chan’ko is a cuisine of the agricultural worker and the soldier. The en’kai itself concludes Sumo — A Gentle Art with sake, okashi (Japanese munchies) of various sorts, song and impromptu individual dances. At the end, the various participants take their leave bidding formal farewell to the kami with hand clapping rituals. Solveig Throndardottir We saw that Sumo enjoys and ancient lineage stretching back to Japanese antiquity and continuing to the present. Before the Japanese middle ages, Sumo had become an What do warriors do when they are not actually established part of court life. During the Japanese middle ages, Sumo was embraced by in battle? They may serve as government officials, the Samurai. At the close of the Muromachi period, Sumo remained a familiar part of engage in a number of arts, train in various weapon Japanese life. The Ten’shoh bon and the Tori’aki bon both include plays involving forms, participate in mock combat and teach any Sumo. Chinese are defeated with Sumo and daimyo are portrayed as wrestling with each number of practical and speculative arts. Wrestling other and with insects. The en’kai has also remained a familiar feature of Japanese is a warrior activity which has been sadly neglected. society and has continued up to the present. We see examples of en'kai in Biku’sada and Wrestling was an important martial skill which could Iori no Ume. Regardless, from its beginnings with the imperially sanctioned Tanabata be practiced indoors during the long Winter months. festival, Sumo has come to be associated with each of the major seasons of the year and Thus, it was a popular Winter pastime for the Scan- with various regional festivals. dinavian Vikings. In Japan, it was often desirable to capture rather than kill an important opponent on Bibliography the battlefield. “Strong men” trained in wrestling could also prove invaluable for storming fortifica- Aston, W. G. Nihongi — Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Figure 1. A Yokozuna (Grand tions. Finally, wrestling became an important virile Rutland, Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1972. Champion.) fertility ritual in ancient Japanese court culture. Chamberlain, Basil Hall. Japanese Things — Being Notes on Various Subjects Connected with Japan. Rutland, Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1971. From earliest times, wrestling in Japan was associ- Dewa no umi Tomotaka and Sakisaka Matsuhiko. Oozumo wo miru tame no hon. ated with the Autumn harvest rites of the imperial Supotsu no Midokoro Series 10. Tokyo, Dobun Shoin, 1988. court and especially with the Tanabata festival. The Frederic, Louis. Daily Life in Japan — at the time of the Samurai, 1185-1603. Ttrans. earliest legendary account of wrestling appears in the Eileen M. Lowe. New York, Praeger, 1972. Nihon Shoki. This incident supposably occurred in Kobayashi Seki and Aburatani Mitsuo. Kyogen Handbook. Tokyo, Sanshodo, 1995. 23 BCE. While it is possible that the story may be Papinot, E. Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan. Rutland, Charles E. accurate and was included in the Nihon Shoki based Tuttle Co., 1972, upon a story found in a Chinese account, it is more Saeki Umetomo and Mabuchi Kazuo. Kodansha Kogojiten. (Kodansha Dictionary of likely that the incident is entirely legendary. Classical Japanese) Tokyo, Kodansha, 1969. Tanaka Hidetoshi. Sumo. Tokyo, Kirihara Shoten. 1981. 7th year, Autumn, 7th month, 7th day. The Figure 2. Thirteenth century courtiers represented to the Emperor as follows:— French wrestlers. Illustrations “In the village of Taima there is a valiant man called Kuyehaya of Taima. He is of great bodily The illustrations appearing in this note are based upon illustrations found in the works strength, so that he can break horns and straighten cited in the bibliography. Specifically, figure 11 is derived from Kohdansha Kogo Jiten, out hooks. He is always saying to the people:— figures 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are derived from Oozumo wo miru tame no hon by Dewa no ‘You may search the four quarters, but where is umi and Sakisaka; and figures 2, 4, 9, and 10 are dervied from Sumo by Tanaka Hidetoshi. there one to compare with me in strength? O Figure 2 is a reproduction of a sketch found in the Paris National Museum. that I could meet with a man of might, with whom to have a trial of strength, regardless of About the Author life or death.’” The Emperor, hearing this, proclaimed to his ministers saying:— “We hear that Kuyehaya of Lady Solveig Throndardottir, CoM is a tenth century Norse woman who somehow got Taima is the champion of the Empire. Might lost and found her way to Japan. Barbara Nostrand