A Comprehensive Comparison of Lexemes in the Major Languages of Tanna, Vanuatu

DigitalResources SIL eBook 34

Kenneth Nehrbass

A Comprehensive Comparison of Lexemes in the Major Languages of Tanna, Vanuatu

Kenneth Nehrbass

SIL International® 2012

SIL e-Books 34

ISBN: 978-1-55671-276-0 ISSN: 1934-2470

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Series Editor Mike Cahill

Volume Editors Dirk Kievit George Huttar

Managing Editor Bonnie Brown

Composition Dennis Felkner

Contents

Acknowledgments Abstract List of map, tables, and figure

Section A. Background

Chapter 1. Introduction to the study

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Purpose of the study 1.2 Data collection 1.3 Methodology 1.3.1 The advantage of dictionaries over Swadesh wordlists 1.3.1.1 Discovering idiosyncrasies of a language 1.3.1.2 Potential for errors in a Swadesh wordlist

Chapter 2. Some preliminary results from the comparative analysis

2.0 Introduction 2.1 Determining cognates 2.1.1 Phonological reasons for dissimilarity of cognate lexemes 2.1.1.1 Consonant correspondence 2.1.1.2 Vowel correspondence 2.1.2 Non-phonological reasons for dissimilarity of cognate lexemes 2.1.2.1 Historical synonyms 2.1.2.2 Idioms and abstract ideas with different base words 2.2 Applications of a comparative analysis 2.2.1 Determining degree of similarity between languages 2.2.2 Finding identical lexemes in languages 2.2.3 Doing semantic comparison between languages 2.2.3.1 Semantic correlation in languages 2.2.3.2 Semantic non-correlation in languages 2.2.4 Differentiating between homonyms and polysemous lexemes

Chapter 3. Using the multi-language lexicon

3.0 Introduction 3.1 Orthography 3.1.1 Influence of mission history on orthography 3.1.2 Influence of unique phonologies on orthography 3.1.3 Modern orthography 3.2 Layout

iii

Section B. Lexicon

Appendix A.Nearly identical lexemes in Tanna’s languages Appendix B. Birds of Vanuatu included in the lexicon Appendix C. Plants and trees of Vanuatu included in the lexicon

Abbreviations References About the author and data contributors

Acknowledgments

Dozens of people helped with the data and analysis of this lexicon and with the preparation of the manuscript. Specifically, Ruben Aiyoh, Pastor Joshua Jimmy Ioanavir, Eliud Kapan and his wife Miriam, Tom Napikou, Jymi Nokout and his wife Anita, Pastor Peter Rei, Jacob Willie, Daniel Yahi, and Kilion Yo assisted as informants. In addition, Greg and Beth Ann Carlson, Erik and Michele Stapleton, and Tim Zylstra provided their dictionaries, expertise, and opinions on the lexical entries and analysis of North Tanna, Kwamera, and Lenakel respectively, while John Lynch provided guidance on Proto South Vanuatu. My wife Mendy helped me tremendously with the compilation of the SW Tanna dictionary. Chuck Grimes, David Healey, and Ross and Lyndal Webb gave valuable feedback on the analysis section of the lexicon. Finally, Dirk Kievit spent countless hours editing the manuscript. I take full responsibility for any errors remaining.

Abstract

Tanna Island in Vanuatu has five major languages and perhaps as many as two dozen dialects. However, only a few grammar sketches and dictionaries have been published on the languages of Tanna. In this document, more than 1,700 of the commonly used lexemes in all of the five major languages as well as a dialect spoken on Tanna are presented in one volume. Rather than eliciting the data from wordlists based on the lingua franca, the lexemes have been gleaned from full- length dictionaries compiled by three linguists who have worked for a combined experience of 34 years on Tanna Island. A comparative analysis based on this lexical data has made it possible to determine degrees of similarity between all of the island’s languages. The dissimilarity in lexemes across languages has also been revealing, as it has shown idiosyncrasies of each of the languages. The comparative analysis at times has helped determine whether a particular lexeme is polysemous (i.e., having a range of related meanings) or whether the different meanings are homophones (i.e., different lexemes that are identical in form). It has also helped in establishing patterns of phonological changes and intra-island migration paths. Finally, while the languages of Tanna vary slightly in terms of their phonologies, this study has established a phonemic, island-wide orthography based on the lexical data.

List of map, tables, and figure

Map 1. Map of Tanna: Language areas and villages where data was elicited...... 3

Table 1.1. Demographic information on the languages of Tanna...... 3 Table 1.2. Some idiosyncratic lexemes in the languages of Tanna...... 4 Table 1.3. Some Tanna lexemes with idiosyncratic secondary meanings...... 5 Table 1.4. Potential errors when performing a cursory survey...... 7 Table 2.1. Consonant correspondence...... 9 Table 2.2. Vowel correspondence...... 11 Table 2.3. Degree of correspondence between the languages of Tanna...... 16 Table 2.4. (Nearly) identical kastom lexemes in the languages of Tanna...... 17 Table 2.5. Idiosyncratic lexemes in the languages of Tanna...... 19 Table 3.1. Minimal pairs for [ɨ], [ə], and [a]...... 24

Figure 3.1. Lexicon layout...... 26

vii

Section A. Background

Chapter 1. Introduction to the study

1.0 Introduction

When people greet each other in Lenakel, Tanna, they say rawɨt lakapnəpɨn. In Whitesands, they say tawɨr laplapen. In the southern mountains they say rhuvə namsuk. In Kwamera, on the southern tip, it’s ramasan nəpnəpɨn. A small number of people by Mount Yasur Volcano in the southeast say thuvə yenpengenpeng. In the north, they say tawɨr loulaugɨn. Tanna’s folklore says that the ancestors in the mythical days argued with each other about how to talk, so one said, “Fine, I’ll say ‘I do it’ my way,” and another said, “Fine, I’ll say ‘I do it’ my way.” Thus, the argument was settled. They spread out and each began speaking his own way.

1.1 Purpose of the study

Inhabitants of Tanna have counted as many as 25 different dialects, but linguists recognize five major languages spoken on Tanna: Kwamera (a.k.a. South Tanna, hereafter S Tanna), Lenakel, North Tanna (hereafter N Tanna), Southwest Tanna (hereafter SW Tanna), and Whitesands (Gordon 2005:303; Lynch 1982:2). It has been difficult to establish the language boundaries and language group sizes on Tanna and to determine whether a particular variety is a dialect or a different language. The reason for this is the lack of adequate language data to verify the degree to which the languages vary from one another. Most of the languages and dialects have had minimal analysis. Only three have dictionaries or grammar sketches. For others, comprehensive lexical data has not been published previously, making such data unavailable to linguists and speakers of Tanna’s vernaculars. In light of the underrepresentation of Tanna’s languages, the purpose of this book is to supply a substantial portion of the previously unpublished lexical data and to begin some comparative analysis. Here, I compare more than 1,700 lexemes in the five major languages of Tanna listed above as well as a dialect of SW Tanna called Vaha, which is spoken between the Whitesands and SW Tanna language boundary.1 The language data here presented can prove helpful for historical linguists to determine how the languages of Tanna have evolved. Or, to continue the legend mentioned above, this data can help us discover just what the ancestors did when they settled their argument, spread out, and began talking in their own ways. Which of the ancestors won that mythical argument—that is, which lexemes seem to have been most resistant over time? What ‘paths’ did those

1I held lexicography workshops in the Vaha area in order to determine whether Vaha and SW Tanna differed enough to be considered distinct languages. The results showed Vaha to be 90 percent lexically similar to SW Tanna. For this reason, and since their grammars are nearly identical, I consider Vaha to be a dialect of SW Tanna. Nevertheless, I have included Vaha in this study for the sake of comparison and refer to it as one of the languages of Tanna.

2 ancestors follow as they began settling and speaking in their own ways—that is, can we determine a geographic pattern of language change based on changes in the lexicons? Such questions are not fully answered here, but sufficient data is provided to begin answering them. Charpentier’s (1982) monumental atlas of lexemes in the languages of the southern half of Malekula (Vanuatu) inspired me to create a comprehensive ‘map’ of the Tannese lexemes. South Malekula experienced drastic migration in the past one hundred years, as those who lived inland moved to the coast. The migration patterns are evident in the language changes. While Tanna has not undergone the same sort of migration, the lexical changes still enlighten us about migration patterns and the relationships between languages. On a more popular level, the data of this study can be used by speakers of one Tanna language to ascertain how their words are expressed in other areas on Tanna. As more works in the Tanna vernaculars are published, readers will encounter words in languages with which they are less familiar. This book thus helps to familiarize speakers of Tanna languages with the other languages spoken on the island.

1.2 Data collection

The data in this volume was collected by myself between 2003 and 2010, as well as by two other SIL linguists who performed extensive fieldwork on Tanna: Greg Carlson (1991–2007) and Erik Stapleton (2004–2010). Many local speakers have assisted in the task of lexicography during this time. I held numerous lexicography workshops in various villages throughout my tenure on Tanna in order to elicit words, find synonyms, track dialectal changes, refine English glosses, and produce example sentences. Carlson, Stapleton, and myself have also carried out numerous discourse analyses in order to determine specific nuances of lexemes. I am indebted to Lamont Lindstrom for his dictionary of Kwamera (1986), and to John Lynch for his work on Lenakel (1978) and SW Tanna (1982). The data and analysis here were informed by their work. In some cases this study corresponds with lexemes that they recorded; in other places this study shows how lexemes have changed since their works were published. Map 1 (next page) shows the geographic area where the data was elicited for the six languages represented in this study. Table 1.1 below it shows alternate names for these languages, as well as population figures and the villages where the data was elicited. Population data is based on Lynch and Crowley (2001:126).

Map 1. Map of Tanna: Language areas and villages where data was elicited.

Table 1.1. Demographic information on the languages of Tanna.†

Language Selfnames Population Village(s) where elicited Kwamera/South nəfe ‘what’ 3,300–5,000 Yenmarei Tanna Lenakel nɨtuar ‘what’ 8,500– Lonapkiko (historically) 11,500 N Tanna nɨnakə ‘say what’ 5,000 Lomakaun SW Tanna naha ‘what’; sipəru 3,500–4,500 Yenemilen, Yenapkasu ‘give it’ Vaha (‘give it’) nəlpai mɨne ‘fat 400–600 Isaka tribe’ Whitesands narak ‘what’ 5,500–7,500 Loarfi, Loniel (historically) †The 2009 census data would have been preferable but was not yet available at the time of writing this paper. Lindstrom (1983:387) argues that nɨtuar (Lenakel selfname) and narak (Whitesands selfname) are unanalyzable, and that language names without apparent meaning carry less political weight than those with meaning; hence the appearance of folk etymologies. He records another selfname for SW Tanna, haua- p̃ə, which means ‘come (PL) here.’

1.3 Methodology

1.3.1 The advantage of dictionaries over Swadesh wordlists

There are a number of advantages of a comparison of lexemes based on comprehensive dictionary data, rather than on a Swadesh wordlist. First, a Swadesh wordlist is English-based and does not give an adequate picture of the richness or idiosyncrasies of a language. Second, when a Swadesh wordlist is compiled by a linguistic surveyor who is largely unfamiliar with the language, the likelihood of errors is greater than when a linguist compiles a dictionary over time as he or she becomes familiar with the language.

1.3.1.1 Discovering idiosyncrasies of a language

A lexicon based on a language of wider communication (LWC) is unlikely to elicit words for which there is no equivalent in the LWC. For instance, it is unlikely that an English-speaking surveyor would discover words for which there is no English or Bislama equivalent.2 Table 1.2 lists some of the lexemes in Tanna’s languages which are idiosyncratic and would not typically show up on a general survey list.

Table 1.2. Some idiosyncratic lexemes in the languages of Tanna.

verbal break off a leaf at its stem eat food with a leaf erect wild cane to ensorcel garden trespassers expectorate kava give someone a piggyback ride mash something between the fingernails roast in an earthen oven scrape with the side of a knife wear a bark skirt wear something around the neck wear something in the hair nominal half-eaten food house for newborns kava drunk during daylight

Additionally, Tanna vernaculars have idiosyncratic words for ceremonies, such as dances and rites of passage, and for localized methods of cultivation. For example, Tanna languages list five stages of a coconut and more than a hundred types of banana, taro, and sweet potato. Lexical data elicited through surveys would not turn up these words; they are discovered over time.

2Bislama is one of the official languages of Vanuatu, together with English and French. It is an English pidgin which is becoming creolized.

Compiling comprehensive dictionaries also enables us to find secondary meanings that may not be elicited with a wordlist based on an LWC, such as those listed in Table 1.3 from various Tannese languages.

Table 1.3. Some Tanna lexemes with idiosyncratic secondary meanings.

Primary meaning Secondary meaning be heavy be pregnant, be serious death sickness, trial heaviness unity sit mourn, be married smallness childhood split lengthwise interpret summit complete

In this study, when lexemes have multiple, related meanings, the various meanings are separated by semicolons. The primary meaning is listed first and additional meanings are listed following it. The meanings least directly related to the primary meaning are listed last. This is illustrated in example (1):

(1) canoe; ship; village; generation Here, ‘canoe’ is the primary meaning; ‘ship,’ ‘village,’ and ‘generation’ are additional meanings. ‘Ship’ is the most closely related to ‘canoe’ and therefore listed first, while ‘generation’ is the least directly related to ‘canoe’ and therefore listed last.

1.3.1.2 Potential for errors in a Swadesh wordlist

Tryon (1976) published a comparison of nearly 300 lexemes spoken in 179 locations throughout Vanuatu, including 14 locations on Tanna. It was a seminal work, showing not only lexical similarity of languages and dialects throughout Vanuatu but also describing the phonology of each of these languages and dialects. However, a survey of that sort—even one done by as apt a linguist as Tryon—is likely to produce the following types of errors:

1) Synonym mismatch The linguist tries to elicit a lexeme and informants in some languages give one word while informants in related languages give a synonym rather than the actual lexeme the linguist is looking for. Even though the corresponding lexeme is also present in their languages, the linguist is not privy to that information, leaving the linguist with the impression that the languages differ on this lexical item.

2) Grammatical mismatch The informant misunderstands the grammatical form of the word the linguist is eliciting (perhaps because the linguist is working in an LWC), so the

informant gives a different lexeme from the one that actually corresponds to the lexemes the other informants gave for their respective languages. (Note that, at times, one Tanna language uses the noun form of a lexeme while another related language may use only the verb form or a nominalized verb. See, for instance, the entry for ‘poison.’ Four of the languages form the word for ‘poison’ with the agentive k- + verb akonə while N Tanna and Whitesands form it with the nominalizing prefix n- + verb akona + nominalizing suffix - an.)

3) Word joining The informant joins two words when answering the linguist, while only one word actually belongs to the lexical category the linguist is trying to elicit.

4) Incorrect answer The informant misunderstands the linguist or does not know the answer and so gives an incorrect answer. Therefore, the informant’s answer does not correspond semantically or lexically to the other languages being compared.

5) Linguist’s mistake The linguist hears, records, or reports the information incorrectly.

Each of these errors would give the analyst the impression that the languages are more dissimilar than they really are. Furthermore, since the resulting data is not wholly accurate, it can muddle things for the historical linguist who is trying to infer patterns of language change. For each of the errors listed above, Table 1.4 (next page) gives examples which I found in Tryon’s (1976) data from Tanna (page numbers refer to Tryon 1976 except those with ‘below,’ which refer to page numbers in this document).

Table 1.4. Potential errors when performing a cursory survey.†

Error Examples Some informants said nəpakɨr for ‘sand’; others said nəməkəraker (p. 319). These are synonyms. Both lexemes are found in four of Tanna’s languages. Some informants said kapoapən for ‘sky’; others said neai (p. 339). Kapoapen (lit. ‘black cloud’) and neai are nearly synomymous lexemes for ‘sky’ found in all the languages of Tanna See ‘blue Synonym sky’ on p. 50 and ‘sky’ on p. 196 below). mismatch Some informants said yapou for ‘lazy’; others said yelpah (p. 389). They are synonyms: both are available in the lexicons of Tanna. One informant said rɨkin ru for ‘think’ or ‘listen’ while others said ətərɨg (p. 519). These are synonyms. Some informants said vəh for ‘hold’ and others said əskwalɨm (p. 479). These are near synonyms: vəh is ‘hold in the palm’; əskwalɨm is ‘grasp firmly.’ Some informants said pin for ‘smell’ while others said əmiovɨn (p. 509). These are different lexemes: pin is transitive, ‘sniff, detect an odor’; əmiovɨn is intransitive ‘have an odor.’ Some informants said an for ‘eat’ while others said əvɨgɨn (p. 469). Grammatical These are different lexemes: an is transitive; əvɨgɨn means either mismatch ‘feed animals’ or ‘eat [intransitive].’ Some informants said that sun is rukweiha (p. 309). It is mɨrh, mɨnag, or mɨt as the other informants correctly stated. Rukweiha is ‘sunshine.’ Word One informant said natui for ‘new’ while others said ui (p. 399). joining The word is wi, but nat wi means ‘a new thing.’ One informant said kahp for ‘liver’ (p. 199). Kahp just means ‘movable body part,’ such as testicle or tumor. One informant said naha iran for ‘how many’ while others said kuhu(n) (p. 429). Naha iran is a colloquialism for ‘how much Incorrect does it cost?’ The lexicon of the informant’s language contains answer kuvhuun See p. 126 below). The linguist was eliciting ‘scorpion’ (p. 279), but there are no scorpions on Tanna. The varied responses to this lexical item reflect the confusion. Tryon lists nap for ‘salt.’ It is the lexeme for ‘fire.’ Linguist’s He lists nehap for ‘mountain.’ It should be listed as the lexeme for mistake ‘smoke’ (p. 319). †This table is not intended to denigrate Tryon’s work but is merely meant to illustrate how difficult it is to obtain accurate data using a wordlist survey approach.

Chapter 2. Some preliminary results from the comparative analysis

2.0 Introduction

There are pragmatic as well as theoretical reasons for presenting the lexical data for Tanna’s languages in one volume. Pragmatically, it can facilitate cross- language communication. On a theoretical level, having the data in one volume makes it easy to perform a comparative analysis of the lexical entries across the languages of Tanna. In this chapter, I summarize some of the benefits I have found by doing such a comparative analysis. The chapter is organized as follows. In the first part I discuss the methods for determining cognates. Here I look at both phonological and non-phonological reasons for the dissimilarity of related lexemes across languages. In the second part, I discuss the applications of doing a comparative analysis based on a comprehensive lexical database. First, I demonstrate how it helps us determine the degree of similarity of the languages of Tanna. Second, I show how it helps us find which semantic categories of lexemes are most resistant to language change. Third, I show how it helps us find those semantic categories which have correlates across languages as well as those which are idiosyncratic to one or several languages. Finally, I show how it helps us differentiate between homonyms and polysemous lexemes.

2.1 Determining cognates

A comparative analysis allows us to determine lexical similarity across languages and to suggest reasons why lexemes have changed over time in various regions on Tanna. In order to begin this task, we need to establish the criteria for determining cognates, i.e., lexemes which are historically derived from the same source lexeme. We do so by examining two sets of reasons for the dissimilarity of lexemes: phonological and non-phonological.

2.1.1 Phonological reasons for dissimilarity of cognate lexemes

In this section I discuss phonological reasons why cognate lexemes may differ in form. Here, I have used the criteria developed from Lynch’s (2001) study of phonological shifts from Proto South Vanuatu (PSV) to the modern languages of Southern Vanuatu (see Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 below). I have updated the data to represent the modern-day (rather than historical) phonemic orthography and have added the data from Vaha. The PSV form is given in the first column using IPA symbols and the modern-day reflexes are listed in the following columns for each of the six languages.

2.1.1.1 Consonant correspondence

Table 2.1, based on Lynch’s study (Lynch 2001:201–202), shows consonant correspondence between PSV and modern Tanna languages.

