ship was forged with Colorado State of undesirable fire events. _ computers. During the final module, University (CSU) so that college each TFM'er is given the opportunity credit could be earned from the work Literature Cited and References to explain a horne-based project to a if the student wished. Under the cur­ -panelof experts, the oral presentation rent arrangement, TFM graduates not Airtanker performance guide. 1977. Ogden, being a summary of the longer and only have the option of obtaining col­ UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest more intensive written report that is lege credit, they may also qualify for Service, Intermountain Research Station. required to graduate from the course. the master's degree program in fire Anderson, H.E. 1982. Aids to determining TFM is geared to fire specialists, fuel models for estimating fire behavior. particularly those at General Schedule Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-122. Ogden, UT: levels, 7 through I L In particular, it U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest attracts those agency employees who Service, Intermountain Research Station. seck technical proficiency and profes­ 20 p. Andrews, P.L. 1986. BEHAVE: fire behavior sional development beyond what is prediction and fuel modeling system­ available in agency training. The aim BURN subsystem, part I. Gen. Tech. Rep. is to strengthen the technical and ana­ INT-194. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of lytical skills of specialists and to give Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain them an opportunity to solve problems Research Station, 130 p. likely to arise in their work. Brown, James K. 1974. Handbook for inven­ torying downed woody material. Gen. How the Training Started and Its Tech. Rep. INT-16. U.S. Department of Current Goals Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Experiment Station. 24 p. Fireline Handbook NWCG Handbook 3. 1989. The Pacific Northwest Region PMS 41Q-.-1, NFES #0065. Boise, 10: (Region 6) of the USDA Forest Serv­ Dr. Douglas Rideout, Associate Professor of National Wildfire Coordinating Group, ice saw a need for TFM training in Forest Economics. Colorado State University, Washington, DC. 146 p. plus appendixes. the late 1970's as a way to improve teaching in Module 11. Economics. I

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 27 management at CSU under the direc­ tion of Dr. Philip N. Omi. It is a continuing goal of Wash­ ington Institute to keep TFM up-to­ date, not only in technological but in policy and managerial directions as well. During the first series of TFM modules, a handheld calculator was state-of-the-art. Today, the personal computer with sophisticated software is considered a basic training tool. Instructors come from academic insti­ tutions, government agencies, and private consulting firms and are evalu­ ated regularly for their expertise and methods of teaching. Originally, students came from the Pacific Northwest Region of the For­ est Service only. The participants now come from several government agen­ cies, Federal and State, and from many regions. Graduates of TFM can be found in nearly all western regions and a few more distant areas.

The Curriculum Gabe Jasso at the computer in the TPM classroom at Battelle Conference Center, Seattle, WA. Jasso is Q TFM graduate and now works as hotshot supervisor on Entiat District, Wenatchee The TFM curriculum has been National Forest, Pacific Northwest Region. developed so that each new module can build and add to what the student has learned from the previous mod­ Module II: Economics for Fire Module IV: Fire Effects and the ules. The modules and schedule are as Managers. Approximately 2 months Ecology of Fire. In this module, stu­ follows: after Module I, participants study dents learn to identify the direct Math and Computer Refresher basic economic concepts and their causes and effects of fire. Evaluation (optional). To begin, the TFM partici­ application to fire suppression and of a site to determine the historical pants may take this I-week class to fuels planning. Students learn how to role of fire and the effects of future review mathematics and computer conduct financial analyses and how management with or without the skills. Basic concepts are presented the National Fire Management Anal­ application of fire is also undertaken. and some direction is given on future ysis System (NFMAS) and Fuels Module rv is held in Iate spring and use of these skills in the ensuing Appraisal Process (FAP) are includes a field trip with a case study modules. developed and applied. assignment. Module I: Numerical Analysis. Module 111: Fuels and Prescribed Module V: Fire and Land Man­ Following the refresher class, the first Fire Management. Students investi­ agement. Module V, the last 2-week I 2-week session leads the student gate the components of the Fire module, explores legislative, political, I, through quantitative decisionmaking Behavior Prediction System. including sociological, and legal considerations techniques that can be applied to anal­ how it is constructed and how the out­ of fire management. There is .ysis of fire and fuels management puts are interpreted and applied. They emphasis on decisionrnaking through data. These techniques include also learn fire hazard, fire risk, and the use of the rational planning proc­ applications in probability distribution, fire danger concepts and the appropri­ ess as well as investigation of methods statistical testing, decision theory, and ate situations for their use, including for monitoring and evaluation. Each sampling methods. fuel treatment plans. student develops an individual outline

28 Fire Management Notes for a final project and creates study plans to accomplish the project in the allocated time. Module VI: Final Project. After choosing a project, the student carries it out on his or her own unit over a period of several months, writes up the project, and appears before a panel of peers and instructors to present the '

research and conclusions. To complete j' the project, the student will use the information and skills gained through the previous modules.

