Australia’s heritage Jfd\)''p\XijX^f8ljkiXc`XnXj aljkXeXkliXccXe[jZXg\k_Xk_X[ k_\eY\\eÊ_fd\Ëkfk_`jZflekipËj @e[`^\efljg\fgc\]fiXkc\Xjk +''''#gfjj`Ycp('''''#p\Xij% K_\Zfdgc\o`kpf]k_\@e[`^\eflj Zlckli\Xe[jfZ`\kp#\jg\Z`Xccp k_\g\fgc\Ëjc`ebjn`k_k_\cXe[# nXjefkle[\ijkff[Ypk_\\Xicp IfZbXikgX`ek\[Yp@e[`^\efljg\fgc\ Xkc\Xjk(.,''p\XijX^f#gfjj`Ycplgkf -''''p\XijX^f (N_XkgifYc\djd`^_k8ljkiXc`XËj @e[`^\efljg\fgc\_Xm\]XZ\[ v Why Indigenous people are such a vital part of Australia’s heritage Y\ZXlj\\Xicp HEN EUROPEANS fi rst settled in Australia in 1788, Indigenous people had been W living here for at least 40 000 years. The Indigenous people did not use the land as most Australians do today, but this did not mean that they did not regard it as theirs. However, this did not stop the European settlers from taking possession of it. Origins of Indigenous people Radiocarbon dating of a number of ancient The origins of Australia’s Indigenous people are human settlement sites in Australia suggests that strongly debated, and many theories have been Indigenous people may have lived here for up to proposed. Some say they have been here as long as 100 000 years, possibly much longer. For example, it the Australian landmass has existed. Others believe has been estimated that the buried skeleton of a man that they came here from somewhere else, most uncovered in 1975 on the ‘shores’ of Lake Mungo in probably from lands to Australia’s north. Despite New South Wales (a lake that has been dry for some these varying opinions, there is, however, unanimous 15 000 years) is about 40 000 years old. Human agreement that Australia’s Indigenous people were its bones found at Keilor, Melbourne, are estimated to fi rst human inhabitants. be even older — possibly about 45 000 years old. 30 000 BCNew Guinea 20 000 BCNew Guinea 9000 BC New Guinea Torres Strait Torres Strait Torres Strait Philippines SOUTH CHINA SEA Land above sea level N Present coastline 0 500 1000 km I n d o n a Torres Strait e s i PACIFIC CORAL SEA OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN Australia Possible migration route Major site 50 000 BC to 10 000 BC Land above sea level, 18 000 BC Land above sea level, present ! ! " 0 500 1000 km N SOUTHERN OCEAN @dX^\Nfic[JXk@ek\ieXk`feXc@eZ%#)''(Çnnn%nfic[jXk%ZXÇXcci`^_kji\j\im\[ Gfjj`Yc\d`^iXk`feiflk\jf]k_\]fi\Y\Xijf]8ljkiXc`XËj@e[`^\efljg\fgc\%K_\cfn\jkj\Xc\m\cj`ek_\cXjk ()''''p\XijfZZlii\[XYflk)''''#.''''Xe[0''''p\Xij9G Y\]fi\k_\gi\j\ek %J\Xc\m\cjn\i\cfn\i k_\eY\ZXlj\_l^\mfcld\jf]nXk\in\i\cfZb\[lgXj`Z\Xkk_\ Had On Totemism which they Each clan within a language group had a totem Lived on that was a sign of its people’s spiritual link to the Each Hunted land. It might be an animal, a plant or some other D`e[dXg language group j_fn`e^jfd\ natural feature such as a particular weather pattern nXpj`en_`Z_ or rock formation. As well, each individual had a cXe^lX^\^iflgj Kept up links totem or special land feature with which he or jljkX`e\[k_\`i Practised with she spiritually identifi ed, and hence protected. XeZ\jkiXcc`ebjXe[ their religion jg`i`klXc`kp An individual’s totem was decided by the Other groups, elders. What that totem was depended on where especially those with similar the person’s mother was when she fi rst felt the By By languages person move as a baby in her stomach. Exchanging Meeting to Respect for common totems helped to information, songs, organise marriages goods and and joint bind people together. artefacts ceremonies Y @ec`^_kf]n_XkpflXci\X[p befn#fi_Xm\i\Z\ekcpc\Xiek# REMEMBER n_Xk`jpflim`\nXYflkk_\ K_\n\[^\$kX`c\[\X^c\ 9lea`c i`^_kjf]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\kf nXjfe\f]k_\knfdf`\kp 1 =fiXkc\Xjk_fncfe^`j`kefn Zfej`[\ik_\dj\cm\jk_\Ôijk kfk\djf]k_\Blc`e ^\e\iXccpY\c`\m\[k_Xk@e[`^\eflj cXe[fne\ijf]k_\Zfek`e\ekf] g\fgc\% g\fgc\_Xm\c`m\[`e8ljkiXc`X6 8ljkiXc`X6K_`ebZXi\]lccp#Xe[ 2 N_`Z_nXjk_\cXi^\jk@e[`^\eflj aljk`]ppflim`\n% ^iflgÇXZcXe#Xe\ok\e[\[]Xd`cp# Z J_Xi\pfliZfej`[\i\[fg`e`fekf XYXe[fiXcXe^lX^\^iflg6;iXn k_\XYfm\hl\jk`fen`k_fk_\ij Xj`dgc\[`X^iXdkfj_fnk_\ `ejdXcc^iflgjXe[c`jk\ekfk_\`i i\cXk`fej_`gY\kn\\ek_\j\^iflgj% m`\nj% 3 N_Xk`jXkfk\d6N_p`jXe [ 8]k\ij_Xi`e^pflifg`e`fen`k_ @e[`^\efljg\ijfeËjkfk\d fi fk_\ij#ni`k\Xj_fikgXiX^iXg_ kfk\dj j`^e`ÔZXek6 i\Õ\Zk`e^fe_fnpflifg`e`fej THINK fek_`j`jjl\d`^_k_Xm\Z_Xe^\[ fm\ik`d\#Xe[n_Xkd`^_k_Xm\ 4 Jl^^\jkn_Xkjfikf]\m`[\eZ\ `eÕl\eZ\[k_`j% jZ`\ek`jkjnflc[cffb]fikfjlggfik k_\_pgfk_\j`jk_Xkk_\Ôijk @e[`^\efljg\fgc\\ek\i\[ I CAN: appreciate how long Indigenous people might have been 8ljkiXc`X]ifdk_\efik_% in Australia SELF-DISCOVERY understand something of the structure of Aboriginal 5 X @jk_\i\Xep`e]fidXk`fe`ek_`j social groups defend my own view and refl ect on how my opinions Z_Xgk\ik_Xk`je\nkfpfl6 B[Whd_d] might have changed over time. ) <_hij7kijhWb_Wdi J^[mWoj^[om[h[ ARLY EUROPEANS explorers and settlers saw no evidence of settlement or cultivation in E the land we now call Australia. They believed, therefore, that it was land they could claim. Bit by bit, the continent was claimed in the name of the British monarch, and declared Crown land. Under European law in the late eighteenth century, a people’s sovereignty over land existed only if they farmed and built permanent dwellings on it. The Europeans who arrived with the First Fleet in 1788 saw no buildings or roads, Whose land? as in England, nor any sign of crops or stock @ek_\cXk\(.''j#Xkc\Xjk(0@e[`^\efljki`Y\jc`m\[ animals. It was