Table 2.1. Consonant correspondence (after Lynch 2001:201–202).†

PSV Kwamera Lenakel N Tanna SW Tanna Vaha Whitesands *b, *p p p p p p p *b,̃ *p ̃ p̃ p̃ p̃ p̃ p̃ p ̃ *c h, (s) s s s s s *d, *nt t, j t, j t, j, (d), (k) t, j t, j t, j (r), (rh) *dr t, r t, (j), l t, (j), l t, (j), l, r t, (j), r r, l *t r r, l t l, r t t *k fortis k k k k k k *k lenis ø k, (ø) ŋ k k ŋ *g k k k k k k *l r l, y l, y l r l, y *r r l, y l, y l r l, y *s, *j s, (h) h, (t) h, (r) h h h, (r) *m m m m m m m *m̃ m̃ m̃ m̃ m̃ m̃ m̃ *n n, (ŋ) n, (ŋ) n, (ŋ) n, (ŋ) n, (ŋ) n, (ŋ) *ñ i i i i i i *ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ *v k, kw, v u-w-v, (ø) u-u-p, v, kw, v kw, v u, v, (ø) (ø) *w kw u u kw kw u *y y y y y y y †Following standard orthography on Tanna, represents a velarized voiceless bilabial stop [pʷ] and represents a velarized bilabial nasal [mʷ]. Parentheses indicate that the form is used only in certain environments. Forms separated by hyphens (for *v) refer to word-initial, word-medial, and word- final position respectively.

When lexemes from any two languages are compared, they are considered cognates if all of the phonemes in the two entries are the same, or if the only changes they have undergone are phonological ones that can be explained by predictable shifts from PSV. For example, the Kwamera and Lenakel lexemes in example (2) meaning ‘be pregnant’ are cognates, since the consonants /h/ in Kwamera and /s/ in Lenakel are both reflexes of PSV *c. Also, the final /ə/ has been dropped in Kwamera and /ku/ in Kwamera corresponds to /uk/ in Lenakel. (For the vowel correspondences see below.)

(2) pregnant, be (early stage) V/TR Kwamera: əp̃əh məkuə Lenakel: ap̃əs mouk

In the case of ‘curly, be’ in example (3) PSV *w remains in the Whitesands lexeme, but in Vaha it becomes /kw/. PSV *dr has become /r/ in Whitesands and /j/ in Vaha.

(3) curly, be V/A Vaha: kwujinkwujin Whitesands: werinwerin

As Table 2.1 indicates, PSV *r becomes /l/, /r/, or /y/. Therefore, the Kwamera and Lenakel lexemes for ‘grasp, feel’ in example (4) are cognates. In Lenakel, PSV *r has become /y/ and /ə/ has been dropped.

(4) grasp; feel V/TR Kwamera: ərap Lenakel: yap

Consonant switching is also a consideration when determining cognates. In the case of ‘float around’ in example (5), the position of /n/ relative to *s has switched in N Tanna, and PSV *s has become /h/. These two words are, therefore, treated as cognates.

(5) float around V/INTR Kwamera: ənas N Tanna: əhan

Likewise, in the case of ‘child’ in example (6), /n/ switches relative to *t in the case of Kwamera, and PSV *t has become /r/ in Lenakel. Therefore, these two words are also treated as cognates.

(6) child N PSV *natu-3 Kwamera: tɨni Lenakel: nɨrɨ*

2.1.1.2 Vowel correspondence

Table 2.2 (next page), also based on Lynch’s study (Lynch 2001:203), shows vowel correspondence between modern Tanna languages and PSV. The table has been adapted to reflect modern representations of vowel values (especially /ɨ/) and to show the data from Vaha. Again, forms separated by

3From Lynch (2001:304).

11 hyphens refer to word-initial, word-medial, and word-final position respectively, and parentheses indicate that the form is restricted to certain environments.

Table 2.2. Vowel correspondence (after Lynch 2001:203).

PSV Kwamera Lenakel N Tanna SW Tanna Vaha Whitesands *i i i i i i i *e i i, (ə) i, (ə) i, (ə) i, (ə) i, (ə) *a a, (ə), (o) a, (ə), a, (ə), a, (ə), (o) a, (ə), (o) a, (ə), (o) (o) (o) *(e) e e e e e e *ə ɨ-ɨ-a ɨ ɨ ɨ-ɨ-a ɨ-ɨ-a ɨ *o e-e-a, u, ɨ ə, u, ɨ ə, u, ɨ ə-ə-a, u, ɨ ə-ə-a, u, ɨ ə, u, ɨ *u u, (e), (i), u, (o) u, (o) u, (e), (i), u, (e), (i), u, (o) (o) (o) (o)

If the lexemes for two languages are identical, or if their vowel values follow regular sound correspondences to PSV, they are considered cognates. For example, the SW Tanna and Whitesands lexemes for ‘bicker; argue’ in example (7) are considered cognates, since PSV *a is represented as either /ə/ or /o/ in modern Tanna languages. The vowel /ɨ/ is epenthetic and the final /u/ in SW Tanna is dropped, as SW Tanna drops final vowels.

(7) bicker; argue V/TR SW Tanna: ətgoh Whitesands: orɨgəhu

If two lexemes differ in any way not described by the above phonological shifts from PSV to modern Tannese languages, they are considered dissimilar in this study. Speakers of one language may recognize such lexemes in another language—and the lexemes may even ‘look alike’—but, for the purposes of this study, unless they meet the above phonological criteria, they are not considered cognates.

2.1.2 Non-phonological reasons for dissimilarity of cognate lexemes

Based on a comparative analysis of the data collected in this study, I have noticed two non-phonological reasons why cognate lexemes may differ in form. The first reason is that a set of synonyms existed at one time in the Tanna lexicon, with some modern languages maintaining one lexeme and other modern languages adopting the synonym, and yet other languages maintaining both lexemes. The second reason is that compound words and abstract ideas are formed differently in different languages.

2.1.2.1 Historical synonyms

At times, lexemes in the Tanna languages appear to be quite different with no apparent reason for the phonological shift. For instance, as shown in example (8), N Tanna’s lexeme suwɨt ‘grave’ differs from that of Kwamera, Lenakel, Vaha, and Whitesands, which is a variant of təkw.4 One possible explanation is that Tanna’s lexicon historically contained two nearly synonymous entries for ‘grave.’ Both are still extant in the SW Tanna lexemes təkw and suranə. Kwamera, Lenakel, Vaha, and Whitesands employ only the former, while N Tanna employs only the latter.

(8) grave N Kwamera: tapu Lenakel: təu N Tanna: suwɨt SW Tanna: təkw, suranə Vaha: təkw Whitesands: nɨtəu

Another illustration is Tanna’s lexeme for ‘be stupid’ in example (9). The variations in the modern languages of Tanna are not based on phonological shifts; rather, the historical lexicon may have contained two entries: armar and ətəwao. N Tanna retains the former, while Kwamera,Vaha and Whitesands retain the latter. Again, SW Tanna retains both. (Lenakel’s lexeme for ‘be stupid’ is different because it is an abstraction of the lexeme eno-eno ‘forget.’)

(9) stupid, be; ignorant, be V/A Kwamera: ətəwao Lenakel: eno-eno N Tanna: alməl SW Tanna: ətəwao, armar Vaha: ətəwao Whitesands: ətəwao

Also, as shown in example (10), the lexemes for ‘show-off’ are dissimilar, not because of phonological shifts, but because Kwamera, SW Tanna and Vaha use abstractions of the verb amso ‘show off’ while Lenakel and N Tanna use abstractions of the verb ausit ‘be proud.’

4This is probably an abbreviation of the lexeme for ‘mountain’ as graves have a small mount of dirt on them.

(10) show-off N Kwamera: yemamso Lenakel: yausit N Tanna: yausit SW Tanna: yamso Vaha: yamso Whitesands: —

Another example is the lexemes for ‘be skinny’ and ‘be malnourished’ in example (11). The entries for ‘be skinny’ look dissimilar because it seems Tanna’s historical lexicon had two nearly synonymous entries, əkiriao and əvirɨg. Informants from Kwamera, SW Tanna, Vaha and Whitesands were able to dinstinguish between the two synonyms, but informants from Lenakel and N Tanna employ avilɨg for both.

(11) skinny, be V/A malnourished, be V/A Kwamera: əkiriao Kwamera: əvirɨg Lenakel: aviləg Lenakel: avilɨg N Tanna: avilɨg N Tanna: avilɨg SW Tanna: əkiriao SW Tanna: əvirɨg Vaha: əkilus Vaha: əvilɨg Whitesands: akilkili Whitesands: avilɨg

Also, as shown in example (12), Lenakel, SW Tanna, and Vaha have both a noun ‘hunger’ and a verb ‘be hungry,’ while Kwamera, N Tanna, and Whitesands have only the noun ’hunger.’ If the linguist discovers only the nominal form, it will appear that all the lexemes are cognates. If the linguist discovers only the verbal form, the results are not cognates, because the informants of Kwamera, N Tanna, and Whitesands will give the noun, whereas informants of Lenakel, SW Tanna, and Vaha will give the verb.

(12) hunger; famine; tuberculosis N hungry, be V/A PSV *na-(t,v)umwac5 PSV *atolV6 Kwamera: nukumhə Kwamera: swei ramousi [OBJ] Lenakel: nəumɨs Lenakel: əmek N Tanna: nəumɨs N Tanna: sweiwei tatoh [OBJ] SW Tanna: nɨkumhə SW Tanna: əmkərəv Vaha: nɨkumɨs Vaha: əmkələv Whitesands: nəumɨs Whitesands: sweiwei tatuh [OBJ]

5From Lynch (2001:307). 6 From Lynch (2001:307). Note that the V in *atolV indicates that “a vowel was present but there’s no evidence present as to which vowel it was” (Lynch 2001:11).

2.1.2.2 Idioms and abstract ideas with different base words

Idioms and compound words may further skew the percentage of lexical similarity between any two languages. Therefore, a brief list consisting only of simple words based on survey data may reveal many cognates, while one—such as this study—which is based on data from dictionaries and discourse analyses rich in idioms and compound words may reveal that the languages are quite dissimilar. For example, since the base word for ‘taboo’ is different in the various languages, any idioms based on that word will be different as well. One such idiom is an idiom for ‘off limits; genitals,’ which is ‘thing’ + ‘taboo.’ Since ‘taboo’ is lexically dissimilar in the Tanna languages, the idiom will be dissimilar too, as shown in example (13).

(13) off-limits; genitals N Kwamera: nari ikinan Lenakel: nat ausim N Tanna: nat asim SW Tanna: nar rhakə Vaha: nat thakə Whitesands: naji asim

Likewise, since the base lexeme for ‘carry in one hand’ is not a cognate in Tanna languages, all the compound words based on it will be different as well. This is shown in example (14) with the idiom ‘get for free,’ which is formed by combining ‘carry in one hand’ + ‘commonplace.’

(14) get for free V Kwamera: vehi ouər a Lenakel: os apnapɨn N Tanna: os apnapɨn SW Tanna: vəh apnapɨg Vaha: vah apnapɨg Whitesands: os apnapɨn

Even if the base lexemes are cognates, how they are used in combination with other words to make abstract meanings may vary from language to language. For example, as shown in example (15), the base word nim̃ə ‘house’ in the idiom ‘shelter’ is a cognate in all languages except N Tanna. However, in Kwamera, SW Tanna, and Vaha, ‘shelter’ is made by combining ‘house’ + ‘pulled toward,’ whereas in Lenakel and Whitesands the lexeme for ‘shelter’ is made by combining ‘house’ + ‘on the ground,’ while N Tanna has a unique entry for ‘shelter.’

(15) shelter N Kwamera: nim̃ ə kvipəhe Lenakel: nim̃ ə lətən N Tanna: makeen SW Tanna: nim̃ ə kvipə Vaha: nim̃ ə kvihiə Whitesands: nim̃ ə entəni

Another illustration is ‘demon-possessed’ in example (16). Kwamera forms the idiom by combining ‘ghost’ + ‘lives’ + ‘in him’ whereas the other languages use the combination ‘makes’ + ‘ghost’ + ‘TR.’

(16) demon-possessed, be V/A Kwamera: yeremhə ramarə irən Lenakel: ol yarmɨs in N Tanna: o yərɨmɨs in SW Tanna: or yahmhə kɨn Vaha: ol yatɨmhiə kɨn Whitesands: ol yerm̃ ɨs lan

The base word for forming uncommon or abstract meanings may vary from language to language, further skewing the percentage of lexical similarity. The uncommon lexical entry ‘entirely’ in example (17) serves as a good illustration. Kwamera pam and Whitesands rafwin are both based on another, more common lexical entry, ‘all.’ The Lenakel, N Tanna, SW Tanna, and Vaha forms for ‘entirely,’ on the other hand, are based on the lexeme for ‘be smooth, be tidy.’

(17) entirely ADV all ADJ smooth, be; tidy, be V/A Kwamera: pam Kwamera: pam Kwamera: piəpiə Lenakel: popiə Lenakel: pətɨm Lenakel: opiə N Tanna: apiəpiə N Tanna: rafin N Tanna: apiə SW Tanna: piəpiə SW Tanna: fam SW Tanna: piəpiə Vaha: piəpiə Vaha: fam Vaha: piəpiə Whitesands: rafwin Whitesands: rafwin Whitesands: piəpiə

2.2 Applications of a comparative analysis

There are a number of benefits of doing a comparative analysis of languages. In this section I discuss four applications of a comparative analysis of the languages of Tanna.

2.2.1 Determining degree of similarity between languages

First of all, a comparative analysis enables us to determine the degree of similarity between the languages of Tanna. Table 2.3 (next page) shows the degree of lexical similarity between each of the six languages of Tanna included in this study. The lexemes of SW Tanna and Vaha are 90 percent lexically similar,

16 suggesting that SW Tanna and Vaha are in fact dialects of one language. Bordering the Whitesands language group, Vaha is 8 percent more similar to Whitesands than SW Tanna is. In other words, most of the lexemes in Vaha that are not cognates with SW Tanna are instead cognates with Whitesands. The two languages most dissimilar are Kwamera and Whitesands, which have only 48 percent cognates.7 Lynch’s data (in Lynch 1978), based on a modified Swadesh wordlist, shows Lenakel, N Tanna, and Whitesands to have at least 70 percent cognates, making them almost a dialect chain. Specifically, he predicted the similarity between Lenakel and N Tanna to be 73–80 percent, between N Tanna and Whitesands to be 81–86 percent, and between Lenakel and Whitesands to be 75–81 percent. Based on the data and phonological criteria for cognates in this study, the comparison of Lenakel and N Tanna is close to Lynch’s (71 percent), but this study found at least 11 percent lower lexical similarity for both N Tanna–Whitesands and Lenakel–Whitesands.

Table 2.3. Degree of correspondence between the languages of Tanna.

Kwamera Lenakel N Tanna SW Vaha Whitesands Tanna Kwamera 49% 51% 62% 61% 48% Lenakel 71% 59% 59% 64% N Tanna 53% 54% 70% SW Tanna 90% 53% Vaha 61% Whitesands

2.2.2 Finding identical lexemes in languages

A second application of a comparative analysis is that it enables us to find identical lexemes in languages and to determine which categories are most resistant to change. The table in Appendix A lists 81 common lexemes that were discovered which are (nearly) identical in the six Tanna languages of this study. Loan words such as kon ‘corn,’ kau ‘cow,’ tata ‘father,’ and toka, a Polynesian word referring to a kind of dance, are not listed, since they are expected to maintain a strong resemblance to their original form. Similarly, proper names (for geographical terms, demigods, and ghosts), onomatopoeia (e.g., tuk-tuk for summoning pigs), grammatical infixes (e.g., perfective aspect, non-singular marker), and interjections (e.g., Aweh!) are not counted, since they are unlikely to vary to any extent across Tanna’s language boundaries. The data in Appendix A suggests that words related to kastom (i.e., traditional religion, ritual, and social organization in Vanuatu) are particularly resistant to language change. This is evident from the fact that the list of (nearly) identical lexemes contains a fair number of such terms (see Table 2.4).

7Interestingly, Tryon’s (1976) study of 292 lexemes suggested that the most dissimilar languages are Kwamera (Port Resolution) and Lenakel, with a correspondence of 47 percent. This is remarkably close to the data here (49 percent).

Table 2.4. (Nearly) identical kastom lexemes in the languages of Tanna.

Gloss Vernacular chief yeni dance (women, by jumping up and down) əmako evening meal for the men nahunu/nəhunu/nafunu/nəfunu festival of exchanging food with cousins niel/nieli/nier/nieri prohibit, fast from something atuakəm/ətuakəm sacred dancing place im̃arəm̃/im̃ərəm̃/im̃eim̃ /im̃aim̃

2.2.3 Doing semantic comparison between languages

A third application of a comparative analysis is that it enables us to do a semantic comparison of lexemes between languages, to see which semantic categories correlate and which do not.

2.2.3.1 Semantic correlation in languages

I have compiled over 1,700 lexemes which have a strong semantic correlation across language boundaries in the languages of Tanna. These lexemes form the body of the data in this book. Ideally, the base entry in a dictionary would be the vernacular lexeme. However, when we compare multiple vernaculars, it is impossible to choose which language will become the primary one around which to organize the data. In fact, the only way to have a multiple- language dictionary based on the vernacular lexemes would be to have six separate sections: one based on Kwamera, one on Lenakel, etc. This would be repetitive and unnecessary. For this reason, I have had to settle on English as the base entry, as Charpentier did in his multiple-language study of Malekula (Charpentier 1982). Some lexical entries have multiple senses which are shared by all languages of Tanna. In these cases, I have listed those additional meanings in the English gloss, as in example (18):

(18) burn; bite; sting; sore, be; in pain, be V/TR, V/A 8 PSV *aɣac Kwamera: ahi Lenakel: kɨs N Tanna: aan, us SW Tanna: əs Vaha: as Whitesands: us

In the above example, all the languages of Tanna see ‘burn,’ ‘bite,’ ‘sting,’ ‘be sore,’ and ‘be in pain’ as semantically related. At times, however, it can be “messy” to base vernacular terms on an English gloss, since the lexemes may be

8From Lynch (2001:304).

18 nuanced in each particular language. Secondary meanings and figurative senses may exist in one language but not in another. Where this is the case, rather than combining secondary meanings with the primary lexical entry, I have given them a separate entry. For instance, the entry for ‘make noise’ has a secondary meaning in N Tanna, SW Tanna, and Vaha, which is ‘sprout.’ Speakers of these languages see the growth of vegetation as semantically related to making noise. But the other languages of Tanna do not share this secondary sense. Therefore, ‘sprout’ receives a separate entry in the lexicon, as shown in example (19), with data from only those languages that employ that meaning.

(19) make noise V /INTR sprout above ground V/INTR Kwamera: arukw Kwamera: — Lenakel: atp̃əluəh Lenakel: — N Tanna: atp̃erəh N Tanna: atp̃erəh SW Tanna: əməteih SW Tanna: əməteih Vaha: əməltei Vaha: əməlteih Whitesands: atp̃ərerəh Whitesands: —

Another example is the entry for ‘split lengthwise.’ In Kwamera, SW Tanna, and Vaha, this lexeme has a secondary meaning, ‘interpret.’ Since not all languages of Tanna share this secondary meaning, there are two separate entries, as shown in example (20). 9

(20) split s.th. lengthwise V/TR interpret V Kwamera: ərpɨfĩ Kwamera: ərpɨfĩ Lenakel: whaprai Lenakel: — N Tanna: uhapɨk N Tanna: — SW Tanna: hoprai SW Tanna: hoprai Vaha: ohaptai Vaha: ohaptai Whitesands: ətamtei Whitesands: —

2.2.3.2 Semantic non-correlation in languages

A comparative analysis also reveals semantic non-correlation. Sometimes, the reason for this is that synonyms in the historical lexicon seem to have been discontinued or have changed meaning (see §2.1.2.1). Some languages have retained both nearly synonymous lexemes, whereas other languages have retained only one. For example, SW Tanna has two words for ‘bathe in coconut oil,’ ətagə and əteihuvə, but Vaha has only əteihuvə. SW Tanna has four nearly synonymous words for ‘child’: ji, tɨni, narɨ, and kwajikovə. In the case of ji and tɨni, the synonyms are both historically related to the same word but underwent different phonological shifts. Idiosyncratic lexemes are possibly vestiges of proto forms which survived in one language but which perished in others. For a more comprehensive list of lexemes, and their idiosyncratic nuances, a language-specific dictionary is

9Note that related entries such as these are cross-referenced in section B (lexicon) of this manuscript.