Information Health Hazards of Smoke In addition to coordinating the For information about TFM train­ national effort, NWCG has asked ing, contact Reid M. Kenady, After the serious smoke inversion MTDC to keep management and the Washington Institute Incorporated, conditions on the northern California en-the-ground firefighters aware of P.O. Box 1108, Duvall, WA 98019, and southern Oregon fires of 1987 and available information about smoke telephone (office) 206-788-5161, ! the Greater Yellowstone Area fires of health hazards. As a result, MTDC (FAX) 206-788-0688; or Laurie I 1988. the National Wildfire Coordi­ has been preparing a semiannual Perrett, USDA Forest Service, Pacific I nating Group (NWCG) hosted a executive report "Health Hazards of Northwest Region, Aviation.and Fire confcrence-c-v'The Effect of Forest Smoke Update." The first report was Management, P.O. Box 3613, Port­ I Fire Smoke on Fircfighters"-in San sent to the field in August 1990 and land, OR 97208 .• I Diego. CA. in 1989. As a result of the second in March 1991. These I that conference. NWCG asked the reports are in user-friendly language; Reid M. Kenady and Laurie Perrett. USDA Forest Service's Missoula they have already discussed the results respectively, president, Washington I I Technology and Development Center of research, detailed the Occupational Institute Incorporated, Duvall, WA, (MTDC) to coordinate the nationwide Safety and Health Administration and cooperative/ire specialist, USDA II interagency efforts to identify the haz­ requirements for respirator use, Forest Service, Pacific Northwqt ards of smoke inhalation and then explained some of the human physiol­ Region, Aviation and Fire Manage­ I ogy involved with smoke and I I' develop and test equipment and proce­ ,I ment, Portland, OR dures to mitigate those hazards. particulates. and offered ideas for I Under the leadership of the noted managers to limit the exposure to exercise-physiologist. Dr. Brian inhaling smoke. Sharkey. a technical panel has been For further information of this pro­ formed. On it are physicians and ject or to receive past or future copies industrial hygienists from such diverse of the free "Health Hazards of Smoke groups as Johns Hopkins University Update," contact Dr. Brian Sharkey Medical Center. the Intermountain or fire program leader Diek Mangan at Forest Fire Laboratory. the National (406) 329-3900 or (FrS) 585-3900; Park Service, National Institute of DG:ROIA.• Occupational Safety and Health. and the California Department of Health Sciences. Their charter is to review Dick Mangan, program leader, the ongoing research efforts. recom­ USDA Forest Service, Missoula Tech­ mend future research needs. and nology and Development Center, Fire. where feasible. provide funding for Aviation, and Safety Program, Mis­ needed research through NWGC. soula, MT

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 29

\ Improving Airtanker Delivery Performance Charles W. George and Fred A. Fuchs USDA Forest Service, team leader, Fire Suppression Technology Unit, Inter­ mountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT, and assistant director, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC

Since use of airtankers in forest types. Little standardization resulted, ment agencies for airtanker use. In firefighting became an accepted prac­ and performance varied. Some sys­ 1977, with a revised charter and the tice late in the 1950's, fire manage­ tems were fairly versatile, others Department of the Interior, Office of ment agencies have provided little limited in effectiveness to specific Aircraft Services (OAS), and specific guidance to operators about fuel fire situations and sometimes National Association of State For­ how airtanker delivery systems regional conditions. esters as new members, the ATB should perform. Agencies have spec­ took on an interagency role and ified airtanker characteristics such as The Airtanker Board became known as the Interagency retardant carrying capacity, gross Airtanker Board (IATB). In this weight, and wheel-loading and speed One of the first attempts to find a expanded role, the IATB evaluates capabilities. These have generally way to improve the performance and new or modified airtankers, promotes been dictated by airport runway, taxi­ safety of airtankers began in the more effective and efficient airtanker way, ramp, retardant base, or other 1970's with the Forest Service's for­ delivery systems, advises agencies, limitations. Other constraints such as mation of the Airtanker Board (ATB) and serves as a central data informa­ the structure of the aircraft fuselage (industry participated as a full mem­ tion source. and wing carry-through (spars) also ber of the ATB). The ATB was Since its beginnings, one of the have affected delivery system design. fanned to assess the worthiness of IATB 's primary functions has been The actual performance of the deliv­ new aircraft and tank and gating sys­ to set baseline or minimum require­ ery system has been for the most part tems that were being proposed to the ments for airtankers, focusing on a result of the creativity of airtanker Forest Service and other fire manage- aircraft and delivery system perform- owners or operators and their tank Alrtanker Need designers, responding to the agency's USDA Forest Service \ need for an easy-to-use and reliable ­ USOI-Qffice of Aircraft Service (OAS) system within these constraints. for Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, and This is not to say agency fire man­ Bureau of Indian Affairs agers did not evaluate delivery States California (COF) system performance. They just did North Carolina not have the tools or information to Washington provide quantitative data on how much retardant chemical or water is Contract required in given fuel and fire Forest Service, OAS, States situations-What are the upper and Specifications fATB approval lower limits for effective use of retar­ Additional requirements dant or water? How wide should a retardant line be? What kinds of line increments are most desirable? In Forest Service 130 airtankers addition, the information needed to OAS 12 airtankers (5 Alaska, 7 lower 48 stales) relate tank design and release charac­ 21 airtankers (5 contract and { teristics with actual retardant ground COF 16 S2F for contract mainte­ distribution patterns was not avail­ r nance and operation) able. In other words, operators, by trial and error, experience, and Operations assessing what agencies preferred, National resource cooperation-Boise Interagency Fire Center developed delivery systems to "fill the bill." Numerous delivery systems Figure I-Interaction ofInteragency Airtanker Board approvals and agency needs and evolved for a variety of aircraft specifications.

30 Fire Management Notes ance. These minimum requirements are used to derive a list of "approved airtankers" that are qualified to respond to member agency contracts. Actual contract specifications pre­ pared by user agencies contain a requirement that airtankers must be "approved by the Board" as well as Seconds include other specific user require­ ments. Figure I illustrates the interaction of the IATB approvals and agency needs and specifications.

Performance Standards

Initial Evaluation. Initial perform­ ance standards were developed around the performance of the exist­ ing fleet of aircraft in use by fire management agencies. These stand­ ards were written based on a consensus that new aircraft must be ., equal or better" in performance than airtankers in the existing fleet. To develop these standards and crite­ ria. the IATB drew upon the knowledge gained from recent research, development, and evalua­ tion programs. Research Studies-Basis of Evaluation. The evaluation of the performance of the delivery systems