has a Ph.D. in Mathematics and may there be any one to compare with him?” some day earn an M.A. in Japanese Language and Literature. That same day the Emperor sent Nagaochi, the Figure 3. Nomi no Sukune and ancestor of the Atahe of Yamato, to summon Nomi Taima no Kuyehaya. no Sukune. Thereupon Nomi no Sukune came from Idzumo, and straightway he and In Japan, yori’kiri (lifting your opponent out of the do’hyoh by his mawashi) accounts Taima no Kuyehaya were made to wrestle together. The two men stood opposite to for 40% of all Sumo victories. The second most common victory is oshi’dashi in which one another. Each raised his foot and kicked at the other, when Nomi no Sukune the seki’tori forces his adversary out of the do’hyoh by a series of slaps or open hand broke with a kick the ribs of Kuyehaya and also kicked and broke his loins and thus thrusts to the body. Although oshi’dashi is the second most common victory, it accounts killed him. Therefore the land of Taima no Kuyehaya was seized, and was all given for less than 15% of all victories. The third most common victory is hataki’komi which to Nomi n o Sukune. This was the cause why there is in that village a place called accounts for only 6.5% of all victories. Hataki’komi is performed by stepping aside Koshu-ire-da, i.e. the field of the broken loins. (Nihongi vol. I p. 173) during the tachi’ai and pushing down upon your opponent’s back. This attack is most effective against seki’tori who prefer oshi’dashi victories or do not adequately concentrate The earliest historical account of a wrestling match can also be found in the Nihon during the tachi’ai. The fourth most common victory is one of the many throws encountered Shoki. However, it is recorded in the later part of this early history of Japan which is in Sumo. ue’te’nage is performed when a seki’tori has failed to grip his opponents generally believed to be historical. mawashi with both hands. The seki’tori pulls up with his arm gripping the mawashi and leans down in the opposite. This is a spectacular win in that the victor must lift his own In the seventh month (Autumn by the Chinese calendar) of 642 CE, Korean leg in the air in order to bear down on his opponent. The fifth most common victory is ambassadors arrived in Japan with their wives and children bearing messages of yori’ta’oshi. This is yet another modification of the basic yori’kiri approach to victory. condolence to Empress Kogyoku from the Pekche court over the death of emperor When an opponent is successfully resisting stepping out of the do’hyoh, the seki’tori Jomei. While still in Japan, the son of ambassador Kyoki died. After he was buried, bears into him with the weight of his body forcing his opponent to bend backwards and the empress invited the Korean delegation to a banquet and commanded “stout eventually topple. One final note regarding the yori’kiri road to victory. If your opponent fellows” to entertain the guests by staging a wrestling match. (Nihongi vol II p. 174) counters yori’kiri with lifting both legs backwards into the air, you can simply carry him out of the do’hyoh, in which case your victory is called tsuri’dashi. Wrestling appears to have become an established court entertainment associated with Tanabata during the Yayoi period prior to the establishment of the first permanent capital Although the actual kyo’ji has few rules, Sumo is bound by at Nara as we find another instance of wrestling occurring in 682 CE. tradition and is highly disciplined. The seki’tori bow upon entering and leaving the do'hyoh and to each other when the vanquished Autumn, 7th month, 3rd day. Hayato came in numbers with tribute of the productions takes his leave. Ultimately, the gyo’ji and not the seki’tori directs of their country. On this day, the hayato of Ohosumi and the hayato of Ata wrestled each kyo’ji and the matsuri as a whole. Victory is granted to the in the Court. The Ohosumi hayato had the victory. (Nihongi vol. II p. 356) sen’shu if 1) the ai’te precedes him out of the do’hyoh, 2) the ai’te touches the ground before he does, 3) the ai’te employs and This is the first account of wrestlers being divided into teams which competed with illegal move, 4) the ai’te’s mawashi comes untied, 5) the ai’te’s each other. This competition between two teams (or armies in miniature) of wrestlers hair touches the ground. The gyo’ji may halt the kyo’ji and persists up to the present. Even in grand tournaments where an individual champion award victory whenever in his opinion the kyo’ji has become emerges at the end, each day the wrestlers are divided into two teams and wrestle in pairs dangerous. each wrestler taking only a single bout for the day. Chamberlain describes