19 necessary. Dictionaries in N Tanna, Vaha, and Whitesands have not yet been published for each language but are being compiled. There are scores of lexemes present in one or more languages of Tanna which are not found in others. Language-specific dictionaries include hundreds of these idiosyncratic lexemes. However, since the nature of this study is to compare lexemes across language boundaries, only lexemes which appear in three or more of the languages are listed. Table 2.5 gives some examples of lexemes which are idiosyncratic to one or more languages of Tanna.

Table 2.5. Idiosyncratic lexemes in the languages of Tanna.†

Language Lexeme Gloss Note N enatɨg be wise Other lgs use ‘know’ N nəutahlɨmɨs widow N asɨkitun have mercy K api cry about something Other lgs use ‘cry’ S əmkərəv be hungry Other lgs use ‘hunger carries’ or ‘hunger strikes.’ S nɨhupɨn total number of s.th. S ənyap search for fire Antiquated K, S təvɨr still, to this day K, S or nɨmirhien be difficult K, S, V pig/pegi/pin sniff K, L, S, V ətgah/ətgase bold K, L, N, S rɨp̃iteitei/rɨp̃ətut motion to stop V and W use ‘block’ /əfətutu/eptutu K, L, S, V ukaa/əwhən/ going where? N and W say ‘go where?’ ətəən/awəku L, N, S V autə/autei to supply s.th., give K and W use one of the abundantly/freely verbs for ‘give.’ †The following language abbreviations are used in this table: K: Kwamera, L: Lenakel, N: N Tanna, S: SW Tanna, V: Vaha, W: Whitesands.

2.2.4 Differentiating between homonyms and polysemous lexemes

A fourth application of a comparative analysis is that it helps us differentiate between homonyms and polysemous lexemes. Sometimes a lexeme appears to be polysemous and the supposed connection between the various senses can be intriguing or puzzling. However, when the data from related languages becomes available, it appears that it is not an instance of one lexeme with multiple senses but of two or more lexemes that are homophones. In this section I discuss several examples. As shown in example (21), the SW Tanna lexeme kɨr means both ‘lead’ and ‘dig.’ With just this data, it is unclear if there is some sort of semantic connection between the two ideas of leading and digging, or if there are two homonyms. However, when the data is compared to Vaha, one finds two different lexemes: kɨl

20 means ‘dig’ and kɨt means ‘lead.’ These are two separate entries, confirming that there is no semantic connection; they are simply homonyms in SW Tanna.10

(21) dig V/TR lead V/TR Kwamera: eri Kwamera: iri Lenakel: ilh Lenakel: ir N Tanna: el, il N Tanna: it SW Tanna: kɨr SW Tanna: kɨr Vaha: kɨl Vaha: kɨt Whitesands: il Whitesands: it

The SW Tanna name for Aniwa Island, situated off the east coast of Tanna, is imɨr, which seems to be derived from i (from ikɨn ‘place’) + mɨrh ‘sun,’ i.e., ‘place where the sun rises.’ However, when the lexeme is compared to Whitesands, it becomes apparent that it is a coincidence that SW Tanna’s name for Aniwa could mean ‘place of the sun.’ In Whitesands, the name for Aniwa is imɨt, but the word for sun is mɨtɨgar. As shown in example (22), the word for ‘festival of exchanging food with cousins’ and ‘casuarina’ (a kind of tree) are both nier in SW Tanna, while in Lenakel, N Tanna, and Vaha they are both niel. Do we have here a case of two homonyms or of multiple senses of one lexeme? In Whitesands, ‘casuarina’ is niel, but ’festival of exchanging food with cousins’ is nieli, and in Kwamera the contrast is between nier and nieri. As shown further in example (22), the word for ‘cross- cousin’ patterns like ‘festival of exchanging food with cousins.’ Since there is no obvious semantic correlation between ‘casuarina’ and ‘cross-cousin’ or ‘festival of exchanging food with cousins,’ and taking into account the phonological differences between the lexemes in Whitesands and Kwamera, we may conclude that they are just homonyms in Lenakel, N Tanna, SW Tanna, and Vaha.

(22) festival of exchanging food with cousins N casuarina N cross-cousin N Kwamera: nieri Kwamera: nier Kwamera: *ieri Lenakel: niel Lenakel: niel Lenakel: ta* iel N Tanna: niel N Tanna: niel N Tanna: rəh* iel SW Tanna: nier SW Tanna: nier SW Tanna: kapa* ier Vaha: niel Vaha: niel Vaha: kapa* iel Whitesands: nieli Whitesands: niel Whitesands: rəh *ieli

In Kwamera, ‘take feces out of intestines from an animal’ and ‘dip’ are both eitesi, as shown in example (23). Based just on this data, it seems possible that there is a semantic connection between the two. However, comparison with the lexemes in the other languages of Tanna indicates that the two are not semantically related. They are just homonyms in Kwamera.

10There is the possibility that kit and kil were originally one lexeme with multiple senses but the two senses then took on idiosyncratic phonological changes to distinguish between them. However, this seems less likely given the fact that the senses are quite distinct to begin with.

(23) take feces out of intestines from an animal V dip V/TR Kwamera: eitesi Kwamera: eitesi Lenakel: ətkerɨn Lenakel: el N Tanna: əgəlɨn N Tanna: er SW Tanna: əhi SW Tanna: eires Vaha: əhi Vaha: eiel Whitesands: eiəh Whitesands: el

In SW Tanna and Vaha, the lexeme for ‘whip a person or animal’ seems to be a reduplication of the lexeme for ‘carry someone on a stretcher; fasten something.’ This gives the impression that these two glosses are multiple senses of a single lexeme. There is little doubt that ‘whip a person or animal’ and ‘fasten something’ are semantically related, as both verbs involve working with ropes. However, because they are phonologically contrastive in Lenakel, N Tanna, and Whitesands (/a/ and /ə/ being contrastive in Tanna languages), these two verbs cannot be treated as multiple senses of the same lexeme. (Note also that Kwamera’s lexemes for these two verbs differ significantly.)11

(24) carry s.o. on a stretcher; fasten s.th. V/TR PSV *avis12 whip a person or animal V/TR Kwamera: ərihi Kwamera: ətəkwus Lenakel: əlis Lenakel: alis-alis N Tanna: əlis N Tanna: alis-alis SW Tanna: arkɨs SW Tanna: arkɨs-arkɨs Vaha: alkɨs Vaha: alkɨs-alkɨs Whitesands: əlis Whitesands: alis-alis

As shown in example (25), in SW Tanna the lexemes for ‘throw something elongated, such as a spear,’ ‘clap; slap,’ and ‘set something upright’ are identical: ərɨp. This might suggest they are semantically related. But the diverse lexemes in the other languages of Tanna indicate they are probably just homonyms in SW Tanna. (Note that Vaha and Whitesands also have homonyms for ‘clap; slap’ and ‘set something upright.’)

(25) throw s.th. elongated, set s.th. upright such as a spear V/TR clap; slap V/TR V/TR Kwamera: erɨp Kwamera: ep̃i Kwamera: ərpi Lenakel: eipatkin Lenakel: apatkin Lenakel: eipatkin N Tanna: argin N Tanna: əf N Tanna: em SW Tanna: ərɨp SW Tanna: ərɨp SW Tanna: ərɨp Vaha: alɨp Vaha: əlɨp Vaha: əlɨp Whitesands: arəg lan Whitesands: emh Whitesands: emh

11It should be noted that there are numerous examples in Tanna languages where /ə/ is contrastive with /a/. 12From Lynch (2001:306).

Chapter 3. Using the multi-language lexicon

3.0 Introduction

In this chapter I explain the orthography choices for this study as well as the abbreviations and layout of the lexicon presented in section B.

3.1 Orthography

The unique phonologies of each of the languages of Tanna and the specific mission histories of the language groups on Tanna have affected contemporary opinions about orthography on the island. I have taken both of these factors into consideration in deciding on an orthography for this study.

3.1.1 Influence of mission history on orthography

In the first half of the twentieth century, missionaries in Kwamera, Lenakel, and Whitesands produced publications with orthographies based on the English alphabet.13 Example (26) is a hymn from a mid-twentieth century Whitesands hymnal, Nupume ia nafwakien (n.d.:102). The hymn is a translation of the English hymn I need Thee every hour. It does not use and . For example, as shown here, it uses Iesu for ‘Jesus.’ It accurately represents the stops as voiceless.

(26) Whitesands hymn with English translation

Atatig oniau, Abide in me, Iesu rahak. My Jesus. Pah otasiru lak Who will help me Iau isou lam? [Since] I am so far from You?

Iuaker Iesu keikei Nearby beloved Jesus Ik iuaker agen; You are very near; Iatasak ua iatagien, [Whether] I am sad or happy, Asiru lak. Help me.

The Kwamera hymnal Napuanmen nafuakien parhien, on the other hand, represents the bilabial stop as voiced, as shown in example (27), taken from Napuanmen (1941:25). While bilabial stops do become voiced in that environment, it is now recognized that it is unnecessary to represent this in the orthography. Also, occasionally the hymnal uses instead of to represent the rounded semi-vowel.

13For a list of materials in the vernaculars of Tanna, see Ferguson (1917–1943) and Lynch (1994).

(27) Kwamera hymn with English translation

Ketaha pam tesagien We all rejoice Asori te Iesu. Greatly about Jesus. In reiwaiupehe iesa, He came here Mamabi ketaha. And had mercy on us.

In ravahi namiseien He has goodness Ia nei kamerkwauwi. On the cross. In ratagi neten, menwa, He poured out His blood so that Rahakwi ketaha. It cleanses us.

The difference between these two orthographies is not due to different phonologies but reflects different opinions of how the sounds of the various languages should be represented in their respective orthographies. Missionaries who printed materials in Kwamera were not opposed to using to show velarization. However, Lynch and Lindstrom used to show velarization only after

and , while after they used . These early orthographies also set the trend for representing [ŋ] as and the high central unrounded semi-vowel as .

3.1.2 Influence of unique phonologies on orthography

The languages of Tanna have slightly varying phonologies. These slight variations affect decisions about a suitable orthography. For example, dialects of Kwamera, SW Tanna, and Vaha employ either /r/ or /l/ but not both, while the rest of the languages of Tanna employ both of these phonemes. The phoneme /fw/ is more common in Kwamera than in the other languages and has, therefore, at times been represented in Kwamera publications. As shown in example (28), certain dialects—or certain speakers of some dialects—regularly pronounce *ti as [ti] rather than with an affricate as [tʃi]. Note that for ‘choke,’ Lenakel uses /ti/ whereas Kwamera, SW Tanna, Vaha, and Whitesands use /ji/ (pronounced [tʃi]). Likewise, in the word for ‘earthworm,’ Lenakel and N Tanna use /ti/ (reduced to /t/ in Lenakel) whereas the other languages use /ji/.

(28) choke V/TR earthworm N Kwamera: jiu Kwamera: m̃ əjikəro Lenakel: tiu Lenakel: m̃ ɨtkələu N Tanna: armegah N Tanna: m̃ atikəlo SW Tanna: jiu SW Tanna: m̃ əjikərəu Vaha: jiu Vaha: m̃ əjikələu Whitesands: jiu Whitesands: m̃ əjikərəu

3.1.3 Modern orthography

Publications are now being produced in all of Tanna’s languages. The orthographies are more phonemic than the older, English-based ones, making them not only more readable but also more phonologically accurate. However, having been developed by linguists working more or less independently from one another, the modern orthographies vary somewhat from one another. Lindstrom’s dictionary (1986), and recent publications in Lenakel such as the New Testament (2007) use only <ɨ> to represent a mid central vowel. These orthographies are based on the assumption that [a] becomes [ə] when unstressed, so only one grapheme is necessary. Hammond’s recent work (2009) on the grammar of Whitesands operates on the same assumption, but he uses <ə> to represent the mid central vowel, instead of <ɨ>. There may be historical evidence to support the decision to use only one mid central vowel but there is ample synchronic evidence that the modern languages of Tanna distinguish between [ɨ], [ə], and [a]. Complete orthographies would be helpful in proving this, but presenting these would go beyond the scope of this study. Table 3.1 presents some minimal pairs that suffice to prove the distinction.

Table 3.1. Minimal pairs for [ɨ], [ə], and [a].

Language Vernacular Gloss

Kwamera [ˈtɨpwɨk] ‘wall of a house’ [ˈtəpwɨk] ‘my stomach’

Lanakel [nɨˈraiyan] ‘writing’ [nəˈraiyan] ‘cutting’

N Tanna [nɨˈpɨtən] ‘lightning’ [nɨˈpwətən] ‘his body’

[eˈmɨtəp] ‘I followed’ [eˈmətəp] ‘I jumped’

[ˈəlis] ‘tie/fasten’ [ˈalisˈalis] ‘whip’

SW Tanna [nɨˈrukiɛn] ‘fetching’ [nəˈrukiɛn] ‘rooting (of pigs)’ [naˈrukiɛn] ‘throwing’

Vaha [nɨˈniyɛn] ‘telling’ [nəˈniyɛn] ‘singing’ [naˈniyɛn] ‘eating’

There are also variations in how to handle affricates, semi-vowels, and palatalized stops. Kwamera, Lenakel, N Tanna, and Whitesands have the phoneme /tʃ/ but publications in these languages represent it with , whereas publications in SW Tanna and Vaha represent it with . Additionally, some publications in Kwamera and N Tanna represent many glides [w] and [y] with and respectively. Some recent Kwamera publications represent the palatalized consonants [pw], [kw], [fw], and [mw] as , , , and respectively. Orthographies in the other languages have not represented palatalization at all, thus not distinguishing palatalized consonants from non- palatalized ones in writing. In this study, I follow three guidelines in order to utilize a uniform orthography. First, I represent lexemes as they are spoken today. The phoneme /tʃ/ is undoubtedly a phonemic change from [ti] and it remains [ti] for some lexemes in some dialects today. But where the lexeme is pronounced [tʃ] today, I have indicated so with , and where it is still spoken as [ti] I have indicated so with . Second, I have employed an orthography that is readable. The lexeme eiwaiyu ‘go down’ may be written accurately, phonologically speaking, as either or , but when I tested orthographies, I discovered that Tannese speakers found the latter to be less readable than the former. Third, since data is being compared, I have found it necessary to distinguish between [ɨ] and [ə], so both vowel values are represented. Finally, /p̃/, /kw/, /fw/, and /m̃ / are also represented to help in comparison of data.

3.2 Layout

The lexicon is alphabetized by the English gloss. The Bislama gloss is on the next line below the English gloss. The lexical data for the six languages follows in alphabetical order by language. Figure 3.1 (next page) explains the layout of the lexical entries.

Figure 3.1. Lexicon layout.

Section B. Lexicon.

Notes: 1) Phrases are presented in the normal word order (e.g., ‘give affection’) unless inverting them brings related entries together (as with ‘scabies’ and ‘scabies, have’). Phrases which include the verb ‘be’ are inverted (e.g., ‘bald, be’). 2) Two kinds of cross-references are used: See references refer to lexemes that are structurally related while See also references refer to lexemes that are semantically but not structurally related (see entry for ‘above’ for examples of both of these). 3) Morpheme breaks are not indicated; however, for ease of reading, and in line with current orthography conventions for these languages, hyphens are used to break up longer words involving reduplication (as with the lexeme ‘ant (biting)’). Hyphens are also used to break up longer words at the end of a line (as with the second Kwamera entry for ‘cardinal honeyeater’). 4) Parts of the English gloss that are not bolded must be expressed with separate words (c.f. ‘bother s.o.’ and ‘envy s.o.’; in the former, the object (‘someone’) must be expressed separately; in the latter, the object is understood). 5) For a list of abbreviations, refer to p. 255 at the end of the lexicon; for other notes on the layout, see Figure 3.1 on p. 26.

a ART Vaha: əptan kɨn wan Whitesands: agaru in Kwamera: riji Lenakel: ker Abelmoschus Manihots N N Tanna: kit See sunset hibiscus SW Tanna: kɨrik Vaha: kɨjik ability; wisdom N Whitesands: kəji save, waes See one Kwamera: nukurənien Lenakel: ninətinan abandon (1) V/TR N Tanna: nitunən livim i stap, mo go longwe SW Tanna: nɨrkunien Kwamera: kwenə Vaha: nɨtkunien Lenakel: əunə Whitesands: nərunien N Tanna: əlɨn ətain SW Tanna: knə able, be; know V Vaha: knə save Whitesands: amrin Kwamera: ukurɨn Lenakel: hinətin abandon (2) V/TR N Tanna: ɨtun livim SW Tanna: rkun Kwamera: əp̃ewə Vaha: tkun Lenakel: akəm tənin Whitesands: ərun N Tanna: agɨm tənin See also not know SW Tanna: apitan kɨn

28 about PREP accomplished, be V/A (INTR) long saed blong See well done Kwamera: ye nɨkare* sei Lenakel: ye nɨkal* taha Acridotheres tristis N N Tanna: ye nɨkalɨ* See common myna raha SW Tanna: ye nɨkar* actions N kape fasin Vaha: ye nɨkalɨ* Kwamera: noyen kap̃e Lenakel: nolan Whitesands: ye nɨkalɨ* N Tanna: nolən raha SW Tanna: norien Lit. toward + side + BEN Vaha: nolien See side of s.o. or s.th. Whitesands: nolien above PREP act quickly V antap See surprised, be Kwamera: puta Lenakel: ilɨs Adam’s apple N N Tanna: ilɨs See testicle (2) SW Tanna: faktə Vaha: pəktə addressee, away from DIR Whitesands: ilɨs See away from speaker and See climb; See also come from addressee above addressee, toward DIR abundantly give s.th. V/TR See toward addressee See supply s.th. adopt a child V accidentally hit s.th. or s.o. V/TR See send a child away for See hit s.th. or s.o. (3) adoption accidentally run into V/TR adultery, commit V akseden long See commit adultery Kwamera: rei peikɨn Lenakel: ətɨk pɨkɨn advise V N Tanna: aiyu pɨkɨn wonem SW Tanna: haipɨkɨn Kwamera: — Vaha: haipɨkɨn Lenakel: — Whitesands: ərupɨkɨn N Tanna: em əskasɨkən SW Tanna: or kwirəg Accipiter faciatus N Vaha: ol kwilɨg See brown goshawk Whitesands: em əskasɨk Lit. make + warning accompany V See follow (1) adze N akis oli wokem long ston Kwamera: paha sərpitəv

Lenakel: kɨpas apɨn SW Tanna: m̃ ɨn N Tanna: kɨpas apɨn Vaha: m̃ ɨn SW Tanna: kɨpas apɨg Whitesands: m̃ ɨn Vaha: kɨpah apɨg Whitesands: kɨpas apɨn, agree; permit V/TR kɨpas apɨg agri Lit. black + axe Kwamera: əseni See also axe Lenakel: heiganin N Tanna: egəhan affection, give V SW Tanna: eighaan See give affection Vaha: eighaan Whitesands: egahan after; then ADV afta algae N Kwamera: nənə nalumlum Lenakel: ka Kwamera: natgɨmerə N Tanna: tə Lenakel: nətgətɨg SW Tanna: ai N Tanna: nɨtgatɨg Vaha: ai SW Tanna: nətgətɨg Whitesands: ko Vaha: nətgətɨg Whitesands: narɨgarɨg afternoon/evening, be V naet alive, be V/A (INTR) Kwamera: əruvarəv i laef Lenakel: enaiyu Kwamera: mɨru N Tanna: enhaipɨn Lenakel: miuh SW Tanna: enaiyu N Tanna: megah Vaha: enaiyu SW Tanna: mragh Whitesands: enaiyu Vaha: mɨlagəh See also morning, be Whitesands: miəgəh See breathe afternoon/evening, in the PREP PHR all ADJ naet evriwan Kwamera: ye nəpɨn Kwamera: pam† Lenakel: lenaiyu Lenakel: pətɨm N Tanna: yenai ipən N Tanna: rafin‡ SW Tanna: yenaiyu SW Tanna: fam Vaha: yenaiyu Vaha: fam Whitesands: lənaiyu Whitesands: rafwin†,‡ See also (1) morning, in the; †See entirely (2) night, at ‡See that’s all See (1) complete (2); (2) again; too ADV completion bakegen Kwamera: m̃ ɨ almond N Lenakel: m̃ ɨn See nut, k.o. (3) N Tanna: m̃ ɨn