for them, therefore, a land over `ek_\i\^`fek_Xk`jefnJp[e\p%K_\cXe[Xifle[ ;Xic`e^?XiYflinXjk_\ki`YXccXe[f]k_\:X[`^Xc which no-one held sovereign rights. g\fgc\#gXikf]k_\ Approximate 120 000 — Analysis of pollen and charcoal at number of 120 000 years before Lake George (NSW) the present suggests people 176 000 living there Kf[Xp#;Xic`e^?XiYfli#j_fne fek_\c\]k#`jfe\f]k_\nfic[Ëj dfjkn\cc$befneXe[gfglcXi 116 000–176 000 Evidence of human nXk\i]ifekgi\Z`eZkj%@k_XjX occupation in the _fjkf]c\`jli\Xe[\ek\ikX`ed\ek Kimberley (WA) ]XZ`c`k`\j#`eZcl[`e^j_fgj# K_\]fi\Y\Xij 110 000 f]8ljkiXc`XËj i\jkXliXekj#dlj\ldj#k_\Xki\j# @e[`^\efljg\fgc\ _`jkfi`ZXcZ\eki\jXe[XeXhlXi`ld% c`m\[`e8ljkiXc`XXk @k`jm`j`k\[[X`cpYpkfli`jkj]ifdXcc c\Xjk*,'''p\Xij fm\ik_\nfic[% Y\]fi\k_\^i\Xk 100 000 gpiXd`[jf]<^pgk n\i\Yl`ckXk>`qX% 34 000 — Humans around Hunter River (NSW) First non-Aboriginal settlers arrive in 40 000 — Humans 31 000 — Engravings 10 000 — World’s Sydney Cove (1788) in Lake Mungo (NSW) carved in Olary oldest boomerangs region (SA) used in Wyrie 90 000 23 000 — People in Swamp (SA) 800 — Stone 50 000 — Humans Arnhem Land using huts built in in Arnhem Land 40 000 ground edge grooved semi-permanent (NT) using ochre axes; earliest in the world villages in Victoria 50 000 13 000 — Australia’s 2000 — People 30 000 oldest ornaments, bone beads, made in fishing with 80 000 75 000 — The world’s 38 000 — Humans reach Devil’s Lair (WA) hooks and lines earliest known rock art south-west WA and carved on rock outcrop camp on upper Swan in the Kimberley River near Perth 10 000 60 000 30 800 — Humans in 8000 — New Guinea Tasmania 20 000 and Tasmania separate from 70 000 the mainland * >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) 8Yfi`^`eXcZXc\e[Xij worksheet 3.2 :fcc\Zk`e^]ff[Xe[k_\eXkliXc i\jfliZ\je\\[\[kfgifm`[\ j_\ck\iXe[n\Xgfejkpg`ZXccpkffblg dfjkf]k_\[Xp%?\i\#knf@e[`^\eflj d\eZlkf]]ki\\YXibkfdXb\j_`\c[j n_`c\#e\XiYp#XnfdXeXe[Z_`c[Ôj_% @e[`^\efljg\fgc\ kffbfecpk_\i\jfliZ\j k_\pe\\[\[kfc`m\%N_\eXgXik`ZlcXi Xi\Xn`k_`eX^iflgËjk\ii`kfipY\ZXd\ kffgi\jjli\[Ypfm\i$lj\#k_\g\fgc\ dfm\[ZXdg#Xccfn`e^cXe[jZXg\jXe[ i\jfliZ\jkfZbjkfY\i\jkfi\[% %%%K_\8Yfi`^`eXcg\fgc\[`[efk_lek fib`ccXepXe`dXc]fijgfik%K_\p[`[ efkZX^\k_\d#lj\k_\djXZi`ÔZ`Xccp Traditional Indigenous lifestyle efijZ`\ek`ÔZXccp%K_\pb`cc\[fecpk_fj\ Xe`dXcjk_\pe\\[\[]fi]ff[Xe[fecp Australia’s Indigenous people generally lived a stable lifestyle, guided n_\e`knXje\Z\jjXip%K_\pbe\nXcfk by elders who knew the local Dreaming stories and customs. The XYflkXe[_X[X[\\g$j\Xk\[i\jg\Zk people worked together, sharing their food and knowledge, and ]fi\XZ_c`m`e^Zi\Xkli\#Y\c`\m`e^k_Xk living in harmony with their environment. As Captain Cook wrote \XZ_fe\#c`b\k_\dj\cm\j#_X[`kjjg\Z`Xc gcXZ\`ek_\fm\iXccgcXef]Zi\Xk`feXe[ in his journal about those he observed in 1770: ‘… in reality they c`]\% are far more happier than we Europeans … In short they seemed to =ifdA\Xe8% COMMUNICATE 6 ;iXnXe[Zfdgc\k\XkXYc\c`b\k_\fe\Y\cfnkfefk\ _fnk_\i\^`feXifle[;Xic`e^?XiYfli_XjZ_Xe^\[ REMEMBER Xe[`jc`b\cpkf[fjf`ek_\]lkli\%Lj\k_\`dX^\j`e 1 N_p[`[k_\\Xicp N 26 January 1788, eleven British ships carrying about 1000 people sailed into O Port Jackson on Australia’s east coast. Most on board were convicts, about to start life in a penal colony. Reaction of These ‘spirits of their former dead’ Reaction of the Europeans did not speak their language. In 1788, Europeans held a Indigenous people Nor did they obey their rules and Aboriginal people thought the fi rst range of views about Australia’s respect their rituals and sacred Indigenous people. In line with Europeans they saw might have places. The view that they were been ghosts, or evil spirits. Their thinking at the time, many of invaders, not visitors, began to the more educated would have Dreaming provided them with no take hold. clues as to who these pale-skinned, regarded them as ‘noble savages’ Some Indigenous people may — primitive people who lived strangely dressed people might have been puzzled or fascinated be. Some wondered if they might a contented life in the natural by the fi rst Europeans they world without the pressures be women, as they had no beards. saw; others were undoubtedly Some tried to fi nd a place for them of civilisation. The observant frightened. When exploring the Captain Watkin Tench expressed in their kinship system by treating Lachlan River in 1817, John them as spirits of their dead, and a much more insightful view in Oxley described how two young 1793. He said that those he had offering them food and women. Indigenous men reacted to the It soon became clear that the met possessed ‘. . . a considerable sight of his party: ‘They trembled portion of that acumen, or ‘visitors’ planned to stay. They excessively, and, if the expression were clearing land near sacred sharpness of intellect, which may be used, were absolutely bespeaks genius’. sites, fencing off properties, intoxicated with which cut access to waterholes fear . . .’