'f-, derives from research studies initiated by the Forest Service in 1969 to quantify the capabilities of different tank and gating systems. The studies entailed the dropping of retardant or water over a sampling grid and deter­ mining the ground pattern under a variety of conditions: tank configura­ tion. door sequencing speed, drop height, retardant type, relative humidity, temperature, windspeed, and direction (George 1975, George and Blakely 1973). Honeywell Cor­ Figure 2--Relationship between ground distribution patterns and characteristics of retardant poration, under contract to the Forest flow from the tank system.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 31 ,,' Service, used these data to develop a The program- 1. Quantifies theretardant pattern simulation model whose pri­ 4. Sums the packets ina downrange volume into packets, which coverage distribution (percent) mary variable was the flow history establish theflow rate from the individual systems (Swan­ ( II son and others 1975). Figure 2 ) shows the relationship between ground distribution patterns and the characteristics of retardant flow from ) Range Tank the tank system. The initial model used flow history derived from ) ~ 5. Adjusts for altitude motion pictures of airborne airtanker losses (percent recovered) drops. The pattern simulation model "71 I Trailoff (PATSIMj was refined through the Decreasing ~ 61 -o use of accurately measured flow data height of ~ ~ (Swanson and others 1977). PATS1M head e (pressure) is illustrated in figure 3. As a better as 51 '" understanding of the mechanisms of Volume retardant breakup, cloud formation, Full Range and resulting distribution of retardant 41 flow on the ground has been gained, addi­ 6. Removes a uniform tions and modifications to the models Door 31 fringe pattern have been made and documented opening 21 (George and Johnson 1990, George time- .1 1 establishes 1981). Output from the models has flow been used in the development of air­ 2. Flies each packet to tanker performance guides and slide extinction chart-retardant coverage computers V (George 1981), a tank design guide Ale for fire retardant aircraft (Swanson and Luedecke 1978), guidelines for estimating the effects of downloading 7. Develops thetwo parts (Luedecke and Swanson 1979), and (uniform fringe pattern criteria for use in establishing new and semicross range) of 3. Distributes the packets in theair the pattern asa function , airtanker requirements. ..--:=J ofaltitude The first requirements for airtanker ~ delivery systems were developed by Semicross examining the performance of air­ ./\ range tankers, based on flow rate and volume of drop (tank size) informa­ :?:\ t tion. This examination identified an ~ important general relationship: Retar­ dant flow rate and volume of drop /:=J determine the ground pattern dis­ ~ tribution and retardant coverage level. (Coverage levels I, 2, 3, or 4 Figure 3--Pattern simulation model (PATSIM) used to predict ground distribution patterns from refer respectively to I, 2, 3, or 4 retardant release characteristics (Qs = quantity per unit oftime; V Ale = aircraft velocity).

32 Fire Management Notes Research shows that significant Flow rate Coverage Fuel model Description improvements in performance of level range NFDRS FB airtanker delivery systems can be obtained by allowing the flow of 10D-150 A,L,S Annual and perennial Western grasses; tundra retardant to be selected and con­ trolled from the tank. C 2 Conifer with grass 151-250 2 H,R B Shortneedle closed conifer, summer hardwood E,P,U 9 Longneedle conifer, fall hardwood

gallons per hundred square feet. T 2 Sagebrush with grass 251-400 3 N 3 Sawgrass Retardant coverage level is expressed F 5 Intermediate brush (green) as gallons per hundred square feet K 11 Light slash (gpc) or depth (inches or centime­ 401-600 4 G 10 Shortneedle conifer (heavy dead litter) ters).) In addition. specific coverage levels and flow rates have been rec­ 0 4 Southern rough ommended for the various fuel and 601--800 6 F,O 6 Intermediate brush (cured), Alaska black spruce fire behavior models (fig. 4). Start­ ing in 1983, field verification of Greater Greater B,O 4 California mixed chaparral, high pocosin recommended coverage levels was than BOO than 6 J 12 Medium slash I 13 Heavy slash conducted through the multi-year Operational Retardant Effectiveness Figure 4-Retardant flow-rate range and coverage level recommended for National Fire-Danger (ORE) Program. Rating System fuel and fire behavior models. Regulating the Flow Rate. Know­ ing this relationship--between flow rate and volume of drop and the dis­ tribution pattern and coverage-and the performance of airtankers pres­ ently in use, it is obvious that the flexibility and performance of indi­ vidual airtankers, as well as the 1,000 3 entire fleet, could be enhanced by incorporating in each airtanker the u-

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 33

,\ II

control of flow rate are possible. One method of regulating flow is shown in figure 5. To allow for other approaches to achieving the control of flow rate and thus ground > coverage levels, evaluation methods were written that would allow actual drop tests to be used to demonstrate that specified ground coverage levels and pattern lengths could be attained with other than conventional retar­ dant delivery systems. Figure 6 depicts an example of a controllable .- continuous flow system designed to achieve control of flow from a single 1 1 tank or door system. f\'; 11 3 3 Door openings Implementing the Board Criteria 1,000 To implement the improved IATB delivery system criteria developed in 800 3 1986, considerable time and effort has been required. Many of the exist­ U CD ing airtankers in the fleet needed to .!!! "iii 600 be modified and the designs growing .9 out of the new concepts more than CD likely added to the design of new air­ ri! ;: 400 2 craft joining the fleet. With this in 0 mind, the IATB set 1990 as the u:: date for implementation, and the 200 improved criteria became known as the"1990 criteria." In late 1989 and early 1990, however, it became a-f---,----,----,----,----,----,----,------, apparent that, although private indus­ a 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 try was moving to incorporate the new performance requirements, Time (sec) actual implementation in 1990 was overly optimistic. Several systems Figure 6--Diagram ofa "controllable continuousflow" SP-2H system. aimed at meeting the 1990 criteria were developed and placed in service by or before 1990, however, and reviews. Better acceptance of the These new systems also demon­ were fairly successful in demonstrat­ systems can be expected when those strated improved efficiency (length of ing the flexibility of the new systems involved in their application, includ­ line per gallon of retardant) at the (KC-97, C-130, and SP-2H air­ ing airtanker crews and air attack various coverage levels over older craft). These new and improved supervisors are more familiar with unimproved designs. Tables I and 2 systems are generally getting good them. provide line production values (feet