30 alone; only ADJ SW Tanna: əpup nomo Vaha: əpup Kwamera: əpa Whitesands: pup Lenakel: am N Tanna: əm ancestor N SW Tanna: əmə bubu Vaha: əmə Kwamera: kaha Whitesands: əmə Lenakel: kaha See only ADV N Tanna: naiyu SW Tanna: kaha although ADV Vaha: kaha See even though Whitesands: kaha See great-grandparent ambidextrous ADJ raet lef ancestors N Kwamera: maolmatukw ol bubu Lenakel: murmatu Kwamera: lis N Tanna: məwulmatɨp̃ Lenakel: lis SW Tanna: maworma- N Tanna: lus tukw SW Tanna: rus Vaha: məwolma- Vaha: lis tukw Whitesands: lus Whitesands: məwulmaro fr. Eng. list, roots Lit. left-right See mythology about ancestors; See also tell stories among (1) PREP about ancestors medel blong Kwamera: kurkwa ancestral mythology N Lenakel: ilukə* See mythology about N Tanna: ilugɨ* ancestors SW Tanna: kwerkwa* Vaha: yelkwa* and (1) CONJ Whitesands: nəlugɨ* mo Kwamera: kɨni among (2) PREP Lenakel: kəni long N Tanna: kən Kwamera: reri* SW Tanna: kɨni Lenakel: lənki* Vaha: kɨni N Tanna: yenki* Whitesands: kəni SW Tanna: yerki Vaha: yeli and (2) (for subjects within a Whitesands: yenki* clause) CONJ mo amputated, be V/A Kwamera: mɨne oli bin katemaot han o leg Lenakel: ne Kwamera: pɨp N Tanna: ne Lenakel: upupɨs SW Tanna: mɨne N Tanna: ɨpupɨs Vaha: mɨne

Whitesands: mɨne animal (5) (tame) N anger N See lame person or animal kros Kwamera: niemaha animal (6) (wild) N Lenakel: niemha See wild animal N Tanna: nemɨha SW Tanna: niemha animal, feed an V Vaha: niemha See feed an animal Whitesands: nieməha animal marker G animal (1) N makem wan animol anamol Kwamera: k- Kwamera: nəri mɨru Lenakel: k- Lenakel: narmivh N Tanna: k- N Tanna: nat meigəh SW Tanna: k- SW Tanna: narmɨragh Vaha: k- Vaha: natɨmlagəh Whitesands: k- Whitesands: nat miəgəh (with color and gender terms) Lit. thing + living See also impersonal marker animal (2) (female) N animism N woman anamol See life (1) Kwamera: kəpran Lenakel: pɨravɨn ankle N N Tanna: pətan See heel SW Tanna: kapiraovɨn Vaha: kaptavən anklets; k.o. nut N Whitesands: pətan nalake Kwamera: karkarepə animal (3) (female, fertile) N Lenakel: noanpərpə woman animol we I save karem N Tanna: noanpɨrɨpa pikinini SW Tanna: kwənpərəpər Kwamera: kəreji Vaha: kwənpərəpər Lenakel: kəleiwə Whitesands: noanpɨrɨpə N Tanna: karet SW Tanna: kəros another person N Vaha: kəros defren man Whitesands: kareki Kwamera: yərməpə Lenakel: yerə pɨsɨn animal (4) (male) N N Tanna: etəm pɨsɨn man anamol SW Tanna: yarmə Kwamera: kərman Vaha: yatmə pɨsɨn Lenakel: yerman Whitesands: etəm pɨsɨn N Tanna: yerman SW Tanna: karman answer (1); appoint; choose Vaha: kətman V/TR Whitesands: yerman jusumaot

Kwamera: rɨfi See stinger; See also wipe Lenakel: huatɨkun one's anus iato† N Tanna: ɨtəp̃ɨn anus (2) (vulgar) N SW Tanna: rp̃en See stinger Vaha: lp̃en Whitesands: ɨtəp̃ɨn aperture for door N †Lit. point + out See door aperture See also ask apple N answer (2); continue a discussion See Malay apple V ansarem appoint (1) V Kwamera: hopɨn See lift up Lenakel: arəmton N Tanna: uhalpən appoint (2) V/TR SW Tanna: horpɨn See answer (1) Vaha: əwhalpɨn Whitesands: ətalpɨn Araceae N See taro (1) ant (biting) N anis (we hemi kakae man) area that’s enclosed N Kwamera: m̃ iəhi See enclosed area Lenakel: kəsɨk N Tanna: kɨt argue V/TR SW Tanna: kasɨk-asɨk See bicker Vaha: kasɨk-asɨk Whitesands: kasɨk apɨn argument N faet ant (small) N Kwamera: tɨməji anis (smol wan) Lenakel: tɨmət Kwamera: m̃ ərə-m̃ ərə N Tanna: tɨməht Lenakel: m̃ eiyə-m̃ eiyə SW Tanna: tɨməht N Tanna: m̃ ea-m̃ ea Vaha: tɨməht SW Tanna: m̃ ərə-m̃ ərə Whitesands: təməhti Vaha: m̃ ələ-m̃ ələ See also bickering Whitesands: m̃ ələ-m̃ ələ arm; hand; handle N anus (1) N han blong as blong Kwamera: rəg* Kwamera: kəh* ukuə Lenakel: nəlɨmɨ* Lenakel: hɨma* sin N Tanna: nelm* N Tanna: mansi* SW Tanna: kwerm* SW Tanna: kapa* kuə Vaha: lɨm* Vaha: kunɨs ila*† Whitesands: nelhmɨ* Whitesands: mansi* See also (1) forearm; (2) hold †See buttocks hands with s.o.; (3) mash s.th. (2); (4) put hands on

hips; (5) support oneself Artocarpus altilis N with one arm See breadfruit armpit N as CONJ ananit han See when (3) Kwamera: tɨkɨrkəv* Lenakel: nɨku* ashamed, be V/A N Tanna: nɨku* i harem sem SW Tanna: tɨkɨrkəu* Kwamera: aurɨs Vaha: tɨkɨlkəu* Lenakel: aulɨs Whitesands: nɨkəufɨ* N Tanna: aulɨs See also carry or support s.o. SW Tanna: aurɨs under the armpits Vaha: aulɨs Whitesands: aulɨs arms, flap V See shame See flap wings (3) ashes N aromatic leaf N asis blong faea See leaf, k.o. (1) Kwamera: nɨmrakw Lenakel: nɨmraoh arrive V/INTR N Tanna: nəmtap kamtru SW Tanna: nɨmrakw Kwamera: apirap̃ Vaha: nɨmtakw Lenakel: ieratou Whitesands: nəmtao N Tanna: arəp See gray (of animals) SW Tanna: ajiərhav Vaha: ajiətam ash from volcano N Whitesands: ajego See volcano steam and ash arrowhead N ashore, go V/INTR See blunt arrowhead See go ashore arrow shaft; wild cane used for ask V building yam trellises N askem stik blong ara Kwamera: əres Kwamera: kwənkurkur Lenakel: ərhapɨk Lenakel: nuwulul N Tanna: easiə, ətam, N Tanna: noanwulwul ətapəh SW Tanna: kwənkurkur SW Tanna: aiyoh Vaha: kwənkulkul Vaha: əlɨgəpəh Whitesands: noanwulwul Whitesands: ətapuə See also (1) erect wild cane to See also answer ensorcel garden trespassers; (2) make a lattice of wild ask for V/TR cane; (3) make walls with See beg for wild cane; (4) wild cane (1) assist V See help V

34 assistance N See also (1) toward addressee; See help N (2) toward speaker asthma N a while ADV sotwin sot taem Kwamera: keiahag Kwamera: pəm Lenakel: amigh-amigh Lenakel: upən N Tanna: kameg-ameg N Tanna: pitɨn SW Tanna: keihaag SW Tanna: pom Vaha: keihaagh Vaha: pom Whitesands: neihagien Whitesands: pəm See breathe axe N at PREP akis See toward (1) Kwamera: paha Lenakel: kɨpas atmosphere N N Tanna: kɨpas See sky (2) SW Tanna: kɨpah Vaha: kɨpah authority N Whitesands: kɨpas See power See also (1) adze; (2) machete; (3) split s.th. avenge s.o. or s.th. V lengthwise (3) See return (2) babble V/INTR avoid V/TR mekem noes olsem pikinini we i no See respect toktok yet Kwamera: əsivɨr awaken; startle V/TR Lenakel: akei girapem N Tanna: akei Kwamera: sui SW Tanna: əsivɨr Lenakel: sɨg Vaha: əsivɨl N Tanna: əgh Whitesands: asivɨr SW Tanna: sɨg Vaha: sɨg back (body part) N Whitesands: əghi baksaed See also wake up Kwamera: təkutai Lenakel: nɨm̃ əta* away from speaker and addressee N Tanna: mənta* DIR SW Tanna: nɨm̃ eita* long hem Vaha: nɨm̃ eita* Kwamera: pen Whitesands: nəmta* Lenakel: pən See also (1) small of back; (2) N Tanna: pɨn walk backwards SW Tanna: pən Vaha: pən back of head N Whitesands: pən bak blong hed Kwamera: nɨkenh*

Lenakel: nəuəlɨ* bad shot (with a bow) N N Tanna: noankawi* i no save sutum bonara SW Tanna: nɨkhi* Kwamera: rəkəpu Vaha: nɨkhe* Lenakel: pəorah Whitesands: nonɨkɨ* N Tanna: yakiəh See also forehead SW Tanna: pəorah Vaha: pəorah backpack N Whitesands: pəorah basket yu karem long baksaed Kwamera: kajipə bad tasting, be V/A Lenakel: kajipə See bland N Tanna: kajipə SW Tanna: kajipə bait N Vaha: kajipə bet Whitesands: kajipə Kwamera: nɨpien See carry s.th. on the back Lenakel: nɨpien N Tanna: nɨpien bad ADJ SW Tanna: nɨpien nogud Vaha: nɨpien Kwamera: — Whitesands: nɨpien Lenakel: tat N Tanna: rat bald, be V/A SW Tanna: hah bolhed Vaha: hah Kwamera: ap̃ə Whitesands: rah Lenakel: ap̃ə See evil N Tanna: ap̃ə SW Tanna: ap̃ə bad, be V/A Vaha: ap̃ə nogud Whitesands: əp̃iə Kwamera: ərəha Lenakel: atat, tat ball of the foot N N Tanna: rat ples we leg i joen long ol fingga SW Tanna: aha, ahas blong leg Vaha: aha, ahas Kwamera: kəpsasɨ Whitesands: erah Lenakel: noan See great-grandparent; See nəgiəgɨn† also good, be N Tanna: noan nəgiəgɨn† badly ADV SW Tanna: kwənpɨsasə krangke Vaha: kwənpɨsasə Kwamera: oror Whitesands: lɨpɨspɨs nəlk* Lenakel: olol †Lit. fruit + ball of the foot N Tanna: — See also (1) leg; (2) shin; (3) SW Tanna: oror toe Vaha: olol Whitesands: olol bamboo N bambu Kwamera: tɨkinau

Lenakel: nau banyan (3); Christmas fig (Ficus N Tanna: nau benghalensis) N SW Tanna: tɨkinau nambangga Vaha: lesnau Kwamera: nəpɨk Whitesands: nau Lenakel: nəpɨk See knife; See also stuff food N Tanna: nepɨk inside bamboo SW Tanna: nɨpɨn Vaha: nɨpɨk bamboo flute N Whitesands: nəpɨk bambu flut See also Appendix C Kwamera: tərhenao Lenakel: nao kəmalh bark V/INTR N Tanna: nao kətahl See cry SW Tanna: terhenao Vaha: telhenao bark, remove V/TR Whitesands: alhinau See debark a tree Lit. lined-up + bamboo bark of a white tree N banana N skin blong wan tri banana Kwamera: nəp̃esɨn Kwamera: taik Lenakel: nurɨs Lenakel: nɨpɨn N Tanna: — N Tanna: nɨpɨn SW Tanna: nəp̃wək SW Tanna: nup̃an Vaha: nəp̃wək Vaha: nɨpien Whitesands: nolɨs Whitesands: nɨpɨn See also firstborn bark skirt (made from multiple spp. of the Hibiscus gen.) N banyan (1) (Ficus sp.) N gras sket wan kaen smol nambangga Kwamera: rous Kwamera: nɨviru Lenakel: nivh Lenakel: nəlvilu N Tanna: nioɨh N Tanna: nəlilɨp SW Tanna: raoh SW Tanna: rɨviru Vaha: laowəh Vaha: lɨvilu Whitesands: nioɨh Whitesands: nəlulu See also wear a bark skirt banyan (2) (Pandanus sp.) N barn owl (Tyto alba) N pandanas hok naet Kwamera: nɨfara Kwamera: kəsɨm̃ i Lenakel: nɨm̃ ankiyu Lenakel: yəm̃ hir N Tanna: m̃ aniu N Tanna: kasɨm̃ SW Tanna: m̃ ənkiuyuv SW Tanna: keim̃ hir Vaha: m̃ ənkiuyuv Vaha: keim̃ hit Whitesands: nɨmaniviu Whitesands: keim̃ ɨt See also wrap penis with See also Appendix B pandanus

37 barren, be V/A bathe V no save bonem pikinini swim Kwamera: anei, siə† Kwamera: aru Lenakel: yasiə, akanɨk Lenakel: aik N Tanna: əgənɨg N Tanna: aig SW Tanna: or siə kɨn SW Tanna: ar Vaha: ol siə kɨn Vaha: alə Whitesands: ol yeasiə Whitesands: aig †for animals/plants and women respectively bathe in coconut oil (1) V/INTR swim long melek blong kokonas base of a tree trunk N Kwamera: ətagə See tree trunk, base of a Lenakel: — N Tanna: ətəfiain bash V SW Tanna: ətagə See crash Vaha: — Whitesands: arku basket (1) N basket bathe in coconut oil (2) V/TR Kwamera: tənərɨp̃ swim long melek blong kokonas Lenakel: kərɨm Kwamera: aru ye nəp̃ei N Tanna: kətɨm Lenakel: ətəwiə SW Tanna: nɨtɨp N Tanna: aruətuəh Vaha: kɨtɨm SW Tanna: əteihuvə Whitesands: kətɨm Vaha: əteihuvə See also put s.th. in a basket Whitesands: əruətuə or bucket be; stay V/INTR basket (2) (woven with coconut i stap leaf) N Kwamera: əmak basket kokonas Lenakel: əmɨl Kwamera: kəprəprə N Tanna: əməhl Lenakel: kəmeilu SW Tanna: əmɨr N Tanna: kɨpɨhau Vaha: amɨl SW Tanna: kəmeiru Whitesands: əmhəli Vaha: kəmeilu Whitesands: kɨpɨhau be able V See able, be bat, k.o. (Fam. Emballonuridae) N be accomplished V/A (INTR) bat See well done, be Kwamera: təu-təu Lenakel: uto-uto be afternoon/evening V N Tanna: uuto-uuto See afternoon/evening, be SW Tanna: təu-təu Vaha: təu-təu beak; lip N Whitesands: təu-təu maot blong pijin, skin blong maot See also fruit bat Kwamera: jikitərhu*

Lenakel: nulɨ* SW Tanna: nɨm̃ rher* N Tanna: nəwinolɨ* Vaha: nɨm̃ lhel* SW Tanna: tɨkinher* Whitesands: məm̃ eimei Vaha: lesɨnher* nohlɨ* Whitesands: nohlɨ* Lit. hair + mouth Lit. skin + lip See also trim a mustache or See edge; See also smack one's beard lips bear flowers V/INTR beaked whale (Fam. Ziphiidae) N See bear plenty welfis Kwamera: təfrah bear fruit V/TR Lenakel: tolai karem frut N Tanna: tuflaih Kwamera: ukuə SW Tanna: təurhaa Lenakel: owəh Vaha: təulhaa N Tanna: oe Whitesands: təflah SW Tanna: kuə See also requiem shark Vaha: kuə Whitesands: owəh be alive V/A (INTR) See alive, be bear pain V/TR nomata we yu harem pen, yu gohed beam N Kwamera: əni əp̃ini See ridge beam Lenakel: əro asu N Tanna: ətosɨn be amputated V/A SW Tanna: ərɨg əsuun See amputated, be Vaha: əlɨg əsuun Whitesands: əto əsuun be an old person V/A Lit. feel + covered up See old person, be an bear plenty; bear flowers V/INTR bear a flower CL mekem flaoa karem flaoa Kwamera: eiwən Kwamera: fi jihi*† Lenakel: əkənan Lenakel: us nəugɨ* N Tanna: əgwən N Tanna: əgu* SW Tanna: ənuən SW Tanna: vus jihi* Vaha: ənuən Vaha: vus nɨkug* Whitesands: əgənien Whitesands: us nəugɨ* †See blossom be ashamed V/A Lit. excavate + flower See ashamed, be beard N be a stranger V/A mustas See stranger, be a Kwamera: nɨm̃ ɨkhi tɨhr* Lenakel: nɨm̃ əmi nulɨ* be bad V/A N Tanna: mɨm̃ əme See bad, be nohlɨ*

39 be bad tasting V/A See bland, be be bright V/A See bright, be be bald V/A See bald, be be broken V/A See (1) break (1); (2) broken, be barren V/A be; (3) cracked, be (2) See barren, be be bruised V/A be better than V/A See bruised, be See more than, be be bumpy V/A be big V/A See bumpy, be See great, be be calm V/A be bitter/chalky V/A See (1) calm, be; (2) See bitter/chalky, be peaceful, be be black V/A be careful V See black, be See watch out be black and white (chicken) be careless V/A V/A See disrespect See black and white, be because (1) CONJ be bland V/A from we See bland, be Kwamera: tɨnəri məmə Lenakel: meina be blind CL N Tanna: məto inu See blind, be SW Tanna: meinai Vaha: meinai be blobbish V/A Whitesands: məto inu See flat, be Lit. but it is that be blocked V/A because (2) CONJ See blocked, be from we Kwamera: — be bold V/A Lenakel: meinɨk See bold, be N Tanna: məto inu SW Tanna: meinamei be bored V/A Vaha: meinamei See bored, be Whitesands: nəto inu Lit. but it is that be born V/INTR See born, be because of him/her/it PREP See for him/her/it be bothersome V/A See bothersome, be

40 be chalky V/A bed; floor; flat surface N See bitter/chalky, be bed Kwamera: nɨkoukau be clear V/A Lenakel: nɨkoukau See clear, be N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nɨkoukau be clogged V/A Vaha: nɨkoukau See clogged, be Whitesands: — be cold V/A be damp V/A See cold, be See damp, be be collapsed V/A be dark V/A See collapsed, be See dark, be be colorful V/A be daylight V/A See mixed, be See daylight, be become independent V bedding N stanap hem wan See hive Kwamera: ərpĩ nɨsu* Lenakel: ol nəlɨkɨ* be dead V/A (INTR) N Tanna: em nelk* See die SW Tanna: ərɨp̃ nɨhu* Vaha: əlɨp̃ nɨhu* be deaf V/A Whitesands: em nelk* See deaf, be Lit. erect + leg be deflated V/A be covered partially V/A See deflate See cover partially be demon-possessed V/A be covered up V/A See demon-possessed, be See covered up, be be difficult V/A be cracked V/A See (1) difficult, be; (2) See cracked, be strong, be be crinkly (of dry leaves) V/A be dim V/A See crinkly, be See dull, be be crooked V/A be dirty V/A See crooked, be See dirty, be be crowded V/A be disappointed V/A See crowded, be See disappointed, be be curly V/A be dislocated V/A See curly, be See dislocated, be