. and hunting grounds, and fi shing without permission of the elders. Besides, more and more of them were arriving. Indigenous people became increasingly worried. Df[\ieXik`jkËj `dgi\jj`fef] ÔijkZfekXZk , >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) Most of the new European Does their appearance or behaviour suggest some adherence to traditional Indigenous practices? How are the Indigenous people and Europeans interacting? What does this suggest? Is there anything to suggest the artist was infl uenced by stereotypes? If an Indigenous artist had painted this scene in 1830, what differences (if any) might there have been? Would some things have been included or left out? How differently might the people have been drawn? K_`j(/*'gX`ek`e^Yp8l^ljklj With the passage of time, many as a race that would sadly, but settlers, with their guns and Indigenous people were ordered inevitably, die out, and tried to horses. They did try to fi ght back, to live on special reserves. They make the process as painless as but had diffi culty in sustaining were told it was to protect them. possible. More heartless settlers their efforts. Their numbers were Christian missionaries at fi rst, saw them as ‘pests’ who kept also being very rapidly reduced and later government offi cers, ‘camping’ on their farms and by introduced diseases, against administered these reserves, ‘hunting’ their stock animals. which they had no resistance. which included the Lake Condah These included measles, whooping (Portland) and Coranderrk Control and conquer cough, infl uenza and smallpox. (Healesville) reserves in Victoria In the decades that followed the (see pages 16–17). Well-meaning arrival of the fi rst Europeans, efforts to make the Indigenous Fg`e`fef] tensions were growing on both I\m\i\e[AXd\j people ‘European’, however, cut sides. Indigenous people were >lek_\i (/*'j across kinship rules and traditional being shot at when they ventured f]k_\8Yfi`^`e\j cultural practices. For instance, onto European farms to get food the people were forbidden to speak — many of which were on their K_\`i`ek\cc\ZklXc]XZ`c`k`\jXi\Yp their language or to take part in traditional hunting grounds — or efd\Xej`e]\i`fiXj`j^\e\iXccp Indigenous cultural events. when they tried to get to nearby jlggfj\[2k_\`id`e[`jhl`k\ At this time in history, there rivers. In turn, European settlers ZXgXYc\f]Zlckli\2f]k_`j@_Xm\ dXep[\Z`j`m\giff]j%%%Xk were no sustained efforts to and convicts were being attacked c\Xjkk_\pfle^d\eXe[Yfpj preserve Indigenous culture or by raiding parties of Indigenous m\ipjffeXZhl`i\Xe[jg\Xb the basic rights of the Indigenous warriors. k_\ @knXjk_\cfjjf]k_\cXe[n_`Z_nXjnfijk%8jk`d\ Zc`e^kfk_\j\kkc\d\ekjn_\i\YpZcfne`e^#Y\^^`e^# n\ekfe#k_\8Yfi`^`e\ji\ki\Xk\[fin\i\[i`m\e Xe[j\cc`e^k_\`infd\ek_\pZflc[jlim`m\%;`j\Xj\ flkf]n_fc\k\ii`kfi`\j`ekfk_\`e_fjg`kXYc\]ffk_`ccj Xe[c`jkc\jje\jj`eZi\Xj\[%K_\iX^jk_\pn\i\^`m\e n_`Z_]fid\[k_\`iYfle[Xi`\j%%%K_\jljkX`e`e^ Y\ZXd\ef`jfd\#[XdgXe[Ôck_p#]fik_\p_X[efk Z\i\dfe`\jZflc[efkY\_\c[#d\eXe[nfd\e Y\\ekXl^_kkfnXj_k_\d2jc\gk`eYpe`^_kk_\p Zflc[efkm`j`kk_\`ifneY`ik_gcXZ\jfiZXiipflkk_\`i Yi\[dfi\[`j\Xj\#Xe[k_\jlim`mfijZfl^_\[k_\`i [lk`\jkfk_\jg`i`kj%K_\\o`c\[ZXdgjn\i\iXZb\[Yp nXpkf[\Xk_%Ë e\nj`Zbe\jj\j2gXc\le]Xd`c`XiYXY\jn\i\Yfiekf k_\nfd\e%%%K_\Yc`^_k\[ZXdgj[n`e[c\[#k_\`i =ifdAl[`k_Ni`^_k#K_\:ip]fik_\;\X[#Fo]fi[ ]ff[`eXZZ\jj`Yc\fik_\_lek\ijXe[^Xk_\i\ij Le`m\ij`kpGi\jj#D\cYflie\#(0/(#g%).%Al[`k_Ni`^_knXj kffn\XbkfÔe[Xe[Yi`e^`k`e%K_\\c[\ijXe[k_\ Xn\cc$befnegf\kXe[Xn_`k\8ljkiXc`Xen_f]fl^_k Z_`c[i\e[`\[%Jfd\Y\^Xekfc\Xm\k_\ZXdgjXe[ gXjj`feXk\cp]fik_\i`^_kjf]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\% REMEMBER 1 N_XknXjXÊefYc\jXmX^\Ë6N_pd`^_kjfd\_Xm\ i\^Xi[\[8ljkiXc`XËj@e[`^\efljg\fgc\k_`jnXp6 2 ONTACT WITH Europeans was to prove deadly for Australia’s C Indigenous people. A great many died: introduced diseases against which they had no immunity, alcohol, starvation and depression all took their toll. Many others were killed. Estimates vary, but some historians suggest that around 20 000 Indigenous people may have been killed during raids and frontier battles. The good intentions of Captain Phillip, and the friendliness initially shown by many Indigenous people towards European settlers, soon soured into bitterness on both sides. At the heart of most of the killings in Western Australia, is quoted as was a struggle for land. European saying, ‘A black man claims nothing settlers saw the land as an economic as his own but his cloak, his weapons resource they could exploit. As and his name . . . He does not they pushed out the frontiers understand that animals or plants of their settlements, they came can belong to one person more than increasingly into contact with those to another’. who believed they owned the land. Not all new settlers were heartless Confl ict was inevitable. European though. Records report the kindness settlers generally resented the fact and friendship shown, for example, to that Indigenous people were the Bangerang people by the pioneer blocking the progress of what the Edward Curr, who settled on the settlers considered was a ‘superior Murray River around 1840. race’. Indigenous people found such Jfd\@e[`^\efljZXgk`m\jn\i\ attitudes confusing. Yagan, a k`\[lg`eZ_X`ejXe[_X[k_\`i]\\k notable Indigenous resistance fi ghter Yliekjfk_\pZflc[efk\jZXg\% K_\dfm`e^]ifek`\i f] Before 1820 1820–40 1860–80 1840–60 Sparsely settled @]@e[`^\efljg\fgc\i\klie\[kfk\e[k_\`ijXZi\[j`k\j# after 1880 _lekfi[i`eb]ifdnXk\i_fc\j#k_\pn\i\f]k\eb`cc\[% 0 250 500 km NXk\i_fc\jn\i\jfd\k`d\jgf`jfe\[#XjnXjk_\Õflifi d\Xkjfd\j\kkc\ijf]]\i\[kfjkXim`e^@e[`^\efljg\fgc\% '& >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) :lckli\ZcXj_ worksheet 3.3 8glYc`j_\[ fYj\imXk`fe (/,0 f]:%?