34 Fire Management Notes (0.31 m) of line per 100 gallons Table I-Line production values in feet for unimproved airtankers as a function of coverage level (379 L) and total line length per air­ and airtanker volume' craft load) for the old and new improved systems. A summary com­ Coverage levels (gpc) parison of line length capabilities of Volume unimproved and improved airtankers (gallon) 0.5 2 3 4 6 8 at 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 gallons 800 1,288 710 398 273 195 85 0 (3,785,7,571, and 11,356 L) is (161) (89) (50) (34) (24) (10) (0) given in table 3. The average percent 1,000 1,374 793 473 340 254 128 26 improvement of airtankers meeting (137) (79) (47) (34) (25) (13) (3) the 1990 lATH criteria for coverage 1,200 1,460 875 547 407 313 172 54 (122) (73) (46) (34) (26) (14) (5) levels 0.5 to 4.0 is as follows: 1,400 1,547 958 622 473 372 215 82 (111) (68) (44) (34) (27) (15) (6) Average improvement of airtankers 1,600 1,600 1,040 697 540 431 258 109 meeting 1990 criteria (100) (65) (44) (34) (27) (16) (7) 1,800 1,720 1,123 771 607 490 301 137 (96) (62) (43) (34) (27) (17) (8) Coverage level Improvement 2,000 1,806 1,205 846 674 549 345 164 (gpc) (percent) (90) (60) (42) (34) (27) (17) (8) 0.5 57 2,200 1,893 1,288 921 741 608 388 192 I 42 (86) (59) (42) (34) (28) (18) (9) 2 21 2,400 1,979 1,370 995 808 666 431 219 (82) (57) (41) (34) (28) (18) (9) 2,600 2,066 1,453 1,070 874 725 475 247 It now appears total implementation (79) (56) (41) (34) (28) (18) (10) of the new performance criteria will 2,800 2,152 1,535 1,145 941 784 518 275 occur over the next several years. (77) (55) (41) (34) (28) (19) (10) Design and construction or modifica­ 3,000 2,239 1,618 1,219 1,008 843 561 302 (75) (54) (41) (34) (28) (19) (10) tion of existing delivery systems is only the first step in attaining the 1Numbers in parentheses are linelengthl100 gallons. very significantly improved perform­ ance and flexibility possible, during actual fire operations. Control sys­ tems that contain all the necessary inputs and make flow control or retardant coverage level simple to select might logically be the next ., essential step in the development. A new approach in selecting the type of drop by air attack supervisors, lead plane pilots, or others instrumental in applying fire retardant must be agreed upon. The emphasis logically should be placed on the "retardant coverage level" for the specific fuel or fire situation. After detennination of the appropriate coverage level by the air attack supervisor or other per-

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 35 I,

Table 2--Line production values in feet for improved airtankers as a function of coverage level and process briefly described here, or and airtanker volumeI some similar approach, should provide these results: Coverage level • Improved performance (gpc) Volume • Increased flexibility (gallon) 0.5 2 3 4 6 8 • Increased efficiency 800 2,246 1,114 526 311 169 38 o • More consistent results (281) (139) (66) (39) (24) (5) (0) • Greater overall fire suppression 1,000 2,337 1,202 607 384 255 90 o capability - (234) (120) (61) (38) (26) (9) (0) 1,200 2,429 1,289 687 458 321 142 9 Literature Cited (202) (107) (57) (38) (27) (12) (1) 1,400 2,520 1,377 768 531 367 194 46 (180) (98) (55) (38) (26) (14) (3) Blakely, Aylmer D.; George, Charles W.; 1,600 2,611 1,465 848 604 454 245 84 Johnson, Gregg M. 1982. Static testing to (163) (92) (53) (38) (28) (15) (5) evaluate airtanker performance. Gen. Tech. 1,800 2,702 1,552 929 678 520 297 121 Rep. INT-78. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department (150) (86) (52) (38) (29) (17) (7) of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intennoun­ 2,000 2,794 1,640 1,009 751 586 349 158 tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. (140) (82) (50) (38) (29) (17) (8) 17 p. 2,200 2,885 1,728 1,090 824 652 400 196 George, C. W. 1975. Fire retardant ground (131) (79) (50) (37) (30) (18) (9) distribution patterns from the CL-215 air tanker. Res. Pap. INT-165. Ogden, UT: 2,400 2,976 1,815 1,170 897 718 452 233 (124) (76) (49) (37) (30) (19) (10) U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest and Range 2,600 3,068 1,903 1,251 971 784 504 270 Intermountain (118) (73) (48) (37) (30) (19) (10) Experiment Station. 67 p. George, Charles W. 1981. Determining air­ 2,800 3,159 1,991 1,331 1,044 850 556 308 (113) (71) (48) (37) (30) (20) (11) tanker delivery performance using a simple slide chart-retardant coverage calculator. 3,000 3,250 2,078 1,411 1,117 916 607 345 (108) (69) (47) (37) (31) (20) (12) Gen. Tech, Rep. INT-Il3. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest , Numbers in parentheses are line length/100 gallons. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p. George, C. W.; Blakely, A. D. 1973. An evaluation of the drop characteristics and Table 3-Comparisofl ofline-length capabilities ofimproved and unimproved airtankers ground distribution patterns of forest fire retardants. Res. Pap. INT-134. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest , Une length (feet) for coverage level (gpo)' Service, Intermountain Forest and Range 4 Volume 0.5 1 2 3 Experiment Station. 60 p. (gallon) UI ~ UI ~ UI ~ UI ~ U I PI George, Charles W.; Johnson, Gregg M. 1990. Developing air tanker performance 1,000 1,3742,33770 7931,20252 473 607 28 340 384 13 254 255 0 guidelines. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-268. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ 2,000 1,806 2,794 55 1,205 1,640 36 8461,009 19 674 751 11 547 586 7 ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research 3,000 2,2393,250451,6182,07828 1,219 1,411 16 1,008 1,11711 843 916 9 Station. 96 p.