41 be dried up V/A be extra V/A See dried up, be See extra, be be drunk V/A be fat V/A See intoxicated, be See fat, be be dry V/A be finished V/A See dry, be See finished, be be dry (not raining) V/A be finished cooking (of food) See dry, be (2) V/A See finished cooking, be be dull V/A See dull, be be firm V/A See difficult, be (2) be enclosed V/A See clogged, be be fizzy V/A See fizzy, be be enough V/A See enough, be be flat V/A See flat, be beetle, k.o. (1) N wan kaen bebet be foggy V/A Kwamera: p̃irəhakw See foggy, be Lenakel: m̃ ɨtən N Tanna: m̃ ɨtən beforehand ADV SW Tanna: kwutən bifo Vaha: kwatumtum Kwamera: kup̃ən Whitesands: — Lenakel: aup̃an N Tanna: aup̃ən beetle, k.o. (2) (resembles a SW Tanna: kup̃ən scorpion) N Vaha: pukən wan kaen bebet olsem skopion Whitesands: aupən Kwamera: kəmhnəvt Lenakel: — be full V/A N Tanna: iəmɨk nərɨk See full, be SW Tanna: kəunhai Vaha: kəunhai be full (of food) V/A Whitesands: pit See full, be (3) beetle, stag N be funny V/A See stubborn person See funny, be be evening V/A beget V See afternoon/evening, be See give birth be expensive V/A beg for; ask for V/TR See strong, be askem mane o kakae long ol man

Kwamera: ase N Tanna: təfagə Lenakel: owiə SW Tanna: təvhagə N Tanna: uəh, apen Vaha: təvhagə SW Tanna: awə Whitesands: təfagə Vaha: əhaa Whitesands: eiasiə be healthy V/A See also ask See healthy, be beg for mercy V be heavy V/A See cry at the feet of See heavy, be begin V be high tide V/INTR stat See high tide, be Kwamera: — Lenakel: ərwowɨn be hot V/A N Tanna: ətuoun See hot, be SW Tanna: rikakun Vaha: likakun be humble V/A Whitesands: ətuoin See humble, be be glowing (of fire) V/A be hungry V/A See glowing, be See hungry, be be gone V/A be hurt V/A See non-existent, be See hurt, be be good V/A be ignorant V/A See good, be See stupid, be be gray (of hair) V/A be indented V/A See gray, be See (1) indented, be; (2) collapsed, be be great V/A See great, be be in mourning V/INTR See have a meeting be green (of plants) V/A See green, be be in pain V/A See burn be happy V/A See happy, be be intoxicated V/A See intoxicated, be be hard (not soft) V/A See strong, be be irritated (of skin, as in a rash) V/A behavior N See irritated, be fasin Kwamera: tafagə be lazy V/A Lenakel: təvhagə See lazy, be

43 belch; bleat V /INTR Kwamera: sio, səim, sakem win səvənhi, sə* Kwamera: rɨgp̃or Lenakel: taha* Lenakel: ərɨgp̃ol N Tanna: raha* N Tanna: əgəp̃ol SW Tanna: kafa* SW Tanna: rɨgp̃or Vaha: kafa* Vaha: tɨgp̃ol Whitesands: raha* Whitesands: əgəp̃ol See (1) my; (2) your; (3) his; (4) our; (5) their be leftover (from previous day, of drinks or food) V/A be loose (not tight) V/A See stale, be See loose, be be lethargic V/A be lost V/A See lethargic, be See lost, be be level V/A beloved; important ADJ See level, be spesel wan Kwamera: keikei believer N Lenakel: keikei See worshiper N Tanna: keikei SW Tanna: keikei be light (not heavy) V/A Vaha: keikei See light, be Whitesands: keikei See love be limber V/A See tired, be below DIR aninit belly N Kwamera: peiwaiyu bel blong Lenakel: matitei Kwamera: tɨp̃ɨ* N Tanna: ləhau Lenakel: nətɨp̃* SW Tanna: peiwaiyu N Tanna: narp̃ Vaha: peiwaiyu SW Tanna: tɨp̃* Whitesands: loatəni Vaha: nɨkwətp̃* See descend Whitesands: narfə* See stomach; See also be low tide V/INTR pregnant, be (3) See low tide, be belly button N belt N See navel strap Kwamera: katoji be long V/A Lenakel: kətəut See long, be N Tanna: kətəut SW Tanna: kətəut belonging to (possessive marker) Vaha: kətəut PRO Whitesands: kətəuti blong Lit. wrap around the waist

44 be malnourished V/A be needy V/A See malnourished, be See thirsty, be be many V/A benefactive marker G See many, be blong Kwamera: səvəi be married V/A (INTR) Lenakel: tafe See married, be N Tanna: rəha SW Tanna: kape be married (female) V/A (INTR) Vaha: kap̃ei See married, be (2) Whitesands: raha be married (male) V/A (INTR) be newly born V/A See married, be (3) See newly born, be be mixed V/A be non-existent V/A See mixed, be See non-existent, be be moist V/A be noon V/A (INTR) See moist, be See noon, be be moldy V/A be not leaking V/A See moldy, be See clogged, be be more than V/A be not raining V/A See more than, be See dry, be (2) be morning V/A be numb (pins and needles) V/A See morning, be See numb, be be much V/A be obliged V See great, be See obliged, be be nauseated V/A be open V/A See disgust (2) See open, be bend down V/INTR be overflowing V/A bendem See overflowing, be Kwamera: eiwaiyu† Lenakel: əmɨl-əmɨl be partially covered V N Tanna: oeg-oeg See partially cover SW Tanna: əmrəmɨr Vaha: əmləmɨl be peaceful V/A Whitesands: əməhli-məhli See peaceful, be †See descend be pregnant V bend s.th. V/TR See pregnant, be See roll up s.th. (2)

45 be proud V/A be similar to each other V/A See proud, be See similar to each other, be be quiet V/INTR be single (female) V/A See stop crying See single, be be ready for harvesting V/A (INTR) be skinny V/A See ripe, be See skinny, be be red V/A be slippery V/A See red, be See slippery, be be refreshed V/A be small V/A See calm, be (2) See small, be be ripe (ready for harvesting) be smooth V/A V/A (INTR) See smooth, be See ripe, be be soft V/A be rotten V/A See soft, be See rotten, be be sore V/A be round V/A See (1) burn; (2) wounded, See round, be be be satisfactory V/A be sour V/A See enough, be See sour, be be selfish V/A be split apart V/A See selfish, be See split apart, be be serious V/A be spotted (such as fruit) V/A See heavy, be See spotted, be be sharp V/A be stale V/A See sharp, be See stale, be be shattered V/A be sticky V/A See shattered, be See sticky, be be short V/A be straight V/A See small, be See straight, be be sick V/A be strong V/A See die See (1) healthy, be; (2) strong, be be sick of s.th. V/A See bored, be

46 be stuck V/A SW Tanna: kwənumrh* See stuck, be Vaha: kwənumth* Whitesands: noanəmteihi* be stupid V/A See stupid, be be unable V See not know be surprised V/A See surprised, be be uneven V See crooked, be (2) be swollen V/A See swollen, be be unlevel (of ground) V/INTR See squat be tall V/A See long, be be unripe V/A See unripe, be be tasty V/A See tasty, be be well done V/A (INTR) See well done, be be the next day V/A (INTR) See the next day, be be welted (from a blow or allergy) V/A be thick V/A See welted, be See thick, be be wet V/A be thin and flat V/A See wet, be See thin and flat, be be white V/A be thirsty V/A See white, be See thirsty, be be wild V/A be tidy V/A See wild, be See smooth, be be withered V/A be tired V/A See withered, be See tired, be be wounded V/A be true V/A See wounded, be See true, be bicep; calf N better than, be V/A mit long han o leg See more than, be Kwamera: kwətɨp̃* Lenakel: noan okok between; empty space between N Tanna: noanarpɨ* two things PREP, N SW Tanna: kwətɨptɨp ples bitwin tufala samting Vaha: kwətɨpɨp Kwamera: kwənməha* Whitesands: noanəlfɨ* Lenakel: noanɨmrai* N Tanna: noanɨma*

47 bicker; argue (1) V/TR Whitesands: alis əskasɨk agu Kwamera: əvisə bird N Lenakel: əmhou, əmoh See chicken N Tanna: əmhou SW Tanna: əmhokw bird, k.o. (mountain-dwelling, Vaha: əmhokw webbed feet, beak) N Whitesands: — pijin blong solwota, i stap flae long bus bicker; argue (2) V/TR Kwamera: tukɨrkak agu Lenakel: tɨkurkak Kwamera: əkraha N Tanna: tɨkurkak Lenakel: — SW Tanna: tɨkɨrkək N Tanna: ərgəhau Vaha: tɨktɨrkak SW Tanna: ətgoh Whitesands: tɨkurkak Vaha: ətgoh Whitesands: orɨgəhu bird trap N trap (blong pijin) bickering N Kwamera: kwəgkru rao rao Lenakel: noankɨluavən Kwamera: musmus, N Tanna: noanɨkulu munmun SW Tanna: kwənməkuru Lenakel: musmus Vaha: kwənməkulu N Tanna: musmus Whitesands: nanməkulu SW Tanna: musmus Vaha: musmus Birgus latro N Whitesands: musmus See coconut crab See also argument birth, give V bid farewell V/TR See give birth talem “Ta ta” Kwamera: əsəkɨr Bischofia javanica N Lenakel: əwiətu See Java cedar N Tanna: awiatɨp SW Tanna: awiə bite (1) V/TR Vaha: əuklatuə See burn Whitesands: awiəru bite (2); burn only one side big, be V/A V/TR See great, be kakae haf Kwamera: ahi əm̃ eisi bind a person or animal V/TR Lenakel: əməkru fasem wan anamol o man N Tanna: atɨp̃ Kwamera: — SW Tanna: əkwəru Lenakel: aikɨpas Vaha: əkwətu† N Tanna: aikɨpas Whitesands: awərɨs SW Tanna: haikɨpas †See burn completely Vaha: haikɨpas

48 bite (3); burn a hole into s.th. Kwamera: keiri V/TR Lenakel: yelu bonem hol long wan samting N Tanna: yelu Kwamera: ahi ərori SW Tanna: yeru Lenakel: əwətei Vaha: yəlu N Tanna: arerəh Whitesands: ilu SW Tanna: əkwəteih See also (1) dove (1); (2) red- Vaha: əkwəptai bellied fruit-dove Whitesands: arerəh black palm N bite (4) V/TR blak pamtri See prey on Kwamera: nɨkweto Lenakel: nuto biting ant N N Tanna: nuto See ant (biting) SW Tanna: nɨkto Vaha: nɨkto bitter/chalky, be V/A Whitesands: nɨmto kon kon Kwamera: əpkenɨn black palm branch (for grating) Lenakel: kɨnən N N Tanna: agɨn han blong blak pam SW Tanna: əpɨknən Kwamera: rɨgi nɨkweto Vaha: əpɨknən Lenakel: — Whitesands: apkɨnən N Tanna: — SW Tanna: kɨrmə black, be V/A Vaha: kɨlmə blak Whitesands: kɨlmə Kwamera: pitəv Lenakel: apɨn bland, be; bad tasting, be V/A N Tanna: apɨn i no swit SW Tanna: apɨg Kwamera: siu Vaha: apɨg Lenakel: siu Whitesands: apɨn N Tanna: ɨsiu See also (1) sky (1); (2) white, SW Tanna: əhiu be Vaha: əhiu Whitesands: siu black and white, be (chicken) See also tasty, be V/A blak mo waet faol blaspheme V Kwamera: piri-piri See slander (1) Lenakel: pipi N Tanna: — Blattidae N SW Tanna: pipi See cockroach Vaha: pipi Whitesands: pipi bleat V/INTR See belch black dove N nawimba

49 bleed; menstruate V/INTR Kwamera: sɨgɨn-sɨgɨn blad i ran Lenakel: sɨgɨn Kwamera: metə N Tanna: osɨg Lenakel: amɨtə SW Tanna: əsɨgɨn N Tanna: mta Vaha: əsɨgɨn SW Tanna: mtə Whitesands: əsgɨn Vaha: mtə Whitesands: rə blocking ADV See also leaf, k.o. (2) i blokem Kwamera: tukwahag bless s.o. V Lenakel: ailhtosɨg See welcome s.o. N Tanna: ətlosɨg SW Tanna: əswasɨg blight N Vaha: əp̃əsɨg sik i kasem wan tri Whitesands: əp̃əsɨn Kwamera: yakun Lenakel: yasɨkun blood belonging to s.o. N N Tanna: nunkɨt blad blong SW Tanna: yasɨkun Kwamera: nɨt* Vaha: yasɨkun Lenakel: nɨta* Whitesands: utɨgɨt N Tanna: nɨta* SW Tanna: nɨtaw* blind, be CL Vaha: nɨtaw* ae i blaen Whitesands: nɨrə* Kwamera: nənime* rɨku Lenakel: — blossom V/INTR N Tanna: nɨganəmtɨ* flaoa i gru təpɨs Kwamera: fi jihi*† SW Tanna: nɨmrɨ* rɨpɨs Lenakel: ətɨk mərɨk Vaha: nɨmtɨ* tɨpɨs mərɨk‡ Whitesands: nəmtɨ* təpɨs N Tanna: ɨsiə Lit. eye + dim SW Tanna: ərwən Vaha: əlwən blink V/INTR Whitesands: elwən sarem ae sot taem nomo †Lit. bear + flower Kwamera: apri-apri ‡Lit. strike + slowly + slowly Lenakel: aplapɨl N Tanna: apɨl-apɨl blow; inhale smoke from a pipe SW Tanna: apɨri-apɨr V/TR Vaha: apɨli-apɨl blu long samting, smok wan samting Whitesands: apli-apli Kwamera: əse See sleep Lenakel: halkəm N Tanna: ahl blobbish, be V/A SW Tanna: her See flat, be Vaha: hel Whitesands: ahli blocked, be V/A See also extinguish i blokem

50 blow on V/TR See also shoulder blade blu long Kwamera: eireiri body; meaning; truth N Lenakel: ilil bodi blong, minig, trut, stamba N Tanna: helel Kwamera: nɨp̃ra* SW Tanna: kɨrkɨr Lenakel: nɨp̃ələkɨ* Vaha: kɨlkɨl N Tanna: nɨp̃ət* Whitesands: helel SW Tanna: nɨp̃ra* See fan Vaha: nɨp̃la* Whitesands: nɨp̃ət* blow one's nose V/INTR See full one; See also (1) bloem nus quadriplegic; (2) tree trunk Kwamera: eigɨs (1); (3) truth (1) Lenakel: heg N Tanna: ehag boil V/INTR SW Tanna: eigh See bubble Vaha: eigəh Whitesands: igɨs boil (sore) N See nose; See also mucus boela Kwamera: kiwo blue sky N Lenakel: wiwo See sky (1) N Tanna: wigo SW Tanna: kiuwo blue starfish (Linckia laevigata) Vaha: kiuwo N Whitesands: wigo sta fis Kwamera: kəməhau ye bold, be V/A təsi i no fraet Lenakel: nanɨmɨ Kwamera: ətgase mauh† Lenakel: ətgah N Tanna: məhau itəhei N Tanna: — SW Tanna: kɨmhau ye SW Tanna: ətgah tahik Vaha: ətgah Vaha: kɨmhau ye Whitesands: — tahik Whitesands: məhau bombs of lava N lantəhi See lava bombs †Lit. reflection + star Lit. star + LOC + ocean bone N bun blunt arrowhead N Kwamera: nɨkəkri* ara Lenakel: nɨkɨlkɨli* Kwamera: kwənparɨm N Tanna: nɨkɨlkɨli* Lenakel: noanparɨm SW Tanna: nɨkakri* N Tanna: noanɨfarəm Vaha: nɨkɨlkɨli* SW Tanna: kwənparɨm Whitesands: nɨkɨlkɨli* Vaha: kwənparɨm See stem Whitesands: noanfalɨm

51 book N SW Tanna: əvhit See pattern Vaha: əvhit Whitesands: — bore a hole V/TR mekem smol hol bother s.o. (2) V/TR Kwamera: əpi ərori spolem Lenakel: hətkətei Kwamera: o fur N Tanna: aht erəh Lenakel: ətəkɨn SW Tanna: hateih N Tanna: ol ful Vaha: haltei SW Tanna: or fur Whitesands: ag ərerəh Vaha: — Whitesands: ol ful bored, be; sick of s.th., be V/A fr. Eng. fool taet long wan samting Kwamera: əpou† bother s.o. (3) V/TR Lenakel: əpkəs spolem N Tanna: — Kwamera: — SW Tanna: əpkəs, əm Lenakel: — kafak N Tanna: — Vaha: əpkəs SW Tanna: or narkutien Whitesands: ətapkəs Vaha: ol nalkutien †See tired, be Whitesands: ol nalkutien Lit. make try hard born, be V/INTR See try hard i bon Kwamera: atui bottom or outside of s.th., as a Lenakel: ait saucepan N N Tanna: aiir ananit saed blong samting SW Tanna: arha Kwamera: nukunh* Vaha: alha Lenakel: nowɨ* Whitesands: aiir N Tanna: nowhi* See (1) wake up; (2) look SW Tanna: nukra* around Vaha: nheku*† Whitesands: nəusi* bothersome, be V/A †See meniscus spolem See also strike the bottom of Kwamera: o nɨm̃ ɨrhien s.th. Lenakel: — N Tanna: — bougainvillea N SW Tanna: or nəm̃ urien hanisakel Vaha: ol nəm̃ ulhien Kwamera: rəhi Whitesands: ol nam̃ ulien Lenakel: — N Tanna: — bother s.o. (1) V/TR SW Tanna: ləhi mekem hadwok long wan man Vaha: ləhi Kwamera: o metə Whitesands: ləhi Lenakel: ol mɨlə N Tanna: —

52 bounce s.th. V mekem samting i jiamjiam boys N Kwamera: own-owini yangfala man Lenakel: asin-asin Kwamera: nəkwein N Tanna: asin-asin Lenakel: kominusuəs SW Tanna: əsian-əsian N Tanna: nəsualkələh Vaha: əsian-əsian SW Tanna: nɨpɨkwarien Whitesands: orin-orin Vaha: nɨkwələkweih Whitesands: nəsualkələh bow N bo boy’s brother N Kwamera: nɨfagə See same-gender sibling Lenakel: nəvhagə N Tanna: nɨfagə boy’s female parallel cousin N SW Tanna: nəvhagə See parallel cousin, cross- Vaha: nəvhagə gender Whitesands: nɨfagə boy’s male parallel cousin N bowstring N See parallel cousin, same- string blong bo gender Kwamera: kwətawɨr Lenakel: tawɨl boy’s sister N N Tanna: ətawɨl See parallel cousin (1) SW Tanna: kwətawɨr Vaha: kwətawɨl braids in hair N Whitesands: tawɨl See circumcision boy (1) N brain N boe brein Kwamera: tamaruə† Kwamera: kwera* Lenakel: usuas Lenakel: nəurəkin la* N Tanna: suakəku N Tanna: nouta* SW Tanna: pɨkwarien SW Tanna: kura ira* Vaha: kwələkweih Vaha: ninkutə ila* Whitesands: suakəku Whitesands: nouta* †See young man branch (esp. taro) N boy (2) (affectionate term of han blong taro address) N Kwamera: pav boe Lenakel: nəpav Kwamera: nərɨ*† N Tanna: noanpav Lenakel: kuku SW Tanna: kwenpav N Tanna: kuku Vaha: kwenpav SW Tanna: kuku Whitesands: nɨpav Vaha: kuku Whitesands: kuku branch; coconut cluster N †See child (2) See coconut cluster branch See also girl (2)