a variant in As Sumo is a form of ritual combat, we must understand that it Figure 11. Ancient which each of the two teams selects a champion and then the two champions wrestle for is indeed a gentle art. Each kyo’ji is an offering to the kami for court official. team honours. Chamberlain claims that champions were chosen by a method similar to good agricultural conditions, plentiful harvests and abundant fish- “king of the castle” in which a wrestler attempts to hold the field against all comers. A ing. As we have seen, a votive offering of agricultural and aquatic food stuffs is often wrestler succeeding in defeating three opponents would receive an individual prize. buried in the center of the do’hyoh prior to a Sumo tournament. Also, the various be’ya What is Tanabata? Tanabata is a late Summer fertility festival which celebrates the erect a votive stake in the center of their practice do’hyoh at the end of each day’s love between a herdsman and a weaver in an ancient Chinese fable. In ancient times, the practice. weaver was pledged to making clothing for the children of the Emperor of Heaven. The As we saw earlier, Sumo tournaments were originally associated with festive en’kai at result was that she had no time to seek a husband. The Emperor of Heaven took pity on Tanabata. An en’kai is literally a symposium of food, drink and song. Japanese strongly her loneliness and gave her in marriage to the herdsman who dwelt on the other side of associate song, drink and dance. Thus, each day of a Sumo tournament concludes with the River of Heaven. Unfortunately, she spent so much time with her new husband that the bow dance which inaugurates the concluding en’kai. Sumo has a distinctive, or at she neglected her duties and was exiled to her original home. Now the two lovers can least a distinctively named, cuisine. The seki’tori eat chan’ko na’be. Chan’ko na’be is a only meet once each year. hearty pottage cooked by the seki’tori themselves after the bow dance and eaten communally. In 719 CE, the imperial court established an office in charge of “boxing”. This office Chan’ko na’be is prepared by the seki’tori each adding the various meat, fish, seasonal later became the office in charge of “wrestling”. Apparently, striking with the closed fist vegetables, tofu and abura’age which they prefer to the communal pot. The mixture is had not yet been banned at the beginning of the eighth century. This reference to then boiled over high heat until adequately cooked. After the chan’ko na’be has been “boxing” in ancient documents and the accounts of entertaining Korean ambassadors eaten, any remaining soup may be drunk while eating rice, broiled chicken or fish, with these contests suggests a connection between Sumo and Chinese boxing which lends pickled vegetables or other dishes which follow the chan’ko na’be itself. Regardless, tucked in. Finally the mawashi is tied in the back.

some credence to the legendary meeting of Nomi no Sukune and Taima no Kuyehaya. Regardless, the office of “boxing” eventually gave way to the office of “wrestling”. In 725 CE there was a drought. Conse- quently, emperor Shomu decreed that Sumo tournaments would be performed as sacred offerings at each of twenty one shrines (a) (b) (c) (d) throughout the country. Three years later, emperor Shomu decreed that regional admin- istrators would take special efforts to recruit wrestlers. Emperor Shomu also established an annual imperial Sumo tournament to take place on Tanabata. The emperor personally attended this important Sumo tournament for (e) (f) (g) (h) the first time in 734 CE. By 793 CE, the Figure 4. Sumo tournament at Sumiyoshi annual Sumo tournament coinciding with Jinja. This important Shintoh shrine was Tanabata had evolved into a major festival originally built by Jingo-kogo. complete with ceremonial feasts. Why were these annual imperial Sumo tournaments important for the emperor? The Taiho Code which swept away clan autonomy to establish the imperial government was promulgated in 701 CE. The emperor and his family laid claim to supremacy over Japan not merely by virtue of military conquest, but by their greater ability to assure annual (i) (j) (k) fertility, plentiful rainfall and bountiful harvests. We can assume that the clans which had submitted to the overlordship of the imperial household were eager to demonstrate Figure 10. Illegal attacks. (a) face slaps (b) face punches (c) hair pulling (d) eye poking their own importance via these annual gatherings in Nara. At the same time, the imperial (e) body punches (f) boxing or pinning the ears (g) grabbing the throat (h) grabbing family gained prestige by virtue of summoning them. Regardless, in 810 CE, emperor