%D%?lcc#Xj\e`fiKXjdXe`Xe glYc`Zj\imXek REMEMBER %%%X[Xpnflc[Y\j\c\Zk\[Xe[k_\ Smallpox 1 N_pnXjcXe[jlZ_XjfliZ\f] e\`^_Yfli`e^j\kkc\ij`em`k\[#n`k_ JdXccgfo#X[`j\Xj\ ZfeÕ`Zk`ek_\[\ZX[\j]fccfn`e^ k_\`i]Xd`c`\jkfXg`Ze`Z%%%8]k\i ZXlj\[Ypk_\mXi`fcX k_\Xii`mXcf] I CAN: appreciate why confl ict occurred following European settlement Af_eFoc\pC`YiXipe\^%ef1/0++ appreciate the impact of European EXk`m\Gfc`Z\Xk:f\e`eHl\\ejcXe[`ek_\(/0'j%DXepEXk`m\Gfc`Z\\e[\[lg settlement on Aborigines X[fgk`e^ UROPEANS HAD gained control of most habitable Australian land by the end of E the nineteenth century. But this did not happen without a number of battles and massacres. Some were in retaliation for attacks on settlers by Indigenous warriors, who were angered by the loss of their land and the treatment of their people. Two Indigenous massacres are briefl y presented here. KiX[`k`feXccXe[jf] Myall Creek massacre Kurnai massacres k_\Ôm\ZcXejk_Xk In June 1838, 12 local stockmen By 1858, the Kurnai population dX[\lgk_\BlieX` (11 of whom were ex-convicts) had reduced from about 2000 g\fgc\%K_`jj\Zk`fef]k_\M`Zkfi`Xe ZfXjkc`e\#]ifek`e^9XjjJkiX`k#c`\j\Xjk were on the hunt around the New (in 1840) to only 80 as a result of f]D\cYflie\% South Wales town of Inverell for settler attacks and massacres and Indigenous people they suspected the new diseases introduced by Traditional had stolen cattle. They rode to the sealers and whalers. The offi cial land of the nearby Myall Creek Station, where reasons given by the Victorian Kurnai Clan a stockman, Andrew Eaton, had Government for this decline were boundaries befriended a clan of Indigenous starvation due to ‘scarcity of game’, Vic. people and offered them shelter. alcoholism, and ‘in some cases’ The younger men of the clan cruelty and poor treatment by were away cutting bark at the settlers. time. The stockmen tied up the 28 people they found there — women, children and a few older men — and herded them into a stockyard. There they were brutally beaten and hacked to death, and their bodies burnt. After being acquitted following an initial murder trial, seven of the attackers were later retried and hanged. 8Zfek\dgfiXipXik`jkËj`dgi\jj`fe f]fe\f]k_\dXepdXjjXZi\jf] k_\BlieX`g\fgc\befnekf_Xm\ fZZlii\[Y\kn\\e(/+'Xe[(/,'% K_`j`ccljkiXk`fei\$Zi\Xk\jXeXkkXZb [\jZi`Y\[Xkk_\k`d\`ek_\cfZXc gXg\i#K_\>`ggjcXe[\i% K_\BlieX`g\fgc\#>`ggjcXe[ËjÔijk `e_XY`kXekj#c`m\[`e]fi\jkjXe[Xifle[k_\ '( i`m\ijXe[cXb\j`eM`Zkfi`XËjjflk_$\Xjk% >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) eCD-R th O M J`k\jkl[p1=ifek`\i n ZfeÕ`ZkXk9iffd\ o Identify gaps in the evidence Primary sources are important documents for historians. Yet a primary source does not necessarily REMEMBER provide a true or complete picture of what happened 1 N_Xkgifdgk\[k_\DpXcc:i\\b in the past. Some facts might be distorted; others dXjjXZi\6 might be left out (leaving gaps). The following 2 9pn_XkXggifo`dXk\ two primary sources each describe reasons for the disappearance of g\iZ\ekX^\[`[k_\gfglcXk`fe Australia’s Indigenous people. f]k_\BlieX`i\[lZ\Y\kn\\e (/+'Xe[(/,/6 8m`\n# K_\m`\nf] THNK \ogi\jj\[Yp ;XcX`g`#Xe 3 Jkl[pjfliZ\8ZXi\]lccp% X Kurnai contact with Europeans was at I CAN: fi rst limited to a few sealers, sailors appreciate how brutally many and shipwreck survivors. After 1840, Indigenous people were treated they came increasingly into contact with research details of some European settlers wanting to develop Indigenous massacres Kurnai traditional lands. use ICT tools to research and B[Whd_d] document a report. ') <_hij7kijhWb_Wdi ?dZ_][dekih[i_ijWdY[ ANY STORIES about the confl ict between European colonists and Aboriginal people M suggest the latter were easy targets. Indigenous people may not have had the guns of the Europeans, or often their manpower, but they did not lack courage or skill. Their bush skills, for example, could not be matched by the Europeans. Here are the stories of two Indigenous men who fought back. Pemulwuy At fi rst, his tribe lived in harmony with the The Bidjigal warrior Pemulwuy, sometimes called the Europeans, who had established a colony on the Rainbow Warrior, belonged to the Eora language Swan River in 1829. However, arguments soon arose group (the area surrounding Sydney). Between over land and resources. The British mistook the 1790 and 1802, he led many attacks against colonial Nyungar tradition of burning the land as an act of farms and settlements, some of which were highly aggression. In 1831, a Nyungar was shot while taking organised, large-scale guerrilla operations. He and potatoes from a settler’s garden. The settler saw it his men fought so fi ercely in a battle in 1797 that he as theft; the Nyungar would have seen it as taking almost gained control of the newly settled town of the land’s resources, to which he was entitled. Yagan Parramatta. sought revenge for this killing. After more battles, a reward was offered for his head. When Yagan was fi nally captured, a European named Robert Lyon fought hard to spare his life. He ;\jg`k\Y\`e^Zfek`elXccp jfl^_kYpjfc[`\ij# admired Yagan’s courage and wished to study him. G\dlcnlpb\gk\cl[`e^ Yagan was exiled to a small rocky island, but escaped k_\d2feZ\_\\jZXg\[ after six weeks. The colonists were angry about this; ]ifdX_fjg`kXcjk`cc`e c\^`ifej%?