1U = l)I1improved lank; t "" improved lank meeting 1990 criteria; PI = percent improvement Luedecke, A. D.; Swanson, D. H. 1979. Adjustments to basic airtanker performance guides to account for downloading. Hon­ sonnel, the airtanker pilot or crew ' Applying existing knowledge and eywell Contract 786-2031-76 to then simply selects that level technology available to the problem Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 39 p. requested from his system control or of aerial retardant delivery and fire Swanson, D. H.~ Luedecke, A. D.; Helvig, display. suppression and using the methods T. N. 1978. Experimental tank and gating

36 Fire Management Notes Field Use of Improved more uniform and controllable retar­ crews of each air tanker will be able Airtankers and Retardant dant coverage level on the ground. to set the proper door sequence and Since most retardant is used to build a time delay, or in some cases, dial in Tanks chemical fireline around the fire, uni­ the requested coverage level into an fonnity and continuity of the retardant onboard computer. More Reliable and More Efficient on the ground is very important. There are many advantages to such a system. There is less room for error. Tank and gating systems on aircraft Recent Improvements .•• The simplicity of the system shortens have evolved during the last 20 years training time for firefighters and elimi­ into very reliable and increasingly ..• to the Tank. The most recent nates cumbersome books and slide­ efficient dispensers of fire retardants improvements in retardant tank. system rule type computers. The valuable and suppressants. These developments efficiency are being made to the tanks data contained in the old formats has have resulted from cooperation themselves. In the past, the flow rates now been absorbed into the new tank between government and private from various types of tank systems systems. industry. both making a significant varied greatly. Using the technical Another advantage will be to contribution to improved retardant advice of the Missoula laboratory, air shorten the amount of radio communi­ tank performance. tanker operators are modifying the cation that was necessary with the old flow-rate characteristics of their retar­ retardant coverage prescription termi­ Cooperation and an Important dant tanks so that all systems will be nology. Shorter radio messages are Product able to produce similar flow rates. more easily understood and leave ..• to the Terminology. One of the more time available to the flight crews The Operational Retardant Effec­ major benefits of the latest improve­ and ground crews for other important tiveness (ORE) Program, a multi-year ments is a simplified and standardized communications and tasks in the high retardant coverage evaluation program retardant prescription terminology. workload environment over a wildfue. lead by the USDA Forest Service Previously, fire suppression managers Intermountain Fire Sciences Labora­ needed to use a large database of What's Ahead tory at Missoula, MT, helped identify retardant prescription tenninology to areas in the tank and gating system compensate for the variances among What is emerging from these efforts needing improved performance. Using tank systems. Since all modified tanks to improve retardant tank system per­ ORE team data, the airtanker industry will now be able to produce similar fonnance is an example of technology produced several technical improve­ flow rates, drop instructions to flight benefitting operational field personnel ments to their tank and gating crews can now be given in terms of directly engaged in wildfire suppres­ systems. One important improvement "coverage level" instead of "door sion. The challenge is now for growing out of recent cooperation is numbers" and "time delays." A fire national and regional level fire and the solid-state digitized intervalometer. manager can now simply ask for aviation managers to train, use, evalu­ This new generation "electronic box" whatever coverage level fits the situa­ ate, and continue improving this gives the airtanker pilot a much more con of a ground fire. No longer does valuablefire suppression tool.• accurate way to open a series of tank he or she have to figure out how Dave Nelson, regional aviation compartments on the airtanker. What many doors at a specific time delay to officer, USDA Forest Service, Region does that mean to firefighters?-a request from the airtanker. The flight 3, Albuquerque, NM

system (ETAGS). Final report. Honeywell 3332 to Intermountain Forest and Range and Range Experiment Station. 88 p. Contract 26-3245 to Intermountain Forest Experiment Station. 154 p. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Serv­ and Range Experiment Station. 284 p. Swanson, D. H.; Luedecke, A. D.'; Helvig, ice. 1987. Interagency Airtanker Board, Swanson, D. H.; Luedecke, A. D.; Helvig, T. N.; Parduhn, F. J. 1977. Supplement to Spec. Rep. 8757 1801. San Dimas, CA: T. N.; Parduhn, F. J. 1975. Development of development of user guidelines for selected U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest USer guidelines for selected retardant air­ retardant aircraft. Final report. Honeywell Service, Equipment Development Center. craft. Final report. Honeywell Contract 26- Contract 26-3332 to Intermountain Forest 30 p.

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 37 I (;.- I . I A Tribute to Smokejumpers: I Dedication of the National Wildland Firefighters Memorial

"In the first place, the best infor­ mation I can get from experienced fliers is that all parachute jumpers are more or less crazy-just a little bit unbalanced, otherwise they wouldn't be engaged in such a hazardous under­ taking ..." wrote Regional Forester Evan W. Kelley in a letter to Me. Earl W. Loveridge in 1935. Fifty-six years later, the smokejumper program is DOW one of the most efficient means of initial attack on remote wildfires. The smokejumper program began in 1939, and the first fire jump was made by Earl Cooley and Rufus Robinson on the Nez Perce National Forest in 1940.

Smokejumper Training Rigors

Smokejumper candidates must go through a month of rigorous training before being qualified to jump to a wildfire. Candidates must already be experienced firefighters before coming to the smokejumper program. Smoke­ jumper training includes a week long "rookie camp" where grueling line digging is practiced and timed, and llO-pound (50 kg) packouts must be accomplished. In the z-week practice units that follow, smokejumpers learn jump procedures and safety practices, perform simulated jumps and gradu­ ally work up to eight practice jumps. The final week is spent on practice jumps and classroom training in first aid, helicopter training, fire behavior, and safety procedures. Now the real challenge lies ahead National Wildland Firefighters Memorial. Each stone bearing the name ofa smokejumper is of the rookies-an actual fire jump. marked by a rose. Each jumper exits the airplane wear-

38 Fire Management Notes In smokejumping's 51-year history, the Mann Gulch jumpers have been the only smokejumpers to die in the line of duty while fighting a wildfire. In over 350,000 jumps, only 3 jumpers have died in jump-related accidents. The smokejumpers' record speaks for itself. These men and women are among the best trained firefighters in the world. But you won't hear any of them tell you that.