fingers (i) kicking the torso with either the foot or the knee (j) grabbing the front vertical Saga inaugurated his reign by personally attending the Tanabata Sumo tournament. Thus, portion of the mawashi (k) grabbing the back vertical portion of the mawashi. the Sumo tournament helped to seal the legitimacy both of his reign and of his court. These annual Tanabata Sumo tournaments and festivals continued to grow in prestige, Thus far, we have seen the rules for determining victory and defeat. There are all and in 821 CE, the Tanabata tournament was held on the palace grounds. together seventy ways in which a seki’tori can claim victory, two errors (stepping out of the do’hyoh or touching the earth) and eleven violations of honour which will cause a Sumo wrestlers are known as rikishi (strong men) forfeit. These violations of honour are shown in Figure 10. In modern Japan, there are or seki’tori (gate takers). While the activities of the another nine moves which are prohibited to children under the age of fifteen. These seki’tori are the primary interest of the remainder of additional nine moves consist of a variety of head and body locks, attempting to trip this note, we will pause to consider the other people one’s opponent by intertwining your leg with theirs in a move called kawazu kake, and a associated with Sumo tournaments and their equip- move called isori in which the opponent’s legs straddle your shoulders in a move similar ment. to preparing for a “pile driver” move. Traditionally, each Sumo match or kyogi is an- The seki’tori are not required to know any of the seventy victories. That is the nounced by an official called a yobi’dashi or “crier” responsiblity of the gyoji. Ultimately, in Sumo the victor is the seki’tori who doesn’t who wears a simple kimono and hakama. The yo- loose. Or more accurately, the seki’tori who first violates one of the prerequisites for bi’dashi summons each seki’tori into the do’hyoh continuing battle looses. Upon hearing his name called, the seki’tori enters the do’hyoh, (ring) in which the bout is to take place. Traditionally, bows, and begins his purification ritual. He may continue this ritual until signalled by the the yobi’dashi first cries the name of the “army” to gyoji to commence battle. Thereuon, he takes his place behind his mark and performs the which the seki’tori belongs and then his name. The tachi’ai. As already noted, both of his hands must touch the ground simultaneously Western Army is referred to simply as “Nishi” (West) before he can attack. Both seki tori must assume this stance simultaneously in order for and the Eastern army as “Higashi” (East). In modern the battle to commence. Upon springing forward, the seki’tori has the choice of either Figure 5. An Edo period gyoji Sumo, the Eastern army has right of precedence over thrusting at his oponent, grappling with his oponent or steping to side to push his squats in the do'hyoh while the the Western army. This may date to the Kamakura opponent off balance. Each seki’tori has his own unique style. Larger seki’tori tend to seki'tori purify themselves and era or may be as recent as the defeat of the Western prefer thrusting attacks. the do'hyoh. Army by the Eastern Army at Sekigahara in 1600 CE. Consequently, the Eastern seki’tori is summoned prior to the Western seki’tori. The do’hyoh itself is a ring fifteen shaku (455 cm) Regardless, the yobi’dashi summons each seki’tori by name with a melodious voice. Due in diameter which is traditionally bounded by rice possibly to the Japanese aversion to showing their teeth, the yobi’dashi holds a white fan bales partially buried in the sand. These rice bales in front of his face while he cries the names of the wrestlers. often provide vital footholds for the barefooted se- In addition to summoning the wrestlers into the do’hyoh, the yobi’dashi is responsible ki’tori. While the seki’tori purify the do’hyoh with for sweeping and wetting down the do’hyoh itself, providing water for the seki’tori to salt and themselves with water, the gyoji stands at cleanse their mouths and salt for them to purify the do’hyoh. The yobi’dashi signals the the northern station of the do’hyoh. He signals that beginning and end of a division in a Sumo tournament by beating either clappers (such as it is time to commence the kyogi by squatting and the Edo period yobi’dashi can be seen holding in Figure 5) or a drum. Modern Sumo elevating his gun’bai. A water bucket sets in each employs a distinctive drum beat to signify the beginning and ending of each day of the of the extreme northeast and northwest corners. A tournament. Further, yobi’dashi parade through the streets beating drums the week Figure 8. A