\Xcjfjlim`m\[ as punishment, they killed Yagan’s father and brother, i\g\Xk\[nfle[j#Y\`e^ and increased the reward on Yagan’s head. _`k`efe\XkkXZbYpj\m\e Ylcc\kj%Jfd\@e[`^\eflj g\fgc\Y\c`\m\[_\\jZXg\[ Ypklie`e^_`dj\c]`ekf XY`i[% Governor King became increasingly frustrated by Pemulwuy. He offered rewards, including a free pardon, to any convict who would bring him his head. That happened in 1802; Pemulwuy was murdered. His decapitated head was sent to England to be studied by scientists. They had heard a lot about the native Australians, but had never seen one. Although glad he was dead, Governor King had a grudging respect for Pemulwuy. He said of him: ‘Altho’ a terrible pest to the colony, he was a brave and independent character and an active, daring leader of his people’. Yagan Yagan (see also page 10) was part of the Nyungar tribe of south-western Western Australia. A tall man (described as being over 1.8 metres), he was both K_`jjkXkl\f]PX^XenXj\i\Zk\[fe?\ii`jfe@jcXe[`ek_\ feared and admired by the British colonists. JnXeI`m\i% '* >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) For 12 months, Yagan managed cockatoo feathers were tied to to avoid capture, continuing to the head as decoration. It was fi ght for his people. Then, in July exhibited in Liverpool until 1964 1833, he approached two shepherds when it was buried in Everton he knew, asking for fl our. When Cemetery. In 1997, almost 165 his back was turned, one of them, years after being sent to England, William Keats, shot him. A Yagan’s head was returned to reward was given for the killing Australia for a proper burial. of Yagan, but the editorial of the Today, the remains of a great Perth Gazette described it as a ‘wild many Aboriginal people are still and treacherous act’: ‘We are not scattered throughout British vindicating [forgiving] the outlaw, museums, causing great distress but, we maintain it is revolting to Aboriginal communities. to hear this lauded [praised] as a They believe the souls of their meritorious [good] deed.’ ancestors cannot rest until their Yagan’s head was sent to bodies are returned. So far, British England in 1835. The hair was museums have been reluctant to K_\_\X[f]PX^Xe#gX`ek\[Yp combed, and black and red oblige. IfY\ik?Xm\cc REMEMBER 4 X =ifdk_\c`jkf]X[a\Zk`m\j [\jZi`Y`e^nfi[j 1 N_p[`[G\dlcnlp[\m\cfgXjlg\ieXkliXci\glkXk`fe Y\cfn#j\c\Zkk_fj\pflk_`ebdfjk Y Ni`k\knfgXiX^iXg_jXYflkfe\f]k_\j\ @e[`^\efljd\e]ifd\XZ_gf`ekf]m`\n%9l`c[ pfliX[a\Zk`m\nfi[Z_f`Z\j`ekfn_XkpfljXp% Z N_Xk[f\jk_`jkXjbk\XZ_pflXYflk_fn \dfk`feXcnfi[jZXeY\lj\[kfjlggfikXgf`ek f]m`\n6 TEAMWORK 5 Nfib`ejdXcc^iflgjkf[\j`^e&Zi\Xk\Xdfeld\ek kfZfdd\dfiXk\k_\c`]\f]G\dlcnlp%@kd`^_kY\X c`]\$c`b\jkXkl\#j`d`cXikfk_Xkf]PX^Xe`ejfliZ\9#fi Xdfi\Zfek\dgfiXipg`\Z\k_XkjpdYfc`j\j_`jc`]\ X ?fn[fpflk_`ebk_\@e[`^\efljg\fgc\`ek_\ YXj\[fek_\`e]fidXk`fe`ek_`jjgi\X[ %8ccfZXk\ g_fkf^iXg_d`^_kY\]\\c`e^6 kXjbjXZZfi[`e^kf^iflgd\dY\ijËXY`c`k`\jXe[ Y N_pn\i\@e[`^\eflji\dX`ej#jlZ_Xjk_\j\ `ek\i\jkj%Gi\j\ekpfliZfdgc\k\[nfibkfk_\ZcXjj Xe[PX^XeËjXe[G\dlcnlpËj_\X[j#efk^`m\e XjX^iflg#gifm`[`e^Xe[XZZ\gk`e^]\\[YXZbfe`kj Xgifg\iYli`Xc`ek_\ÔijkgcXZ\6N_pd`^_k c`b\cpZlckliXc`dgXZkj% dlj\ldjY\`ek\i\jk\[`enXek`e^kfZfek`el\ kf[`jgcXpjlZ_i\dX`ej6 Z ?fnnflc[pfl]\\c`]k_\i\dX`ejf]Xd\dY\if] I CAN: f]pfli]Xd`cpn\i\[`jgcXp\[`eXdlj\ld6N_Xk appreciate the contribution of people such as Yagan and le[\icp`e^Y\c`\]j[fpfl_Xm\k_XkdXb\pfl]\\c Pemulwuy in fi ghting for their rights k_`jnXp6 recognise that there will always be two or more perspectives about historical events use my creative thinking and skills to design a B[Whd_d] commemorative monument to Pemulwuy. '+ <_hij7kijhWb_Wdi J^[ijehoe\9ehWdZ[hha ORANDERRK WAS an Aboriginal reserve set up in 1863. It was home for nearly C 60 years to many Kulin people, who came from around the present-day Port Phillip area. Farming, baking, schooling and house building were commonplace activities during much of the reserve’s often thriving existence. Its closure in 1924 was a severe blow to the Indigenous people. Coranderrk was established when the Victorian Government set aside land near present-day New South Wales Healesville. The decision followed a petition presented by Aboriginal people which read, in part: A.C.T. ‘could we have our freedom to go away shearing and Cummeragunja Echuca harvesting, and come home when we wish’. Ebenezer A thriving settlement South Australia Coranderrk Lake Lake In 1863, around 40 Indigenous people moved to live Condah Tyers on what was then uncleared bushland at Coranderrk. Framlingham By 1874, the population had grown and the rich land had been largely cleared, fenced and sown with crops. Aboriginal reserve Hop production began in 1872; two years later the Bass Strait 0125 250 km people were also managing 450 head of cattle and running a dairy. The reserve’s superintendent, a :fiXe[\iibnXjfe\f]j`ojlZ_i\j\im\jj\klg`eM`Zkfi`X2 lay preacher named John Green, had been donating k_\fk_\ijn\i\Xk=iXdc`e^_Xd#CXb\:fe[X_# The Indigenous people grew (and sold) arrowroot, prize-winning hops and vegetables. The farming was organised by the men of the reserve. As well as tending the fi elds, these men earned money working on nearby properties. Their enthusiasm was a key part of the reserve’s early success. Disease was a recurring problem at Coranderrk, and tuberculosis, smallpox and venereal disease all took their toll. As well as causing deaths, these diseases deprived the reserve of labour and children. In fact, half of all children born on Aboriginal reserves before 1900 died in infancy. Fred Kruger: born Germany 1831; arrived Australia early 1860s; died 1888. No title (Aboriginal group at Coranderrk ) c. 1866 –87 albumen silver photograph 13.2 x 20.2 cm Gift of Mrs Beryl M. Curl, 1979 National Gallery of Victoria