Recognition and Appreciation

Formal recognition of those young men who died fighting the Mann Gulch Fire has been conspicuous by its long absence. However, on May 8, 1991, the National Wildland Fire­ fighters Memorial was dedicated at the Aerial Fire Depot in Missoula, MT. Families and friends of the Mann Gulch smokejumpers attended the ded­ Bob Sallee, last survivor ofthe Mann Gulch Fire in which 13 smokejumpers lost their lives in /949. ication. coming from all over the country. The formal ceremony helped ing an extra 65 pounds (30 kg) of fire and walked in behind the flames. to finally heal the emotional wounds protective equipment. Jump suits are Foreman Dodge attempted to gather left by the tragic Mann Gulch Fire, as made of tough Kevlar fabric and lined his men into the bum, but due to the heard from many who attended. A let­ with foam padding. Once on the roar of the flames, smoke, and confu­ ter from Johan Newcombe, sister of ground, the jumper removes the suit sion, the men misunderstood the plan one of the men who died at Mann and fights fire in the lighter-weight and chose to try and outrun the fire. Gulch, stated: "I want to say thank Nomexw shirts and pants. When the Only two jumpers made it to the you to each and all for your per­ hard work of putting out the fire is ridgetop and down into what is now severance in gathering everyone for completed, the jumper then must lug known as Rescue Gulch. it was there the Memorial Dedication. It was truly an 85- to llO-pound (39- to 50-kg) that Walter Rumsey and Robert Sallee a fantastic experience. Meeting friends gear bag, sometimes as far as 15 sought refuge from the Mann Gulch of Raymond's, seeing the Base, Uni­ miles (24 km) to the nearest road. flames. Foreman Dodge survived the versity of Montana, and so on, has flames by remaining inside his own really helped 10 fill Ihe void in my .. The Mann Gulch Fire backfire. As a result of this tragedy, life-that I've felt for 42 years. Now, new techniques in fire suppression, I understand so much. Everyone there, Smokejumping reached a low point along with an intense study of fire families and friends, came away in August of 1949 when 13 smoke­ behavior and fire safety became of enriched by the experience." • jumpers perished in the Mann Gulch utmost importance. With the inves­ Fire on the Helena National Forest. tigation of the Mann Gulch Fire came Tracey Nimlos and Timothy Only 3 of the 16 men on the fire sur­ new knowledge and understanding of Eldridge, respectively, purchasing vived when the fire suddenly fire behavior. This understanding is agent and assistant manager ofthe exploded, trapping the jumpers in the passed on to all fire crews through Smokejumper Visitors Center, USDA steep gulch. Wagner Dodge, the classroom and on-the-job training on Forest Service, Region 1, Aerial Fire smokejumper foreman, lit an escape fires. Depot, Missoula, MT

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 39 The Heavy-Lift Helicopter and Fire Retardant Drops at the Stormy Fire Complex

Lynn R. Biddison

Agency liaison, Chemonics Industries, lnc., FIRE·TROL Division, Phoenix. AZ

.j-.

The use of the heavy-lift helicop­ Kern River drainage escaped from •A trailer-mounted pump and ori­ ter' to carry fire retardant to wildland strong aggressive initial attack fice blender for proportioning fire control is relatively new. The efforts. When controlled, the fires liquid FIRE-TROL® LCA concen­ heavy-lift helicopter. classified as a had blackened some 24,200 acres trate and water into mixed fire Type I helicopter in the National (9,800 hal of watershed, prime tim­ retardant and loading the mixture Wildfire Coordinating Group's Fire­ ber lands, and wildlife habitat. into helicopter buckets, dip tanks, line Handbook 3, was first exten­ or airtankers sively used to drop fire retardant on Order for a Mobile Retardant Base • Water pumps the 1986 Garden Valley fires on the and Fire Retardant • Water storage tanks Boise National Forest. Columbia • Tank trailer or flex-tanks for Helicopters using a Vertol 107 with a On Monday, August 6, a Class I FIRE-TROL® LCA concentrate 1,000 gallon (3,785 L) bucket, suc­ Interagency Fire Team arrived to • Couplings, manifold, loading cessfully dropped fire retardant on direct the suppression efforts for the valves, and accessories those fires. During the 1987, 1988, two fires. By this time, the Black • Retardant dip tanks and 1989 fire seasons, the heavy-lift and Stormy Fires were threatening to A suitable water supply is required helicopter saw considerable use and become one large conflagration. at or near the retardant base location. gained the support and confidence of These fires later became known as Helicopters. On August 6, there Incident Commanders, operation the Stormy Fire Complex. were several small- and medium­ chiefs, air operation directors, and At 2:30 p.m. on August 6, Opera­ sized helicopters on the fire, assigned others. At the August 1990 Stormy tions Chief Lonnie Briggs (Los to moving firefighters to the fireline Fire Complex on the Sequoia Padres National Forest) and Air and keeping them supplied. The fire National Forest in California, the Operations Director Bob Reece team ordered a number of medium­ largest number of heavy-lift helicop­ (Yosemite National Park) ordered a (Type II) and heavy-lift (Type I) ters for use at a wildland fire was portable fire retardant base for use helicopters. The helicopters in use at assembled. with the Type I heavy-lift helicopters the peak of the helicopter mobiliza­ they planned to order. tion were the following: Lightning Strikes Chemonics, FIRE-TROL®, at Orland, CA, received the order for a Type I Type 1I On Sunday, August 5, 1990, a dry mobile retardant base (MRB) at 3:30 2 Chinook 3 Bell 205 (Hueys) lightning storm struck much of south­ p.m.t The MRB arrived at Kernville B-234 ern and central California. On the at 9:30 a.m. on August 7. Shortly 2 S-61 1 UH-l (Huey) Sequoia National Forest, this storm after, a tank truck and trailer with a I S--64 2206 B-3 started over a dozen fires. All but supply of FIRE-TROL® LeA, a liq­ I Chinook 2206 L-3 two of them, the Black and Stormy, uid concentrate and long-term fire CH-47 were controlled by initial attack retardant arrived. By 2:00 p.rn., the I Kaman forces. These two fires in heavy unit was ready to deliver 450 gallons I Bell 204 (Super .. brush below extensive timber stands (1,703 L) of mixed fire retardant per Huey) in nearly inaccessible areas of the minute. 1 S-58 Mobile Retardant Base Equip­ "The Incident Command System classifies heli­ ment. The FIRE-TROL® MRB, a The Helibase---Its Managers and copters in four categories or types. Type I lift totally self-contained unit, consists Services. The helibase for the com­ helicopters must be capable of hauling 16 pas­ of the following: plex was established at the Kern sengers (including pilot), have a gross weight Valley Airport under the direction of of over 12,500 pounds (5,670 kg), and be helibase manager Jim Boukadis of capable of carrying 700 (2,650 L) plus gallons rIhe use of trade names does not constitute the Sequoia National Forest. As part of fire retardant. For example, a Bell 214 is a official endorsement of the product by the heavy-lift helicopter. USDA Forest Service. of the operation, Manager Boukadis