53 branches for birds to nest in N Whitesands: əwlhin- han blong tri we ol pijin oli mekem əwhlin haos blong olg Kwamera: rəgrəgɨn break off V/TR Lenakel: nəlmɨn- See pluck off nəlmɨn N Tanna: iəgyəgɨn break off a leaf at its stem V/TR SW Tanna: rəgrəgɨn brekem lif long stem Vaha: ləgləgɨn Kwamera: əvəserakə Whitesands: noankɨlkɨl Lenakel: əlipurɨn N Tanna: akorəkɨs breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) N SW Tanna: əhipukurɨn bredfrut Vaha: əhipukurɨn Kwamera: nemər Whitesands: ao rəkɨs Lenakel: nɨmh N Tanna: nɨmei break off s.th. at the end V/TR SW Tanna: nɨmər brekem en blong wan samting Vaha: nɨməl Kwamera: ətm̃ im əm̃ esi Whitesands: nɨmei Lenakel: kəmakruh See also Appendix C N Tanna: eatɨp SW Tanna: ətməru break (1); broken, be V/TR, V/A Vaha: anmətu brekem Whitesands: agmatu Kwamera: ətefi Lenakel: ərkərh breast; nipple; udder N N Tanna: arɨgrɨg titi SW Tanna: əkapɨr Kwamera: nanhi*, Vaha: akəpɨl kənunu Whitesands: ətghəri Lenakel: naha* N Tanna: nəh* break (2) V/TR, V/A SW Tanna: nah* brekem Vaha: nah* Kwamera: ərkwəpɨr† Whitesands: naha*† Lenakel: arwəkruh †See breastmilk N Tanna: ɨhoap See also pubescent girl SW Tanna: arkwəpɨr Vaha: ətkwəpɨl breastfeed V/TR Whitesands: ətəgɨt givim titi †See broken, be (1) Kwamera: esɨs, ənunu Lenakel: əmaah break into small pieces V/TR N Tanna: əməh brebrekem SW Tanna: əmaah Kwamera: ərkwəpɨr- Vaha: əmaah ərkwəpɨr Whitesands: əmaah Lenakel: apɨl-apɨl See also wean a child N Tanna: kəlkin-kəlkin SW Tanna: əpər-əpər breastmilk N Vaha: əpətɨn-əpətɨn melek blong titi

Kwamera: nas Kwamera: arkwəpɨr† Lenakel: nunu Lenakel: — N Tanna: nunu N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nunu SW Tanna: ərhakɨs Vaha: nunu Vaha: əthakɨs Whitesands: nah*† Whitesands: əgɨt †See breast †See break (2) Children's talk broken, be (2) V/A breathe; have breathing See break (1) difficulties V/INTR pulum win, sotwin broken, be (3) V/A Kwamera: eiahag See cracked, be (2) Lenakel: amigh N Tanna: ameg, eihag brother of a female N SW Tanna: eihaag See parallel cousin, cross- Vaha: eihaag gender Whitesands: eihaag See (1) asthma; (2) alive, be; brother of a male N (3) life (2) See same-gender sibling breathing N brown; orange ADJ See life (2) braon Kwamera: kəmetə bridge N Lenakel: kɨmɨtə See wood bridge N Tanna: kəmtə SW Tanna: kəmtə brief ADJ Vaha: kəmtə sotfala Whitesands: kəmrə Kwamera: kwakwə See rust Lenakel: ərɨpərɨp N Tanna: əkəku brown crab N SW Tanna: kwakwə See crab, k.o. (brown) Vaha: kwakwə Whitesands: əkwəkɨr brown goshawk (Accipiter faciatus) N bright, be V/A igel i saen Kwamera: kweriə Kwamera: akahak Lenakel: kwɨriə Lenakel: akək N Tanna: kwɨriə N Tanna: əhagəhag SW Tanna: kweriə SW Tanna: khak Vaha: kweriə Vaha: khak Whitesands: kweriə Whitesands: aghagh See also Appendix B See also (1) dull, be; (2) shine bruised, be V/A broken, be (1) V/A i soa aninit long skin i brok Kwamera: əmtəmatə

Lenakel: əmtətiapɨn SW Tanna: apəjiapət N Tanna: əreriapɨn Vaha: apəjiapət SW Tanna: əmtəjiapɨg Whitesands: əsou-əsou Vaha: əmtəjiapɨg Whitesands: ərerapɨn burn; bite; sting; sore, be; in pain, Lit. black + blood be V/TR, V/A kakae wan samting bubble; boil V/INTR Kwamera: ahi boel Lenakel: kɨs Kwamera: ap̃or N Tanna: aan, us Lenakel: ap̃al SW Tanna: əs N Tanna: ap̃əl Vaha: as SW Tanna: ap̃ar Whitesands: us Vaha: ap̃ol Whitesands: ap̃əl burn a hole into s.th. V/TR See bite (2) bud V/INTR See sprout a new bud burn completely V bonem fulwan buff-banded rail (Galliralus Kwamera: ahi əm̃ eisi philippensis); k.o. nut N Lenakel: kɨs əlu nambilak N Tanna: aan ətɨp Kwamera: pirei SW Tanna: əs əru Lenakel: nərɨkəsawɨr Vaha: əkwətu† N Tanna: — Whitesands: us ətu SW Tanna: kəsakwər †See bite (2) Vaha: kəkwəjikə- sakwət burning log used as a torch N Whitesands: nətɨkəsawət stik faea See also Appendix B Kwamera: nuksepək Lenakel: nouraskəm bug N N Tanna: nəutasgəm See worm SW Tanna: nukraskəp Vaha: nuktaskəm build V/TR Whitesands: nuətasgəm wokem Kwamera: uvrhəkɨn burn only one side V/TR Lenakel: viləkɨn See bite (2) N Tanna: iləkɨn SW Tanna: vhirəkɨn burn or sting the eyes V/TR Vaha: vhiləkɨn i stingim ae Whitesands: əvləkɨn Kwamera: nəsi Lenakel: nɨp bumpy, be V/A N Tanna: ɨnɨp raf raf SW Tanna: hakwni Kwamera: apəjiapəti Vaha: hakwni Lenakel: apət-apət Whitesands: əunu N Tanna: apər-apər

56 bury (1) V/TR Kwamera: kunim̃ ə irə* berem Lenakel: kunɨs la* Kwamera: nɨmi N Tanna: manɨsi* Lenakel: rənɨmar SW Tanna: kunɨs ira* N Tanna: ɨtənɨm Vaha: kunɨs ila*† SW Tanna: nɨm Whitesands: kunɨs la* Vaha: nɨm †See anus (1) Whitesands: ɨtənɨm See also kneel buy s.th. V/TR pem bury (2) (esp. a person) V/TR Kwamera: vəhi nənime* berem samting olsem wan man Lenakel: os nəmərɨ* Kwamera: ərkwafə N Tanna: os nəmtɨ* Lenakel: — SW Tanna: rəh nɨmrɨ*, N Tanna: — vəh nɨmrɨ* SW Tanna: erkwaig Vaha: ləh nɨmtɨ*, Vaha: elkwaig vah nɨmtɨ* Whitesands: alwaig Whitesands: ləs nəmtɨ*, os nəmtɨ* bush, in the PREP PHR Lit. carry + face long bus See also pay s.o. for s.th. Kwamera: yərkwun Lenakel: ləluwən bye INTJ N Tanna: lap̃ɨn, luən See goodbye SW Tanna: yerkwən Vaha: yelkwən calf (body part) N Whitesands: eluən See bicep but CONJ call for a work party V/INTR be putum wan dei Kwamera: mətə Kwamera: ərkwəpɨn Lenakel: məro Lenakel: ərupən N Tanna: məto N Tanna: atupɨn SW Tanna: mərɨg SW Tanna: arkupɨg Vaha: məlɨg Vaha: ətkupɨg Whitesands: məto Whitesands: atupɨn See also work party butterfly; moth N bataflae call for s.o. (making a kissing Kwamera: p̃aup̃auk noise) V/TR Lenakel: p̃aup̃auk mekem noes wetem skin blong maot N Tanna: p̃aup̃auk Kwamera: əmjiu SW Tanna: p̃aup̃auk Lenakel: tiu Vaha: p̃aup̃auk N Tanna: iu Whitesands: p̃aup̃auk SW Tanna: jiu Vaha: jiu buttocks N Whitesands: rɨmh baksaed See choke

57 calm, be (1) V/A Vaha: kwolueitəpal See peaceful Whitesands: noakɨmɨl calm, be (2); refreshed, be V Carcharhinidae N spel, harem gud See requiem shark Kwamera: əp̃iwən Lenakel: nɨki* ratiwən cardinal honeyeater (Myzomela N Tanna: nɨki* tarion cardinalis) N SW Tanna: rɨki* redhed rəpniwən Kwamera: koiamtəmeitə, Vaha: — keihapəmtə- Whitesands: — meitə Lenakel: kweamtəmetə cancer N N Tanna: kowiemetə solap SW Tanna: kweamtəmetə Kwamera: kəsisi Vaha: kweapilgɨn Lenakel: kasiis Whitesands: kowiəmerə N Tanna: kasis See also Appendix B SW Tanna: kəsiis Vaha: kəsiis care for (1) V/TR Whitesands: nasisien lukaotem gud Kwamera: ətə amasan cane (sugar) N Lenakel: am ɨvt See sugar cane N Tanna: em wɨr SW Tanna: əm vivi cane (wild) N Vaha: əm vivi See wild cane; See also (1) Whitesands: eru vivi arrow shaft; (2) chamber (2) care for (2) V/TR canoe; ship; village; generation lukaotem N Kwamera: ətui tukw kenu, sip Lenakel: ehməkin Kwamera: nɨtətə N Tanna: ehm Lenakel: niko SW Tanna: arha tuk N Tanna: nego Vaha: alha tuk SW Tanna: rao Whitesands: etaiir o Vaha: lao Whitesands: negoe careful, be V See feeding trough; See also See watch out (1) middle of the sea or a ship; (2) paddle careless, be V/A See disrespect canyon N bigfala krik long medel blong tu hil carry a basket on one shoulder Kwamera: nəkwətənə V Lenakel: noakɨmɨl karem basket N Tanna: noakɨmɨl Kwamera: əruiri SW Tanna: kworueitəpar Lenakel: lul

N Tanna: ɨtol Lenakel: os SW Tanna: rur N Tanna: os Vaha: tul SW Tanna: vəh Whitesands: tol Vaha: vah Whitesands: os carry a large object V †See supply s.th. karem See also (1) get for free; (2) Kwamera: ərəhi humble, be Lenakel: ləs N Tanna: ɨləs carry s.th. on the back V/TR SW Tanna: rəh karem long baksaed Vaha: ləh Kwamera: ajipə Whitesands: os Lenakel: ajipə See give birth N Tanna: ajipə SW Tanna: ajipə carry many objects at once V/TR Vaha: ajipə karem plante samting Whitesands: ajipə Kwamera: peki See backpack Lenakel: pɨk N Tanna: pɨk carry s.th. on the shoulders V/TR SW Tanna: pɨk karem long solda, olsem basket Vaha: pɨk Kwamera: asoriə Whitesands: əmki Lenakel: asuliə N Tanna: əsoliə carry or support s.o. under the SW Tanna: əsuriə armpits V/TR Vaha: əsuliə karem ananit long han Whitesands: əsoliə Kwamera: ətəri Lenakel: ətəlh carry s.th. on the side V N Tanna: ətəlh karem long saed SW Tanna: ətər Kwamera: ərəhikarɨn Vaha: ətəl Lenakel: ləhsikalɨn Whitesands: ətəl N Tanna: ləsikalɨn See also armpit SW Tanna: rəhsi karɨn Vaha: ləh kalɨn carry s.o. on a stretcher; fasten s.th. Whitesands: ləskalɨn V/TR karem long wan bed, fasem carry things together V/TR Kwamera: ərihi See mix things together (2) Lenakel: əlis N Tanna: əlis carve; speak hypocritically V SW Tanna: arkɨs katem piksa blong wan samting Vaha: alkɨs Kwamera: ərpəkau Whitesands: əlis Lenakel: alpəkao N Tanna: alpəkao carry s.th. in one hand V SW Tanna: arpəkao karem Vaha: alpəkao Kwamera: vehi† Whitesands: alpəkao

Vaha: təo carver; hypocrite N Whitesands: rəo giaman Kwamera: yərpəkau caterpillar (Ord. Chilopoda); Lenakel: yalpəkao millipede N N Tanna: yalpəkao handred leg SW Tanna: yarpəkao Kwamera: yerɨp̃ɨn, Vaha: yalpəkao pranemə Whitesands: yalpəkao Lenakel: prahiəgəlh N Tanna: pətagwɨhl cast a shadow; cover or wrap s.th. SW Tanna: piəwharu with a cloth or leaf V Vaha: nərəpɨn kavremap wetem sado Whitesands: pitawəhli Kwamera: vegi See old woman; See also Lenakel: əpuə centipede N Tanna: əghanp̃ɨs SW Tanna: uvrɨg əp̃ɨs cease; refuse; let go of s.th. V Vaha: uvlɨg əp̃ɨs lego samting Whitesands: ahtərai apus Kwamera: əp̃ə Lenakel: ap̃əs castrated one N N Tanna: ap̃əs oli katemaot bol SW Tanna: ap̃əh Kwamera: kərai Vaha: ap̃əh Lenakel: kəməto Whitesands: ap̃əh N Tanna: kəmətei SW Tanna: kərai cedar N Vaha: kətai See Java cedar Whitesands: kəlai See cut; See also not-yet- center of emotion N castrated one See voice (2) casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) centipede N N handred leg oktri Kwamera: tapirəs Kwamera: nier Lenakel: təpirəs Lenakel: niel N Tanna: tampɨlɨs N Tanna: niel SW Tanna: təpirəs SW Tanna: nier Vaha: tapiləs Vaha: niel Whitesands: taplesi Whitesands: niel See also caterpillar See also Appendix C central road on Tanna N catch V See traditional circular road kasem on Tanna (1) Kwamera: roui Lenakel: təo ceremonial kava N N Tanna: ɨro See kava (ceremonial) SW Tanna: təo

60 chalky, be V/A Lenakel: whagətin See bitter/chalky, be N Tanna: — SW Tanna: əsieikun chamber (1) (of wild cane or Vaha: əsiəkun bamboo) N Whitesands: əsalpən† pat blong welken o bambu †See look for s.th. Kwamera: nəp̃e* Lenakel: nɨp̃ələkɨ* cheek N N Tanna: nəp̃e* saed blong fes SW Tanna: nap̃ə* Kwamera: nɨkap̃* Vaha: nap̃ə Lenakel: nɨkap̃* Whitesands: nap̃ət N Tanna: nɨkap̃* SW Tanna: nɨkap̃* chamber (2) (of wild cane or Vaha: nɨkap̃* bamboo) N Whitesands: nɨkap̃* pat blong welken o bambu Kwamera: kwətəparɨp cheer on V/TR Lenakel: nɨpɨl* singaot glad N Tanna: nɨpɨl* Kwamera: — SW Tanna: nɨprɨ* Lenakel: alipatək Vaha: nɨplɨ* N Tanna: ahluia Whitesands: nɨpɨlɨgɨ* SW Tanna: herap See also wild cane Vaha: alhatək Whitesands: əramlin char V/TR See chew chest; torso N jes blong bodi chase; pursue; compete V/TR Kwamera: kwənp̃enh* ronem samting Lenakel: nɨman* Kwamera: rɨp̃i N Tanna: manɨkɨləha* Lenakel: rou SW Tanna: nɨm̃ ag* N Tanna: ɨtəp̃ Vaha: nɨm̃ əge* SW Tanna: rp̃əhu Whitesands: nɨmanɨk laha* Vaha: lp̃əhu Whitesands: tou chestnut N See Tahitian chestnut chase away V/TR soemaot chew; char V/TR Kwamera: sɨg yerap̃ kakae samting Lenakel: sɨg iato Kwamera: ahi əteisi N Tanna: əgh iarəp Lenakel: əwɨlkruh SW Tanna: sɨg yerhav N Tanna: atɨp̃atɨp̃ Vaha: sɨg itam SW Tanna: əkwəsɨs Whitesands: əghi pətgəm Vaha: əkwəsɨs Whitesands: awətu check on; inspect V/TR jekemap chew kava V/TR Kwamera: əskun kakae kava

Kwamera: əm̃ ai chief (2); leader N Lenakel: əm̃ ai jif, bigman N Tanna: əm̃ e Kwamera: yemasori SW Tanna: əm̃ ai Lenakel: yemasur Vaha: əm̃ ai N Tanna: etəmyasol Whitesands: əm̃ ei SW Tanna: yemehuə Vaha: yetmasol chew leaves and spit on for Whitesands: etəmyasoli medicinal purposes V See also ruler kakae lif blong mekem i sofsof Kwamera: əjai child (1) N Lenakel: əjai pikinini N Tanna: aria Kwamera: tɨni SW Tanna: əjai Lenakel: — Vaha: əjai N Tanna: — Whitesands: agə SW Tanna: tɨni See grind Vaha: tɨni Whitesands: — chew partially V/TR See also grandchild kakae hafwe nomo Kwamera: ahi əfifi child (2) N Lenakel: əwɨl-əwɨl pikinini N Tanna: awlh-awlh Kwamera: nərɨ*† SW Tanna: əkwopɨrpɨr Lenakel: nɨrɨ* Vaha: əkwopɨlpɨl N Tanna: nətɨ* Whitesands: awəhli awəhli SW Tanna: narɨ* Vaha: natɨ* chicken; bird N Whitesands: nətɨ* faol †See boy (2) Kwamera: menu, reyə Lenakel: mənɨk child (3) N N Tanna: mənɨg pikinini SW Tanna: man Kwamera: yəkunouihi Vaha: manə Lenakel: koviəswas Whitesands: mənɨg N Tanna: suakəku See also summon chickens SW Tanna: kwajikovə Vaha: kwajikeno- chief (1) N eno jif Whitesands: yepou Kwamera: yeni Lenakel: yeni child, illegitimate N N Tanna: yeni See illegitimate child SW Tanna: yeni Vaha: yeni childhood N Whitesands: yeni See smallness Lit. spokesman child of father’s brother N See parallel cousin, cross-

gender; parallel cousin, Vaha: nɨmɨlp̃ən same-gender Whitesands: nəməlp̃ən fr. Eng. Melbourne child of father’s sister N See cross-cousin (1) church (1) N joshoas child of mother’s brother N Kwamera: nim̃ əfaki See cross-cousin (1) Lenakel: nim̃ ohuak N Tanna: nim̃ əfak child of mother’s sister N SW Tanna: nim̃ əhuak See parallel cousin, cross- Vaha: nim̃ əhuak gender; parallel cousin, Whitesands: nim̃ əfaki same-gender church (2) N child of s.o. N See worship pikinini Kwamera: — churchgoer N Lenakel: — See worshiper N Tanna: — SW Tanna: ji cicada, k.o. N Vaha: ji lokas Whitesands: — Kwamera: kenou Lenakel: yawitalɨg te Chilopoda N yarmɨs See caterpillar N Tanna: yawitalɨg SW Tanna: kenou choke V/TR Vaha: kenou jok Whitesands: kɨnou Kwamera: jiu Lenakel: tiu circle, form a (for dancing or N Tanna: armegah trapping an animal) V SW Tanna: jiu See form a circle Vaha: jiu Whitesands: jiu circular road on Tanna N See call for s.o. See traditional circular road on Tanna choose V/TR See answer (1) circumcise V/TR sakomsaes Christmas fig N Kwamera: vəhi nao See banyan (3) Lenakel: ləs nao to* N Tanna: ləs nao ro* Christmas tree N SW Tanna: vəh nao kɨmi krismes tri Vaha: vah nao kɨmi Kwamera: nəmərɨp̃ɨn Whitesands: os nɨtɨm kəmi Lenakel: nɨmalɨpən Lit. carry + knife + DAT N Tanna: nɨmalnɨp̃ən SW Tanna: nɨmarɨp̃ɨn