Four years later, however, the Victorian Aborigines moved to the mission station at Lake Tyers. In 1924, Act of 1886 was passed, which did what the board Coranderrk was offi cially closed. had been unable to do. People of mixed descent But the story continues. In recent years, Aboriginal under the age of 34 were no longer allowed to live people have made efforts to reclaim Coranderrk. on reserves. This order reduced Coranderrk’s able- In 1998, the Indigenous Land Corporation bought bodied and enthusiastic workforce. Stock was sold, some land on the old reserve, which was returned to and most of the remaining people on the reserve were descendants of the original community. jfliZ\ji\m\XcXYflk@e[`^\efljg\fgc\`ek_\cXk\ (/''jk_Xkdfjkjligi`j\jpfl6 Kil^Xe`e`nXjXgifl[#jkife^Xe[m\ip i\jfliZ\]lcnfdXe#k_fl^_g\k`k\ j_\ nXjfecp(*'Z\ek`d\ki\jkXcc % Truganini’s body was buried in a women’s jail in Hobart in 1876. Two years later, the Royal Society of Tasmania obtained her remains, and her skeleton was displayed in the Tasmanian Museum until 1947. This gross indignity was something Truganini had greatly feared. Museums and medical scientists had argued over the rights to the remains of her friend William Lanney, who died in 1868. She had been promised this would not happen to her. I\j`[\eZ\f]k_\8Yfi`^`e\j#=c`e[\ij@jcXe[#(/+-YpAf_eJb`ee\iGiflk THINK 1 ?fnnflc[pfl[\jZi`Y\k_\ XZk`fejf]IfY`ejfekfnXi[j k_\@e[`^\efljg\fgc\f] KXjdXe`X6 2 N_pd`^_kk_\KXjdXe G\e`ejlcX_Xm\Y\\eZ_fj\eXj k_\gcXZ\kfj\e[Xepg\fgc\ ifle[\[lgYpk_\9cXZbC`e\6 3 Jl^^\jkn_pk_\9cXZbC`e\[`[ efk[`jZfm\iXep@e[`^\eflj g\fgc\fk_\ik_XeXefc[dXe Xe[XYfp% 4 N_Xk_ldXei`^_kjn\i\[\e`\[ k_\@e[`^\efljg\fgc\j\ekkf =c`e[\ij@jcXe[6N_p[fpfl k_`ebk_`jnXj[fe\6 5 HE TORRES Strait Islands are the hundreds of islands, many tiny, scattered between T the tip of Cape York, in Queensland, and Papua New Guinea. Many have been inhabited for thousands of years. Their Indigenous people are a culturally unique PAPUA NEW GUINEA Daru Island group, distinct from the Indigenous Bristow Island nd la nd Is la wa Is Boigu Kaumag Island Ka wa Island Aborigines of mainland Australia. Little is Ka Dauan Stephens ta Ma Island Saibai Island Island Dalrymple Darnley Islet known of them prior to 1871, as written Turnagain Island Island Torres Strait Gabba Island Yo r ke records do not exist and detailed study Tudu Island Islands Zagai Island Mabuiag Island Yam Island of them and their culture was not carried Murray Moa Sassie Island Islands Island Badu Island Suarji Island out until the early 1900s. ARAFURA Getullai Island SEA Mt Ernest Island Before the Europeans arrived, it is known that the West Island Hawkesbury Island CORAL Hammond Island Wednesday Island SEA Goods Island Horn Island Torres Strait Islanders (hereafter called Islanders) Friday Island Mt Adolphus Island Prince of Wales it ra Albany Island traded with Cape York Aborigines and the people Island St ur vo ea of Papua New Guinea in goods such as turtle oil, End Turtle Head Island CAPE YORK shells, spears and red ochre. They also had their PENINSULA own religious cults; some practised calling up the AUSTRALIA 08040 km spirits of the recently dead, ritual beheadings and cannibalism. It seems Island society was brutal Jfd\f]k_\Kfii\jJkiX`k@jcXe[j k_\ and violent at times, particularly when raiding Y`^^\ife\j surrounding islands for food. what is now called the Torres Strait. Although it is Here come the visitors … likely that others passed through these waters earlier, Initial European contact was made in 1606 when the there is no evidence to support association with the Spanish navigator Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through Islander people. GX`ek`e^f]Xm`ccX^\fe ;Xiec\p@jcXe[ efnbefneXj (& >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) After 1770, when Captain Cook proclaimed part of Australia’s eastern coast as Crown land (see page 29 for more details), many British ships favoured Torres Strait as a passage to the Pacifi c. It was not long, therefore, before European pearlers and fi shermen began occupying the resource-rich waters. Their competition with Islanders for the sea’s resources caused many confrontations. 8efk_\igX`ek`e^Yp<[n`e GfiZ_\i#X^X`egX`ek\[ Xifle[(/+,#[\g`Zk`e^k_\d\\k`e^f] Xe@jcXe[\iZXef\Xe[jkiXe^\ije\Xi k_\DliiXp@jcXe[j Europeans as permanent residents There was no signifi cant European impact on Islander life until the arrival of the London Missionary Society on Darnley Island in 1871. The Islanders generally embraced Christianity; but this decision had a signifi cant impact on the way they lived. For example, women now had to completely cover their bodies and discard any traditional accessories. In the hot, equatorial climate, such clothing would have been uncomfortable; however, they risked being disciplined by the mission court if they did not conform. Missionary teachers also G_fkf^iXg_kXb\e`e(0)(f]Xm`ccX^\fek_\`jcXe[f]DXYl`X^ discouraged traditional songs Yp=iXeb?lic\p and dances in order to minimise adherence to the ‘old ways’. Some with a type of job (for example, Controller, John Douglas, would destroyed Islanders’ artefacts; Cook, Captain) and some from not allow Islanders to be classifi ed others were sold to passing ships or the Bible (for example, David, as Aboriginal people under the buried. Matthew). Queensland Aborigines Protection Islanders were also required to Initially, the Islanders enjoyed Act 1897. However, this changed take