seki'tori performing bucket of coarse salt sits in each of these corners as before the beginning of each tournament. This “musical” accompaniment to Sumo tour- the bow dance. well. Finally, there is a receptacle for spitting out naments probably derives from the cult Shintoh origin of Sumo tournaments. Worshipers the water used to purify the body. Etiquette demands summon and dismiss the gods at Shintoh shrines by clapping their hands. So too, at a that the seki’tori conceal his mouth with a piece of kai’shi (folded paper) while spitting great Sumo festival tournament, the gods are in attendance and are to be probably summoned out the water used for cleansing his mouth. kai’shi can also be used to blot perspiration and dismissed. Prior to each Sumo tournament, a sacred Shintoh offering is buried in the from the body of the seki’tori prior to battle. center of the do’hyoh. So too, each Sumo practice hall (called a beya) erects an offering The seki’tori summon the kami by ceremoniously stomping the ground prior to the stake in the center of their practice do’hyoh at the conclusion of practice each day. kyogi. At the end of each day, one of the seki’tori performs the “bow dance”. This The gyoji is responsible for directing each kyogi or “battle” dance consists of a number of martial poses. In the course of this dance, the seki’tori between the two armies. Between kyogi, the gyoji is stationed at repeatedly bears the bow across his shoulders, strikes the ground with the bow and rubs the north side of the do’hyoh. During the kyogi, the gyoji holds the backside of the bow against the ground. All of this is intended to help assure fertility his gun’bai erect and shouts encouragement to both seki’tori while and adequate rainfall. The inscription in Figure 8 alludes to the significance of the bow carefully looking at their feet and clothing. The gyoji is responsible dance in assuring adequate rain. for clearing the do’hyoh of fallen bits of clothing, suspending the fight to re-tie mawashi and determining victory and defeat. Often the seki’tori themselves are unaware of who won as both fighters often go flying out of the do’hyoh together or both fall together. Victory goes to the seki’tori who either forces his opponent from the do’hyoh or causes any part of h is opponents body other than the soles of his feet to touch the ground. Further, a seki’tori Figure 6. A gyoji can loose by either 1) isa ashi accidentally stepping outside of holding a gun'bai. Figure 9. The mawashi is a strip of heavy the do’hyoh, accidentally, 2) koshi kudari sitting down or otherwise linen or silk fabric about one and a half shaku accidentally falling or 3) by engaging in an illegal attack. The (48 cm) wide. This strip of fabric is folded gyoji awards victory by crying the name of the winner’s army and pointing his gun’bai lengthwise leaving a one half sun (1.5 cm) face down in the direction of the victorious army. He also determines by which of the gap. The strip is then folded in half again. seventy different attacks or three errors that victory was won or defeat suffered. An an average size adult seki'tori needs 7-8 During the kyogi itself, the gyoji shouts encourage- meters to wrap himself four times. ment to both seki’tori shouting “Fight! Fight!” or “Stay in! Stay in!” Once the gyoji has determine that a We have already noted that the yobi’dashi wears ordinary kimono and hakama. Although kyogi may commence, he elevates his fan and cries the gyoji in Figures 5 and 6 are shown Kamishimo, this is Edo period costume. Earlier “yoshi” (well enough!) It then remains for the seki’tori gyoji probably wore formal clothing for high rank individual of their era. Modern Sumo to commence the kyogi with a tachi’ai. Each seki’tori has revived the use of the kari’ginu (hunting) costume which strongly associated with the must touch the backs of both hands simultaneously to imperial court and Shintoh priests. The seki’tori wear mawashi while the fight. For very the ground before springing upon his opponent. They formal ceremonies, they will also were a kasho mawashi (decorative apron) over their must also keep their entire body behind their starting regular mawashi. A yokozuna (grand champion) will also have a ceremonial woven line. These lines are just a little over two shaku fishnet tied around his waist decorated paper streamers signifying his status as a “living (exactly 70 cm) apart. A bad tachi’ai requires that god” or special votive offering. Regardless, the mawashi is held over the naval and the kyogi be refought. Figure 7. A modern do'hyoh. wrapped twice about the body. Then it is folded over, wrapped twice more and then tucked in. Finally the mawashi is tied in the back.