63 circumcision; penis wrapper; SW Tanna: kuhaan braids in hair N Vaha: kuhaan sakomsaes (nambas) Whitesands: wəhan Kwamera: ninhɨm Lenakel: kowɨr clap; slap V/TR N Tanna: kəut klapem han, kilim SW Tanna: nakur Kwamera: ep̃i Vaha: nakut Lenakel: apatkin Whitesands: nɨtɨm N Tanna: əf See also wrap penis with SW Tanna: ərɨp pandanus Vaha: əlɨp Whitesands: emh circumcision house N See house for circumcision clean V/TR See (1) douse; (2) wipe circumcision ritual, take part in V clean a garden V/TR See take part in circumcision klinim bus ritual Kwamera: osəren Lenakel: ərhalɨn circumstances, unfortunate N N Tanna: əhtalɨn See evil SW Tanna: əreiharkɨn Vaha: ətalkɨn citrus N Whitesands: owehalɨn aranis, pamlo, laman, grefrut, mandarin clear, be V/A Kwamera: kwənmɨrhi klia Lenakel: noanmɨlh Kwamera: əmher N Tanna: noanɨmlɨh Lenakel: halɨl SW Tanna: kwenmɨrh N Tanna: aləl, alien Vaha: kwenmɨlh SW Tanna: əmtɨr Whitesands: noanɨmləh Vaha: əlhal Whitesands: ahal clam N wan kaen kokias o selfis clearing N Kwamera: kərəsari, See tide pool mapsan Lenakel: iarou cliff N N Tanna: iarəu klif SW Tanna: utət Kwamera: nəpatu Vaha: utət Lenakel: nəpatu Whitesands: kəvɨn N Tanna: nəfatu SW Tanna: nəpatu clam, k.o. N Vaha: nəpatu natalae Whitesands: nəteranɨm Kwamera: kusan Lenakel: yiwan climb; increase V N Tanna: wəhan klaem

Kwamera: autə, əptə Whitesands: napən Lenakel: ət See also take off clothing N Tanna: pɨr, ər SW Tanna: haktə cloud N Vaha: əktə klaod Whitesands: əri Kwamera: nəpuə See (1) have sexual Lenakel: nəpuə intercourse (3); (2) above N Tanna: nəpuə SW Tanna: nəpuə clogged, be; enclosed, be; not Vaha: nəpuə leaking, be V/A Whitesands: nəpuə i fas (i no lik) See also raincloud Kwamera: visɨm̃ Lenakel: hum club for hitting N N Tanna: ɨfum nalnal SW Tanna: hum Kwamera: rɨgi nei Vaha: hum Lenakel: nɨmh Whitesands: ɨfum N Tanna: noanatɨpre SW Tanna: kwətavhə close s.th. V/TR Vaha: kwətavhə klosem Whitesands: neim Kwamera: əsisəg, ərəpinhə† club for killing pigs N Lenakel: harɨg nalnal we i gat ston N Tanna: ahtosɨg, Kwamera: nep ahtɨsɨn Lenakel: nimh SW Tanna: ətapɨg N Tanna: kəsou-əsou, Vaha: ətapɨg neim Whitesands: asisɨg† SW Tanna: kəsokw- †See stuck, be (1) əsokw Vaha: nɨlɨm close the mouth V Whitesands: neim sarem Kwamera: əkm̃ i tərini cluck V/INTR tərh* (woman faol) i singaot Lenakel: akum Kwamera: rɨkak N Tanna: əkəm Lenakel: urkak SW Tanna: əkum N Tanna: ləklak Vaha: akum SW Tanna: əvɨrkak Whitesands: akɨm Vaha: əvɨrkak Whitesands: rkak clothing N klos coal N Kwamera: tɨnari blak samting blong wud we oli Lenakel: napən bonem finis N Tanna: napən Kwamera: nɨkum̃ heəv SW Tanna: nepən Lenakel: — Vaha: nepən N Tanna: —

SW Tanna: kwənɨmkɨru coconut (4th stage) N Vaha: kwənɨmkɨlu kokonas we i yalo Whitesands: noanmɨkeiyu Kwamera: kaimhəregi Lenakel: niənulɨk coarse sand N N Tanna: nahulɨp See sand (3) SW Tanna: karɨg Vaha: nikien skai coastal road on Tanna N Whitesands: nien katəru See traditional circular road on Tanna (3) coconut (5th stage) N drae kokonas cockroach (Fam. Blattidae) N Kwamera: nəp̃ei mhia kakros Lenakel: nien mər Kwamera: uvnə N Tanna: niən mətu Lenakel: ɨvn SW Tanna: nikien pam, N Tanna: ɨvn nikien mɨsiə SW Tanna: ɨvn Vaha: nikien pam Vaha: ɨvn Whitesands: nien mətu Whitesands: ɨvni coconut (germinated) N coconut (1st stage) N navara grin kokonas we i nogat mit long Kwamera: nuerə hem Lenakel: nəpɨkək Kwamera: tafə N Tanna: nəupəg, Lenakel: tawhə pɨrɨgəp, N Tanna: tafa malo-malo SW Tanna: tawhə SW Tanna: nepək Vaha: tawhə Vaha: nepək Whitesands: tafə Whitesands: nəupəg coconut (2nd stage) N coconut (tree or fruit) (Cocos grin kokonas we i gat mit long hem nucifera) N Kwamera: kəpkəpeki kokonas Lenakel: karpɨk-arpɨk Kwamera: nəp̃ei N Tanna: karpɨk-arpɨk Lenakel: nien SW Tanna: kərpɨk-ərpɨk N Tanna: nien Vaha: kərpɨk-ərpɨk SW Tanna: nikien Whitesands: kalpɨk-alpɨk Vaha: nikien Whitesands: nien coconut (3rd stage) N See also (1) grate coconut; (2) grin kokonas we mit blong hem i perform first menstruation strong ceremony; (3) smash s.th. by Kwamera: nəfweruk squeezing; (4) Appendix C Lenakel: nausɨlu N Tanna: tafə coconut bark fiber (used for SW Tanna: nəusɨruk straining) N Vaha: nəusɨluk sef, manu Whitesands: nahulu Kwamera: nenhə

Lenakel: nigɨs See also torch made of a N Tanna: nunɨs coconut leaf SW Tanna: nigɨs Vaha: nigɨs coconut leaf basket N Whitesands: nunɨs See basket (2)

coconut leaf mat N coconut cluster branch N lif kokonas mat pat blong kokonas we i holem ol frut Kwamera: meinəpei Kwamera: — rɨmagə Lenakel: nɨkoweɨm, Lenakel: kəmeilu asol nɨkoisɨr N Tanna: manɨsiə asol N Tanna: — SW Tanna: mərəkien SW Tanna: kwənkəkisɨr irəmagə Vaha: kwənkəkisɨl Vaha: mələkien Whitesands: noankwisɨl iləmagə

Whitesands: nɨmasiə coconut crab (Birgus latro) N ilmagə kokonas krab See also (1) mat (1); (2) Kwamera: ferakokiə pandanus leaf mat Lenakel: yəgɨr N Tanna: yəgɨt coconut leaf mid-rib N SW Tanna: yegɨr nil blong kokonas Vaha: yegɨr Kwamera: kwətməsekə Whitesands: yəgɨt Lenakel: watɨkmasiə See also (1) crab, k.o. N Tanna: tɨkɨlasiə (brown); (2) crab, k.o. SW Tanna: kwətməsekə (green); (3) hermit crab Vaha: kwətɨklɨməla- kien coconut husk, dried N Whitesands: nɨkɨlmasiə skin kokonas Kwamera: nɨpeikə coconut leaf stem N Lenakel: nɨpkə lif kokonas N Tanna: kəmkə Kwamera: nəpəkao SW Tanna: nɨpkə Lenakel: nɨpəkao Vaha: nɨpkə N Tanna: — Whitesands: nɨpukəh SW Tanna: nəpəkou See also skin Vaha: nəkəpao Whitesands: nəkəpao coconut leaf; thatch made from coconut leaf N coconut leaf stem, cover of N lif kokonas blong ruf blong haos pat blong lif kokonas Kwamera: nɨmei nəpei Kwamera: nukwirɨm Lenakel: nɨmasiə Lenakel: nɨkoisɨr N Tanna: manɨsiə N Tanna: — SW Tanna: mərəkien SW Tanna: kwənkwori- Vaha: mələkien rɨm Whitesands: nɨmasiə Vaha: kwənkəkə Whitesands: noanfukəkə

67 coconut leaf torch N cold, be V/A See torch made of a coconut kolkol leaf Kwamera: əkwiei Lenakel: ərəp̃ coconut oil N N Tanna: ətəp̃ melek blong kokonas SW Tanna: okiei Kwamera: təpəha Vaha: okiai Lenakel: təfa Whitesands: ətapu N Tanna: təfə See also hot, be SW Tanna: təfaa Vaha: təfaa collapse V/INTR, V/TR Whitesands: təpəha foldaon, pusumdaon Kwamera: əfwi erkwi coconut tree step N Lenakel: ausələlu See step carved into s.th. N Tanna: awitelu SW Tanna: əusərku Cocos nucifera N Vaha: əusəlku See coconut (tree or fruit) Whitesands: əusəlu

Coenobitidae N collapsed, be; indented, be V/A See hermit crab i foldaon Kwamera: hatgɨn coil; wind up (1) (loosely) V/TR Lenakel: pilɨgɨn waenemap N Tanna: pɨlɨgan Kwamera: əvsəvsini SW Tanna: pirgɨn Lenakel: əviavih Vaha: pɨtgɨn N Tanna: afiafin Whitesands: pilgɨn SW Tanna: əviavhin Vaha: əviavhen collared gray fantail (Rhipidura Whitesands: əfiafin fuliginosa) N nasiksik coil; wind up (2) (tightly) V/TR Kwamera: yavənmer waenemap Lenakel: tɨkiskisɨk Kwamera: ərkwərkwi N Tanna: təkiskis Lenakel: əruaru SW Tanna: kəsirəsir N Tanna: alos, əfiəl Vaha: təkiskis SW Tanna: ərkwəruk Whitesands: tɨkɨskɨsi Vaha: ətkwətuk See also Appendix B Whitesands: ətuatu Collocalia esculenta N cold (sickness) N See glossy swiftlet flu Kwamera: keigɨs colon N Lenakel: keigh biggat, pat blong gat we i longfala N Tanna: naitogə Kwamera: keroverov SW Tanna: keigh irə* Vaha: keighə Lenakel: — Whitesands: igɨs N Tanna: —

SW Tanna: kapə* N Tanna: — keroverov SW Tanna: əkrəh kɨn Vaha: — piraovɨn, Whitesands: rəh* əkrəh keroverov yermamə Vaha: — colorful, be V/A Whitesands: akləh e pɨtan See mixed, be Lit. steal + woman comb of a rooster N commit adultery (2) V See wattle and comb of a stilim woman rooster Kwamera: asu puv nim̃ ə sei comb s.th. V Lenakel: — See shave s.th. off N Tanna: — SW Tanna: auru pən ye come V/INTR nəkwai nimə kam kape Kwamera: vehe Vaha: — Lenakel: va Whitesands: ahu pən imə N Tanna: uwa, mɨnə Lit. go inside house belonging SW Tanna: uə to another person Vaha: hiə Whitesands: wa common myna (Acridotheres tristis) See also go N mina bed come from; start at V/INTR Kwamera: kəwur kam long, stat long Lenakel: kowɨl Kwamera: ku N Tanna: kɨwul Lenakel: sɨ SW Tanna: kəwɨr N Tanna: ɨsɨp Vaha: kəwɨl SW Tanna: sɨ Whitesands: kəwɨl Vaha: sɨ See also Appendix B Whitesands: sɨ common name N come from above V/INTR See name (2) kamdaon long Kwamera: krutə commonplace ADJ Lenakel: sɨmɨt See random N Tanna: ɨsɨpər SW Tanna: sɨ faktə compete V/TR Vaha: sɨ pəktə See chase Whitesands: sɨpəri complete (1) V commit adultery (1) V finisim stilim woman Kwamera: əkwiri Kwamera: əkrəs pran Lenakel: əjao Lenakel: — N Tanna: əriaoh

SW Tanna: okrig Whitesands: alpaiov Vaha: oklig† Whitesands: ariawə complete s.th. V/TR †See full, be (1) See un-hang s.th. complete (2); finish V completion N finisim finis Kwamera: o sampam Kwamera: sampam iran Lenakel: naunin Lenakel: ol naunin ilan N Tanna: namnun N Tanna: ol namnun SW Tanna: infamien SW Tanna: or infamien Vaha: infamien iran Whitesands: naum Vaha: ol infamien See (1) all; (2) complete (2) ilan Whitesands: ol naum lan conch shell N See all pupu Kwamera: kisɨp complete (3) V Lenakel: naiyu See summit (2) N Tanna: təwi SW Tanna: naiyuk complete a project, such as a basket Vaha: naiyuk V/TR Whitesands: təwi finisim Kwamera: ərisi condensation N Lenakel: ətis See dew N Tanna: əris SW Tanna: erkin confusion; worry N Vaha: ətis konfius Whitesands: ətis Kwamera: tɨp̃ə Lenakel: tɨp̃ɨl completely (1) ADV N Tanna: tɨp̃ɨl finis SW Tanna: tɨp̃ɨr Kwamera: raka Vaha: tɨp̃ɨl Lenakel: ita Whitesands: tɨp̃ɨl N Tanna: rəkɨs SW Tanna: ta container N Vaha: takə jag Whitesands: rəkɨs Kwamera: — See finished, be Lenakel: kuəl N Tanna: nuigɨnat completely (2) ADV SW Tanna: kwipɨr mekem i gud we i gud Vaha: kwipɨl Kwamera: — Whitesands: wipɨl Lenakel: rɨmagɨt N Tanna: — continue V/TR SW Tanna: arpaiov See join Vaha: alpaiov

70 continue a discussion V Lenakel: kon See answer (2) N Tanna: kon SW Tanna: kon cook s.th. V Vaha: kon kuk Whitesands: kon Kwamera: vani fr. Eng. corn Lenakel: viin N Tanna: uvaan, avin corncob N SW Tanna: vaan See pulp of a fruit Vaha: vaan Whitesands: avəh corner N See also finished cooking, be kona Kwamera: nanhi* copulate V Lenakel: nəkɨs See have sexual intercourse N Tanna: nakɨs SW Tanna: nhik coral pieces broken up along the Vaha: nikəh seashore N Whitesands: nɨkɨs korel Kwamera: kwənkirkiri cottonwood (Hibiscus tiliaceus) N Lenakel: noankilkil burao N Tanna: noanmɨkləkɨl Kwamera: nevou SW Tanna: kwənkirkir Lenakel: nuvo Vaha: kwənkilkil N Tanna: nuo Whitesands: noankilkili SW Tanna: nɨvo Vaha: nɨvo coral reef (1) N Whitesands: nuvo korel rif See also Appendix C Kwamera: nɨmaaha Lenakel: nɨmaas cough V/INTR N Tanna: nɨmaas kof SW Tanna: nɨmaas Kwamera: ərefə Vaha: nɨmaas Lenakel: ətəgɨl Whitesands: nɨmaas N Tanna: arɨgə SW Tanna: ətəgɨr coral reef (2) N Vaha: ətəgɨl korel Whitesands: arɨgə Kwamera: kərhɨr Lenakel: kərhɨr count; read V/TR N Tanna: koral kaontem, rid SW Tanna: kərhɨr Kwamera: əvsini Vaha: kəlhɨn Lenakel: avhin Whitesands: kəlhɨn N Tanna: afin fr. Eng. coral SW Tanna: əhvekɨn Vaha: əhvuekɨn corn N Whitesands: afin kon See also etch Kwamera: kon

71 cousin N Kwamera: rɨpeskuñ See cross-cousin; parallel Lenakel: ətao cousin N Tanna: atosɨg in SW Tanna: ətao covered up, be V/A Vaha: — kavremap Whitesands: ətərain Kwamera: rənfə Lenakel: hanəpɨs cover s.th. up (4) (as with an N Tanna: atuəmɨs umbrella or blanket) V/TR SW Tanna: henpɨs yusum ambrela, werem klos Vaha: henpɨs Kwamera: rukwəfi Whitesands: tənpɨs Lenakel: hin N Tanna: ahgɨl, əhun cover of coconut leaf stem N SW Tanna: hen See coconut leaf stem, cover Vaha: hen of Whitesands: əhun cover or wrap s.th. with a cloth or cover s.th. up (5) (as with dirt) leaf V V/TR See cast a shadow kavremap Kwamera: ərhavən cover partially; partially covered, Lenakel: eiv kasuun be V/TR, V/A N Tanna: asɨp See partially cover SW Tanna: eiasuun Vaha: eiasuun cover s.th. V Whitesands: erasuun See wear a hat cover s.th. up (6) (with a lid or a cover s.th. up (1) V/TR leaf) V/TR kavrem kavremap wetem lif Kwamera: vegi Kwamera: osəman† Lenakel: alpin Lenakel: eipatətin N Tanna: alpin N Tanna: asɨn, əhtəsɨn SW Tanna: uvrɨg SW Tanna: əskəmnaan Vaha: uvlɨg Vaha: əskəmnaan Whitesands: əveg Whitesands: əhtərain† †See wear a veil cover s.th. up (2) V/TR kavremap cover s.th. up (7); disguise V Kwamera: vi tukwəhag klaod i kavremap Lenakel: vi asuun Kwamera: əpuə N Tanna: iu əsɨn Lenakel: həpuə SW Tanna: vi əsuun N Tanna: əghanp̃ɨs Vaha: vi əsuun SW Tanna: hakəp̃ɨs Whitesands: ivi əsuun Vaha: hakəp̃ɨs Whitesands: əmkəp̃ɨs cover s.th. up (3) V/TR kavremap

72 cover up eggs or offspring (of Lenakel: — chickens) V N Tanna: — kavremap (olsem faol i kavrem faol SW Tanna: kɨrus mo ol pikinini) Vaha: kɨlus Kwamera: awiwi Whitesands: kɨlus Lenakel: — See also (1) coconut crab; (2) N Tanna: uu crab, k.o. (brown); (3) SW Tanna: auu hermit crab Vaha: auu Whitesands: uu cracked, be (1) (but not destroyed) V/A covet s.th. (1) V/TR i no long taem i brok kavetem Kwamera: rheiə Kwamera: anipɨn Lenakel: ig Lenakel: anipɨn N Tanna: ig N Tanna: etəhak SW Tanna: rɨgrɨg SW Tanna: anipɨn Vaha: rɨgrɨg Vaha: anipɨn Whitesands: oriarun† Whitesands: anipɨn †See mix things together (2) covet s.th. (2) V cracked, be (2); broken, be V/A See envy i brok brok Kwamera: əfifi cow N Lenakel: hapu-apu buluk N Tanna: apɨt-pɨt Kwamera: kau SW Tanna: hipu-ipu Lenakel: kau Vaha: heipu-eipu N Tanna: kau Whitesands: hapu SW Tanna: kau Vaha: kau crackle V/INTR Whitesands: kau mekem noes fr. Eng. cow Kwamera: eruk Lenakel: awilwəluə crab, k.o. (brown) N N Tanna: — krab kaledonia SW Tanna: ruk Kwamera: yəvirhə Vaha: tuk Lenakel: ukəs Whitesands: ətu-ətu N Tanna: ukəs SW Tanna: kəses cramp N Vaha: kəses stifmasel Whitesands: kɨtu Kwamera: wiki See also (1) coconut crab; (2) Lenakel: wik crab, k.o. (green); (3) hermit N Tanna: noanpɨnagɨn crab SW Tanna: wik Vaha: wik crab, k.o. (green) N Whitesands: nɨpɨnagɨn grin krab Kwamera: yəvirhə