a second name. These were more independence under with his death in 1904. Thursday selected in a number of ways: some European control than did Island, for example, then became a because they were the name of mainland Aboriginal people. European settlement that Islanders known Europeans (for example, This was mainly because the could now only visit, and only Joe, Tom), some by a connection then Queensland Government during the day. (' <_hij7kijhWb_Wdi Independence — lost and gained The Queensland Government in the early twentieth century systematically discriminated against Islanders, deliberately limiting their freedom. They 8j]XiXjk_\ 8pfle^DliiXp@jcXe[\i g\i]fid`e^[li`e^X kiX[`k`feXc]\jk`mXc European colonisation and modern infl uences have had an enormous impact on the retention of traditional island customs. Currently, K_\Kfii\jJkiX`k@jcXe[\iÕX^nXj efforts are being made [\ZcXi\[XÕX^f]8ljkiXc`XYpk_\ to revitalise traditional ]\[\iXc^fm\ied\ekfe culture; Islanders are (+Alcp(00,%K_\jki`g\[YXZb^ifle[i\gi\j\ekjk_\ j\X Ycl\ #k_\cXe[ ^i\\e Xe[k_\g\fgc\ YcXZb % being encouraged to K_\n_`k\j_Xg\`ek_\Z\eki\`jk_\jpdYfc`Z@jcXe[\i promote and observe _\X[[i\jj%K_\Ôm\gf`ekjf]k_\jkXii\gi\j\ekk_\ island customs, teaching Ôm\dXafi^iflgjf]`jcXe[j#Xjn\ccXj\dg_Xj`j`e^ k_\`dgfikXeZ\k_Xkk_\jkXijfeZ\n\i\]fij\X the younger generation, to ensure that the cultural eXm`^Xk`fe% identity of Torres Strait Islanders remains intact. COMMUNICATE 5 :fdgXi\jfliZ\j9Xe[;% REMEMBER X 8i\k_\j\gi`dXipfij\Zfe[XipjfliZ\j6 ,$How would you feel if you heard that an invading force was setting out to herd your '$What typical reactions did European settlers community into a corner of your local region? and Indigenous people have to one another (a) Describe your emotions in a diary entry. immediately after the fi rst settlers arrived? Why (b) In a paragraph, suggest why Indigenous did this change? (pp. 6–11) people caught up in the Tasmanian Black ($ Study the image below. Explain how it Line hunt may or may not have felt as you do. demonstrates the vital dependence of Indigenous -$(a) Explain why the ‘Coranderrk experiment’ was people on the land and its resources. (p. 5) such a severe blow to Indigenous people. (b) What impact might this venture have had on the people’s attitudes and behaviour in the longer term? (pp. 16–19) .$This primary source is a photograph of Aboriginal trackers taken in the nineteenth century. Their bush skills were extraordinarily good. What advantages would these skills have provided Indigenous people in: (a) evading capture (b) making lightning raids on European camps )$ (c) surviving on the land? Why did the early settlers assume they could /$ simply take over the land on which Indigenous Give one example in each case to demonstrate people lived? (p. 4) Roleplay a conversation with why the attitudes of many early settlers towards a partner to demonstrate the settlers’ attitudes. Indigenous people were (a) ignorant, (b) arrogant, Present your roleplay for the class if asked. (c) deceitful, (d) cruel. ' & $ *$Why might Pemulwuy and Yagan be called Create a timeline listing some of the more two of the fi rst Indigenous resistance fi ghters? important events affecting Indigenous people (pp. 14–15) referred to in this chapter. +$List key factors that caused the dramatic '' $ Explain why the Mabo decision was such a reduction in the Indigenous population following landmark for Torres Strait Islanders and for European colonisation. (pp. 8–11) Indigenous people generally. (p. 22) (* >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[) eCD-R th O M K`d\kiXg1 n =`ijk8ljkiXc`Xej o (a) What is the message of this poster? ' ( $ (b) In what way does it show that the rights of Early European settlers drove Indigenous people Indigenous people are to be respected? off any land they wanted. Describe why this (c) Why do you think the story shown in the action would have had such a signifi cant long- poster is depicted with no words? term effect on Indigenous people. ')$ (d) Suggest why Indigenous people might have Write a short speech that Truganini might give been suspicious of such a poster. if she were able to come back to our society. Be ' + $ In 1868, an Aboriginal cricket team toured prepared to present your speech to the class. ' * $ England, scoring better than the fi rst white Many early settlers treated Indigenous people Australian team. Nearly 40 years later, despite very badly, but not everyone was unfair. being regarded by many as the fastest bowler in The poster below, called ‘Governor Davey’s Australia, Jack Marsh was asked not to appear Proclamation to the Aborigines, 1816’, was at the NSW selection trials. He would not be commissioned by Colonel George Arthur, chosen as he was Aboriginal. the fourth governor of Van Diemen’s Land (a) Why was the treatment of Indigenous (Tasmania). He ordered that copies of this poster cricketers so unfair in the nineteenth century be nailed to trees. and early twentieth century? (b) Based on what you know of Indigenous sportspeople today, how have attitudes changed? Why do you think this is so? ',$Jimmie Barker was only 11 when he was recruited, along with other Indigenous boys, to work as a stockman. Kevin Gilbert recorded in his book Living Black some comments Jimmie made about his early lessons in life: @c\Xiek¿k_XkXe8Yfi`^`eXc¿ nXjc`kkc\Y\kk\ik_XeXeXe`dXc2 `e]XZk#[f^jn\i\jfd\k`d\j kfY\gi\]\ii\[%8j@nXjc\jj k_Xekn\cm\p\Xijfc[`knXj `dgfjj`Yc\kf[`jY\c`\m\d\e f]Xlk_fi`kpn_fn\i\dlZ_ fc[\i%@ki`\[kfjkfgk_\`i i\dXibj]ifdYfk_\i`e^d\kff dlZ_#Ylk`knXj_Xi[kfX[aljk kfY\`e^ki\Xk\[n`k_jlZ_ Zil\ckpXe[Zfek\dgk% Discuss in small groups what you would say to Jimmie today if he visited your classroom. Think of three specifi c questions you would like to ask him and indicate why you would like them answered. '-$ Think about what you have learnt in this chapter and any activities you could have done better. Describe in what ways you expect to do better on similar tasks in the future. (+ <_hij7kijhWb_Wdi moiety: describes one of two parts of IkccWhoe\a[oj[hci a clan. Children inherited the moiety totem of either their mother or their father. The other moiety totem of the ancestral beings: ancestors of frontier: the outer boundary of a settled Kulin people besides the wedge-tailed Aboriginal people believed to have area eagle was the Australian raven. emerged during the Dreamtime. They Governor Macquarie: the fifth governor Native Police: Indigenous men who created all life forms and landscape of the colony of New South Wales were paid and trained to help European features, some merging back into these (from 1810 to 1821). After his term officers put down resistance by other when their work was done. in office, Britain began to regard the Indigenous people artefact: an object made by humans colony more as a free settlement than as native title: a ‘bundle of rights’ that bias: a leaning towards one particular just a convict prison. may include the right to hunt, fish view hop: a plant, the dried parts of which are and conduct ceremonies and to be brutalised: describes a person who has used to brew beer consulted about future development been so cruelly and harshly treated hypothesis: an opinion about how ochre: a particular type of soil, which that they, in turn, become heartless something might have happened, based ranges in colour from pale yellow to and unfeeling towards the suffering of on what evidence is available, but dark red. Mixed with water, it becomes others a type of paint. cannibalism: the act of eating one’s own which has not been proved correct hunters and gatherers: people who are penal colony: a settlement for prisoners species being punished for their crimes by clan: the part of an Indigenous language members of what is usually a group that wanders from time to time within a set being removed from the place or group that owned a particular section country in which they lived of land (about 100 people) territory to find food immunity: the state of being protected petition: a request for something that colony: a settlement whose ruling is asked of a governing body (e.g. a authority is linked to or directly from catching a particular disease government agency) and detailed in a controlled by that of another country Indigenous: describes the original formal document convict: a person declared guilty of known inhabitants of a region. prehistory: history before recorded a crime and (during the nineteenth Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders events century) sent to distant colonies to are Australia’s Indigenous people. pioneer: a person who was among the serve out his/her term initiation: a sacred ceremony in first to settle in a particular region Crown land: land belonging to the traditional Indigenous culture in which primary source: a source of evidence government (the Crown) a boy becomes a man that existed or was created during the cult: a branch of religious worship of kinship: describes the relationship that some kind, often (but not always) period being studied exists between members of an extended reserve: a set area to which many associated with more extreme beliefs family and behaviour Indigenous people were sent to language group: a group of Indigenous live, initially under the control of dialect: a language that is a version of people who speak the same language; another. Speakers of different dialects missionaries and, later, government sometimes a language group is called a authorities will not necessarily understand one ‘tribe’. another. sovereignty: describes a situation where Matthew Flinders: an English explorer Dreaming: information that describes a group of people has authority over the Dreamtime, explains Aboriginal who was the first known European to something (e.g. land) people’s relationship to the land and circumnavigate Australia in 1802 stereotype: an image that someone may sets out their traditional rules of mind map: a sketch that connects have of another person or place based behaviour loosely arranged facts and ideas by on first impressions or preconceptions economic resource: a resource that can linking lines (and brief statements) to (e.g. colour of skin, dress, observed be used to make money show their connections behaviours, general appearance) elder: an older Indigenous man or mixed descent: describes someone superintendent: a person responsible for woman highly respected for their whose parents do not come from the overseeing the activity of a particular knowledge of culture and customs same racial group (e.g. a Chinese operation exploit: to take full advantage of, mother and a Afro-American father; or, terra nullius: a Latin term that literally although this might mean disregarding in the case of Australia, an Indigenous means a land without owners, or ‘land the rights of others father and a non-Indigenous mother) of no-one’ (, >kcWd_j_[i7b_l[)