40 Fire Management Notes established the retardant base, under The Type I heavy-lift helicopters • Kaman (I helicopter, 2 trips, the supervision of Dan Kellogg from were so successful that the Incident Rogers Helicopters) 1,600 gallons the Corooado National Forest, at a Commander was able to release tbe (6,053 L) large parking area on the airport. A airtankers from the Stormy Fire • S-61 (I helicopter, 25 trips, Siller separate base for servicing and park­ Complex for assignment to other Bros.) 15,000 gallons (56,780 L) ing the Type I heavy-lift ships was fires. • S-64 (I helicopter,S trips, Siller established about 2 miles (3 km) Bros.) 5,000 gallons (18,927 L) south of the airport. This base was • B-234 (I helicopter, 19 trips, under the supervision of Mike Columbia Helicopters) 55,550 gal­ Fogarty from the San Bernardino Retardant Delivery Start-up. On lons (210,274 L) National Forest. The air attack super­ August 8, Rogers Helicopters and Columbia Helicopters's B-234 visors also worked out of the Kern Siller Bros., call-when-needed heli­ dipped LCA from a 5,000-gallon Valley Airport and Helibase. Crash copters (CWN), started operations (l8,927-L) dip tank it brings with and rescue service was provided by from the retardant base, using a its helicopters. The other ships personnel from the China Lake Naval Kaman and an S-61. They deli vered dipped from the dip tanks provided Weapons Center. Because the Stormy 12,800 gallons (48,452 L) of FlRE­ with the MRB. Fire Complex was oat far from the TROL® LCA lire retardant to the At approximately 3:00 p.m., the Kern Valley Airport and generated a fireline. California Department of Forestry lot of air traffic, the Bakersfield, Next-Day Delivery and Evacua­ helicopter 101 (UH-l) informed CA, office of the Federal Aviation tion. On August 9, 77,100 gallons Stormy Air Attack, erratic fire Administration, upon request of the (291,847 L) of LCA fire retardant behavior made it necessary to evacu­ U.S. Forest Service, sent two flight were delivered to the fireline by the ate lire line personnel from Helispot controllers to the airport. following helicopters: 2. Radio transmissions from 101 and Air Attack indicated additional air­ craft were needed to expedite the evacuation. To help with the emer­ gency, Morgan Mills, Region 5 helicopter specialist and pilot, author­ ized the use of restricted category helicopters to supplement other heli­ copters at the scene. Two B-234's, a Kaman, and a S-58 were reassigned to assist with the evacuation. Over , if=.!f r­ }~ )- 200 people were flown to safety in approximately 40 minutes. .. Three Days of Retardant Deliv­ eries. On August 10, helicopter retardant operations began at 8:00 a.m, and had to be terminated at 4: 10 p.m. because of heavy smoke and poor visibility. During this 8-hour period, 189,500 gallons (679,414 L) of lire retardant were delivered to the fireline. The ships A Chinook 8-234 with a 3,OOO-galion (11,356-L) bucket (right) and a S-M with a 2,OOO-gallon (7,571 L) bucket (left) filling up with fire retardant at the Mobile Retardant Base at the Stormy involved and the gallons delivered Fire Complex. were:

1991 Volume 52, Number 2 41 • B-234 (2 helicopters, 61 trips, This same unit was also keeping the The round-trip times for the Columbia Helicopters) 176,300 dip tanks filled with retardant. B-234's were from 13 to 36 minutes; gallons (667,348 L) The B-234's were assigned pri­ for the S-61 from 10 to 27 minutes; • S-61 (J helicopter, 20 trips, Siller marily to deliver fire retardant. The and the S-64 from 9 to 28 minutes. Bros.) 12,000 gallons (45,424 L) other ships were periodically On August 12 at approximately • Kaman (J helicopter, 3 trips, assigned to deliver fire retardant and 5:30 p.m., the Nick Fire started in Rogers Helicopters) 1,200 gallons at other times to dip water from a the Domeland Wilderness Area of the (4,542 L) stream, add a Class A foam concen­ Sequoia National Forest. Air tankers The round-trip times for the trate inflight, and deliver this to the and handcrews were not available. B-234's, devoted solely to dropping fireline. Three of the Type I heavy-lift heli­ LCA long-term fire retardant, The round-trip times for the copters with retardant were diverted were most often in the 9- to B-234's were most often in the IO­ to this fire. The fire was controlled at 13-minute range. The S-61 and ta 16-minute range; the Kaman, 16­ 42 acres (J 7 ha). Incident Com­ Kaman were used intennittently to to 23-minute; and the S-61, 10- to mander Mike Smith reported this drop fire retardant. At other times, 17-minute. 5-64 use was too would have become another major they dipped water from a stream, intermittent to permit calculating fire without the heavy-lift helicopters added a Class A foam concentrate in meaningful round-trip times. and the fire retardant they were able flight, and delivered this mixture to FIRE-TROL ® LCA was blended at to deliver from the MRB. the fireline. the ratio of 5 parts water to I part During the Stormy Fire Complex, On August II, helicopter retardant LCA. The water was pumped many major fires burned throughout operations began at 8:43 a.m. and directly from the Kern River to port­ central and northern California, terminated at 6:15 p.m. During this able tanks that are part of the MRB. Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and period of time, 193,640 gallons It was possible to mix and load Alaska. As a result, there was a crit­ (694,258 L) of fire retardant were 193,640 gallons (732,986 L) of fire ical shortage of airtankers. The Type delivered from the base to the fire­ retardant in only 10 hours from one I heavy-lift helicopters were so suc­ line. The ships involved and the fire retardant base. cessful that the Incident Commander gallons delivered were: On August 12, helicopter retardant was able to release the airtankers • B-234 (2 helicopters, 57 trips, operations began at 7:24 a.m. with from the Stormy Fire Complex for Columbia Helicopters) 164,300 two Columbia Helicopters, B-234's. assignment to other fires. In addition, gallons (621,925 L) By 11:30 a.m., they made 21 round­ because of topography on parts of the • S-61 (J helicopter, 27 trips, Siller trips delivering 61,400 gallons incident, only helicopters could Bros.) 16,200 gallons (61,312 L) (232,417 L) of fire retardant to the safely and successfully drop fire • S-64 (I helicopter, 7 trips, Siller fireline. At 11:14 a.m., the S-61 and retardant. Bros.) 7,140 gallons (27,027 L) S-64 were again assigned to retar­ The Stormy Fire Complex demon­ • Kaman (I helicopter, 15 trips, dant operations. Total retardant strated that Type I heavy-lift Rogers Helicopters) 6,000 gallons delivered for the day was 133,625 helicopters operating from an MRB (22,712 L) gallons (505,811 L). can deliver fire retardant to the fire­ The B-234's dipped the mixed The breakdown by ships and gal­ line effectively and with a positive retardant from one dip tank. The lons delivered is as follows: cost-benefit ratio. Cost figures for the Kaman dipped from a separate tank. • B-234 (2 helicopters, 33 trips, 1990 fire season, developed by Jerry The S-61 and S-64 buckets, each Columbia Helicopters) 97,100 gal­ Vice, helitack specialist, Forest equipped with a Kam-lock fitting, lons (367,753 L) Service, Pacific Southwest Region, were filled by a 3-inch (7.6-cm) hose • S-61 (J helicopter, 23 trips, Siller show the average delivery cost of fire directly from the MRB trailer­ Bros.) 12,525 gallons (23,846 L) retardant from the Type I helicopters mounted blending and loading pump. • S-64 (I helicopter, 16 trips, Siller to be 0.65 cents per gallon. Delivery Bros.) 24,000 gallons (90,847 L) costs of retardant from airtankers are

42 Fire Management Notes ',j

in the range of $ L 00 to $ L 25 per replacement for any currently used gallon, resources. They are another tool The use of Type I heavy-lift heli­ extremely useful in the proper time copters on large fires is not a and place to wildland firefighters, -

Rebuilding FEPP Engines: mechanical troubles. However. as the pump, and an exhaust pipe with A Nebraska Innovation engines aged, the quality of the "take­ muffler was built using many out" engines declined. components from a "cannibalized" Improves Quality 6x6 engine. Engine Rebuilding When an engine overhaul has been The problem described by the fire completed, the unit is then placed on chief from the Friend Rural Fire In the early 1980's, an engine­ the test stand and all of the sending District, a fire district in a community rebuilding program was begun with units for the control panel gauges are with a population just over 1,000 in the goal of having, on hand, one hooked up so that oil pressure, water southeastern Nebraska, was not a new rebuilt motor for each type of military temperature, air pressure, and one. The district's Federal Excess FEPP vehicle used in the Nebraska charging rate can be monitored while Personal Property (FEPP) water tanker Forest Service fire protection program. the engine is on the test stand. At this (a 1952 military General Motors As a result, engines were rebuilt and time, the carburetor is.adjusted, Corporatioo (GMC) 6 x 6) was not either shipped to the rural fire district ignition timing set, the engine checked running well. It did not have much oil for installation or installed at the fire for leaks, and any other problems that pressure, was making unusual engine equipment shop. might surface are fixed immediately. noises, and was suddenly short of The engines installed at the shop The end result is a rebuilt motor power. The solutions offered by the were driven 50 to 100 miles (81 to that runs wen and is ready to install in local mechanic in Friend were: Try to 161 Ian) after installation. This a PEPP firefighting vehicle with repair the vehicle or"replace it "break-in" time allowed mechanics to minimum downtime and maximum entirely. But, he went on to say he adjust the carburetor and also to find user confidence, • would not attempt the engine repair leaks or other problems. Engines rural fire because he "knew nothing about those shipped directly to the field and Eric J. Rasmussen, old trucks. " installed there often did not perform training and equipment manager, Nebraska Forest Service, University of After pricing an all-wheel drive as wen as shop-installed engines. replacement vehicle, the fire chief Nebraska, Lincoln. NE. called the Nebraska Forest Service, Stand for Engine Testing the source from whom the fire district acquired the vehicle some years As a result of all this, our engine­ earlier, and asked if help was rebuilding mechanic, Don Vietz, available. The answer was-"Yes!" suggested that an engine "test stand" The Nebraska Forest Service Fire be built for each type of engine. Each Equipment Shop in Lincoln, NE, has rebuilt engine would be operated at provided FEPP vehicles to Nebraska's varying speeds for 4 to 6 hours­ fire districts since 1963. During this tested to identify problems-before time, many military-type FEPP installation or shipping. vehicles in various stages of disrepair A test stand for the GMC 6 x 6 passed through the shop, emerging engine, the most frequently mechanically sound and ready for overhauled. was built first, and later assignment to fire districts. The "tired one was built for the REO 6 X6. A engine" problem was originally welded angle-iron frame with motor solved by removing a good running mounts, radiator, control panel, engine from a vehicle that had other compressed air tank, electric fuel

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