73 crash; bash V crinkly, be (dry leaves) V/A i kilim lif i drae Kwamera: owini Kwamera: o təparen Lenakel: əutin Lenakel: ol təpalɨn N Tanna: orin, anu N Tanna: ol təpalɨn SW Tanna: əwhan SW Tanna: or təparɨn Vaha: əwən Vaha: ol təpalɨn Whitesands: orin Whitesands: ol tɨpalpalɨn crawl V/INTR crooked, be (1); crooked V/A, ADV wokbaot long fo leg i no stret Kwamera: ərkou Kwamera: ikou-ikou Lenakel: okiə Lenakel: iko-iko N Tanna: əkioh N Tanna: eko-eko SW Tanna: erko SW Tanna: iko-iko Vaha: elko Vaha: eko-eko Whitesands: elko Whitesands: eko-eko See divert; See also (1) crawl on the back V straight, be; (2) trick See slide crooked, be (2); crooked; uneven, crayfish N be; uneven V/A, ADV naura i no stret Kwamera: yeren Kwamera: əkeis Lenakel: man Lenakel: raikəvin N Tanna: man N Tanna: əkeis SW Tanna: ruan SW Tanna: əkeis Vaha: luan Vaha: əkeis Whitesands: man Whitesands: əkeis create steam V/INTR crooked, be (3) (of teeth) V/A mekem stim tut i no stret Kwamera: əwanɨs Kwamera: ərəhi Lenakel: owəs Lenakel: ləkə N Tanna: owah N Tanna: təgɨt SW Tanna: owəh SW Tanna: urəkə Vaha: owəh Vaha: uləkə Whitesands: owəh Whitesands: uləkə cricket (Orthoptera sp.) N cross a boundary (such as for a kriket village) V Kwamera: kapɨn-kapɨn go aot, kam long Lenakel: rurian Kwamera: apirap̃ N Tanna: virvirian Lenakel: ətihao SW Tanna: kapɨg-kapɨg N Tanna: eitarə Vaha: kapɨg-kapɨg SW Tanna: əjiərhav Whitesands: kapɨn-kapɨn Vaha: əjiətam Whitesands: ietgəm

74 cross-cousin (1) (child of father’s N Tanna: aulego sister or mother’s brother) N SW Tanna: əviəfugɨn tawian Vaha: əviafem̃ ɨn Kwamera: *ieri Whitesands: əgafugɨn Lenakel: ta* iel N Tanna: rəh* iel crow (by a rooster) V/INTR SW Tanna: kapa* ier faol i singaot Vaha: kapa* iel Kwamera: əkakə Whitesands: rəh *ieli Lenakel: awinən See also (1) parallel cousin; N Tanna: ɨmnən (2) festival of exchanging SW Tanna: əkakə food with cross-cousins; (3) Vaha: əkakə good friend Whitesands: əkakə cross-cousin (2) N crowd N See good friend bigfala grup blong ol man Kwamera: nəkwər cross-cousin festival N Lenakel: nəhuto See festival of exchanging N Tanna: nəhuto food with cross-cousins SW Tanna: nəkwər Vaha: nəkwət cross-cousins’ village N Whitesands: — See good friend crowd around V cross-gender parallel cousin N stanap klosap mo blokem See parallel cousin, cross- Kwamera: ukurao† gender Lenakel: ail əlao-əlao N Tanna: ətəlao in cross-gender sibling N SW Tanna: kuh pən sista/brata Vaha: uvlɨg Kwamera: tutu Whitesands: auto pən Lenakel: kakə †See go around (2) N Tanna: kakə SW Tanna: kakə crowded, be V/A Vaha: kakə plante man i fasfas Whitesands: — Kwamera: sɨgɨn-sɨgɨn See parallel cousin, cross- Lenakel: sisəg-sisəg gender; See also same-gender N Tanna: sisɨg-sisɨg sibling SW Tanna: sisəg-sisəg Vaha: sisəg-sisəg cross over V Whitesands: sisɨg-sisɨg See (1) go around (3); (2) See stuck, be (1) summit (1) crumble V/TR cross over to the other side V/TR planem krosem (olsem reva) Kwamera: eisus, ərar Kwamera: əpi sɨm̃ ɨn Lenakel: usus Lenakel: eukafugɨn N Tanna: ilagəh-ilagəh

SW Tanna: usus N Tanna: olker Vaha: usus SW Tanna: asɨswiwi Whitesands: usus Vaha: asɨswiwi Whitesands: asək vivi crumbs N smol pis kakae crying, distract from V/TR Kwamera: nəmsəm̃ esi* See distract from crying Lenakel: nɨm̃ ɨsm̃ ɨs* N Tanna: nɨm̃ ɨsm̃ ɨsɨ* crying, stop V SW Tanna: nɨm̃ sɨm̃ sɨ* See stop crying Vaha: nɨm̃ sɨmsɨ* Whitesands: nɨm̃ ɨsm̃ ɨsɨ* Culicidae N See mosquito crush s.th. V/TR See pound s.th. (1) cultivate V mekem garen cry; bark; neigh; ring V/INTR Kwamera: əmhu krae, singaot Lenakel: asum Kwamera: asək N Tanna: əsum Lenakel: asək SW Tanna: əsim N Tanna: asək Vaha: əsim SW Tanna: asək Whitesands: asum Vaha: asək See garden Whitesands: asək culture N cry at the feet of; beg for mercy See life (1) V krae blong wan man i givhan cup N Kwamera: asək teghɨn kap Lenakel: asək ətgɨn Kwamera: pənkɨn N Tanna: asək aghin Lenakel: pənkɨn SW Tanna: asək ətgɨn N Tanna: pənkɨn Vaha: asək ətgɨn SW Tanna: pənkɨn Whitesands: asək aghəl Vaha: pənkɨn Whitesands: pənkɨn crybaby N fr. Eng. pannikin i krae tumas Kwamera: kwənəmɨn curly, be V/A Lenakel: matoei i tantanem N Tanna: *maliəg Kwamera: krigkrigi SW Tanna: kwənəmɨn Lenakel: əutinəutin Vaha: kwənəmɨn N Tanna: wərinwərin Whitesands: tətəpiai-iai SW Tanna: okrakinkrakin Vaha: kwujinkwujin cry for attention V/INTR Whitesands: werinwerin krae blong oli lukluk long hem Kwamera: asɨswiwi current in ocean N Lenakel: atowei See ocean current

76 curse V kwəskwəs See swear Whitesands: ətei əkələ cut V/TR cut s.th. off V/TR katem katemaot Kwamera: ərai Kwamera: ərai raka Lenakel: ərai Lenakel: ərəkru† N Tanna: ɨtalh N Tanna: ətatɨp SW Tanna: ərai SW Tanna: ərəru Vaha: ətai Vaha: ətətu Whitesands: ətei Whitesands: ətatu See castrated one †See cut wood or rope off at the end cut hair or trees V/TR See shave oneself cut s.th. to make it sharp V/TR katem en blong hemi sap cut meat off one side V/TR Kwamera: uksei katemaot wan saed Lenakel: ərasɨlə lan Kwamera: ərai raka N Tanna: aukitiəh Lenakel: əraivigɨn SW Tanna: ərəsran N Tanna: ətei rəkɨs Vaha: ətəslan SW Tanna: arəvhin Whitesands: sɨplan Vaha: ətarvhen Whitesands: ətei rəkɨs cut wood or rope off at the end V/TR cut s.th. crossways V/TR katem en blong samting See transect s.th. Kwamera: ərai əm̃ esi Lenakel: ərəkru† cut s.th. into small pieces (1) N Tanna: əhtamɨs V/TR SW Tanna: horu katkatem Vaha: əhuatu Kwamera: əkihi Whitesands: əhtatu Lenakel: ərasɨsɨn †See cut s.th. off N Tanna: ɨtalkinɨtalkin SW Tanna: ərəsɨs dad N Vaha: ətəsɨs papa Whitesands: ətarɨs Kwamera: tatə Lenakel: tatə cut s.th. into small pieces (2); N Tanna: tatə interpret V SW Tanna: tatə katem smol smol Vaha: tatə Kwamera: ərai Whitesands: tatə kwərhakwər- See also father ha Lenakel: — dam (1) V/TR N Tanna: — blokem wota SW Tanna: ərai kwəskwə Kwamera: ərkwəhagɨn Vaha: ətai Lenakel: sisɨgɨn

N Tanna: asisɨg Kwamera: napɨnapɨn SW Tanna: sisɨgɨn Lenakel: napɨnapɨn Vaha: sisɨgɨn N Tanna: nasapuanɨn Whitesands: sisgɨn SW Tanna: napɨnapɨn Vaha: napɨnapɨn dam (2); not allow any liquid to Whitesands: napɨnapɨn spill out of the mouth V/TR See also dance the nokiar blokem wota dance Kwamera: rukwehagɨn Lenakel: sɨgɨn dance; song N N Tanna: osɨg singsing SW Tanna: sɨgɨn Kwamera: nɨpu Vaha: sɨgɨn Lenakel: nəpuk Whitesands: ahtəsgɨn N Tanna: napuan See stuck, be (1) SW Tanna: nɨpei Vaha: nɨpei damp, be V/A Whitesands: napuən i no wet tumas See also (1) hooked pole; (2) Kwamera: owipɨn leaf, k.o. (1); (3) sacred Lenakel: ənɨmən dancing place; (4) sing songs N Tanna: əmənieko SW Tanna: owipɨn dance for exchanging pigs N Vaha: owipɨn See pig exchange dance Whitesands: oweiwei dance the nokiar dance V/TR dance V danis toka danis Kwamera: fi toka Kwamera: orupu, osirɨp Lenakel: vus toka Lenakel: ol nəpuk N Tanna: ol toka N Tanna: ol nəpuən SW Tanna: vus toka SW Tanna: orpei Vaha: vus toka Vaha: olpei Whitesands: vus toka Whitesands: ol nəpuən Lit. excavate + nokiar See also dance (2) dance, k.o. (1) (by women, by jumping up and down) V/INTR dancing place N danis, jamjam (ol woman nomo) See sacred dancing place Kwamera: əmako Lenakel: əmako dare V/TR N Tanna: əmako blokem, blokem blong lukluk se bae i SW Tanna: əmako mekem o no? Vaha: əmako Kwamera: əni əsei Whitesands: əmako Lenakel: ən iaoh N Tanna: ən hio dance, k.o. (2) (by women, for the SW Tanna: əni əhu nokiar) N Vaha: əni əhu danis blong ol woman long taem Whitesands: əni əhu blong toka Lit. sing + downward

78 dark, be V/A dawn (2) N tudak eli moning Kwamera: əpitəv Kwamera: nukuranien Lenakel: apinap Lenakel: nahakətei N Tanna: apinəp N Tanna: enianɨn SW Tanna: apɨgnap SW Tanna: kwəsumra- Vaha: apɨgnap nien Whitesands: apinəpu Vaha: kwəsumla- nien darkness N Whitesands: nianien tudak Kwamera: nɨpitəvyen day, every ADV Lenakel: napɨnapan See every day N Tanna: nalugɨnən SW Tanna: nəpɨgnəpien day after tomorrow (1) ADV Vaha: nəpɨgnəpien de afta tumora Whitesands: napinəpuyen Kwamera: kɨni neisirə Lenakel: kɨni tonihn in Dasyatididae N N Tanna: kəmən niəh in See whiptail stingray SW Tanna: kəni nahu kɨn Vaha: kəni naiəh dative marker (1) (for) G kɨn blong, long Whitesands: kəməni niəh Kwamera: tukw in Lenakel: to See also tomorrow N Tanna: o SW Tanna: tukw day after tomorrow (2) ADV Vaha: tukw de afta tumora Whitesands: o Kwamera: tɨneis Lenakel: tohi dative marker (2) (indirect object) N Tanna: oniəh G SW Tanna: tuknahu wetem, long Vaha: tuknaiəh Kwamera: m- Whitesands: oniəh Lenakel: kəmi N Tanna: kəm day before yesterday ADV SW Tanna: kɨmi dei bifo yestedei Vaha: kɨmi Kwamera: neis Whitesands: kəmi Lenakel: nhin N Tanna: niəh dawn (1) N SW Tanna: nahu eli moning Vaha: naiəh Kwamera: nɨraanien Whitesands: niəh Lenakel: nakəkan See also (1) three days ago; N Tanna: nounian (2) yesterday SW Tanna: nɨraanien Vaha: nɨlaanien daydream V Whitesands: nianien tingbaot samting

Kwamera: eivini †See lame person or animal; Lenakel: eanean tame animal (2) N Tanna: — SW Tanna: eivin death (1); sickness; trial N Vaha: eivin ded Whitesands: earmɨn Kwamera: nəm̃ həyen Lenakel: nɨm̃ ɨsan daylight, be V/A N Tanna: nɨmɨsən delaet SW Tanna: nɨm̃ həyen Kwamera: raan Vaha: nɨm̃ hiəyen Lenakel: ian Whitesands: nɨm̃ ɨsien N Tanna: ian See also predict or SW Tanna: raan foreshadow death Vaha: laan Whitesands: ian death (2) N See evil daylight, during ADV long delaet debark a tree V/TR Kwamera: ye raan tekemaot skin blong tri Lenakel: akək Kwamera: əsəsi N Tanna: le nian Lenakel: asɨligita SW Tanna: ye raan N Tanna: awirəkɨs Vaha: ye laan SW Tanna: əsɨsta Whitesands: enian Vaha: əsɨstakə Whitesands: awigə rəkɨs daytime N See sunshine decorations N flas dead, be V/A (INTR) Kwamera: m̃ ərə m̃ ərə See die Lenakel: m̃ alə m̃ alə N Tanna: m̃ alə m̃ alə deaf, be V/A SW Tanna: m̃ arə m̃ arə sora i fas Vaha: m̃ alə m̃ alə Kwamera: asi Whitesands: m̃ alə m̃ alə Lenakel: alu N Tanna: lu dedicate a church building V/TR SW Tanna: əru See open (2) Vaha: əlu Whitesands: alu deep place N dip wota deaf person N Kwamera: ikəm̃ enɨm man we sora i fas Lenakel: ikəmnɨm Kwamera: yəpou† N Tanna: lakamnɨm Lenakel: kalu SW Tanna: ikəmnɨm N Tanna: kalu Vaha: ikəmnɨm SW Tanna: kəru Whitesands: lakməmnɨm Vaha: kəlu Whitesands: talu

80 defecate V/INTR Dendrocnide N sitsit See stinging nettles Kwamera: əviəha Lenakel: aviət depend on V/TR N Tanna: awiər dipen long wan man SW Tanna: əukaah Kwamera: ətɨgite Vaha: əukaah Lenakel: ətɨgte Whitesands: awier N Tanna: agɨle See also urinate SW Tanna: ətɨgtə Vaha: ətɨgtə deflate; deflated, be V, V/A Whitesands: ərəgɨn win i kamaot long wan samting Kwamera: asɨs de-scale V/TR Lenakel: amis katemaot skel blong fis N Tanna: əmis Kwamera: rɨreivɨn SW Tanna: əmis Lenakel: avilɨgɨn Vaha: əmis N Tanna: vilɨgɨn Whitesands: amis SW Tanna: rɨreivən Vaha: ləvləvɨn dehydrated ADJ Whitesands: vilɨgɨn See dry descend V demigod who lives on Mount go daon Tukwosmera N Kwamera: eiwaiyu† wan devel we i liv long maonten ya Lenakel: eiwaiyu Tukwasmera N Tanna: eiwaiyu, Kwamera: Karpapɨn atitei Lenakel: — SW Tanna: eiwaiyu N Tanna: — Vaha: eiwaiyu SW Tanna: Karpapɨg Whitesands: eiwaiyu Vaha: Kalpapɨg †See bend down Whitesands: Kalpapɨn See below See also earthquake (1) destroy V/TR demon-possessed, be V/A See ruin i gat devel long hem Kwamera: yeremhə detour around sacred dancing ramarə irən† place V/INTR Lenakel: ol yarmɨs in go raon long nakamal N Tanna: o yərɨmɨs in Kwamera: osako SW Tanna: or yahmhə Lenakel: aulək kɨn N Tanna: aulək Vaha: ol yatɨmhiə SW Tanna: əurək kɨn Vaha: əulək Whitesands: ol yerm̃ ɨs lan Whitesands: aulək †Lit. ghost + live + in him See also sacred dancing place Lit. make + ghost + TR

81 dew; condensation N dig V/TR wota blong naet digim Kwamera: kwənərieri Kwamera: eri Lenakel: noanəlial Lenakel: ilh N Tanna: nam̃ etən N Tanna: el, il SW Tanna: kwənarier SW Tanna: kɨr Vaha: kwənəlel Vaha: kɨl Whitesands: noaweiwei- Whitesands: il yen digging stick (1) N diarrhea, have V/INTR sped See (1) have diarrhea; (2) run Kwamera: kakɨr Lenakel: kakɨl die; dead, be; sick, be V/INTR, N Tanna: kakɨl V/A (INTR) SW Tanna: kakɨr i ded Vaha: kakɨl Kwamera: emhə Whitesands: kakɨl Lenakel: mɨs N Tanna: amɨs, mɨs digging stick (2); planting hole SW Tanna: mhə N Vaha: mhiə wud blong digim hol blong planem Whitesands: mɨs taro See ghost (1); See also Kwamera: tapi quadriplegic Lenakel: yain N Tanna: yaiɨn different V SW Tanna: tap defren Vaha: tap Kwamera: əpə Whitesands: kəlagə Lenakel: ol pɨsɨn N Tanna: ol pɨsɨn dig with the foot (e.g., a chicken) SW Tanna: or pɨsɨn V Vaha: or pɨsɨn digim graon wetem leg Whitesands: ol pɨsɨn Kwamera: eisaiəs Lenakel: ərkər difficult, be (1) V/A N Tanna: akəl See strong, be SW Tanna: ərkər Vaha: ətkəl difficult, be (2); firm, be V/A Whitesands: akəl† i strong tumas †See (1) rake; (2) scatter (2) Kwamera: skai, əvəhak Lenakel: ausɨk-ausɨk dim, be V/A N Tanna: əskasɨk See dull, be SW Tanna: əusɨk-əusɨk Vaha: əusɨk-əusɨk Dioscorea N Whitesands: əskasɨk See yam difficulty N dip V/TR See weight putum insaed long wota

Kwamera: eitesi SW Tanna: atmətəg-ətəg Lenakel: el Vaha: anmətəg-ətəg N Tanna: er Whitesands: agmərəgrəg SW Tanna: eires Vaha: eiel discussion, continue a V Whitesands: el See answer (2) dirt N disembowel V/TR See ground klinim gat Kwamera: rei rɨpɨn dirty, be V/A Lenakel: ətkerɨn doti N Tanna: iəh Kwamera: əmkemɨk SW Tanna: harik Lenakel: əmkɨmɨk Vaha: harik N Tanna: amkɨmɨk Whitesands: hateəh SW Tanna: əmkɨmɨk Vaha: əmkɨmɨk disguise V Whitesands: arɨgarɨg See cover s.th. up (7) dirty pulp N disgust (1) (esp. a smell) V/TR See pulp, dirty no laekem wan samting Kwamera: ərɨg əpeni disappointed, be V/A Lenakel: ənaih hat i brok N Tanna: əmnəh Kwamera: rer* rəkwəpɨr SW Tanna: əpnaih Lenakel: rəməuh Vaha: əpnaih N Tanna: nɨki* təmuəh Whitesands: ənah SW Tanna: rɨki* rəməuh Vaha: li* təməhu disgust (2); nauseated, be V/TR, Whitesands: əpou† V/A †See tired no laekem Kwamera: — disassemble V/TR Lenakel: əmrər karemaot ol pat blong samting, olsem N Tanna: etao haos SW Tanna: əmrər Kwamera: əviərəgrəgi Vaha: əmrər Lenakel: əviətəg-ətəg Whitesands: əmrər N Tanna: eatəgəg SW Tanna: əviətəg-ətəg dislocated, be V/A Vaha: eiviətəg-ətəg joen i kamaot Whitesands: eivələklək Kwamera: əpəkesər Lenakel: ətkakiəh disassemble a roof V/TR N Tanna: əgakiəh karkaremaot lif kokonas blong haos SW Tanna: hakiəh Kwamera: osi ərəgrəgi Vaha: hakiəh Lenakel: atmətəg-ətəgi Whitesands: əgakiəh N Tanna: məlkin- məlkin

83 disobey V distract from crying V/TR brekem toktok givhan long pikinini taem i krae, Kwamera: ərui blong i no krae nəgkiarien Kwamera: eip̃əje Lenakel: oh nakaran Lenakel: olkipɨn N Tanna: əht nəghatən N Tanna: olkeipɨn SW Tanna: əsɨk SW Tanna: ep̃əji nəgkiarien Vaha: ep̃ip Vaha: asɨk Whitesands: olkeipɨn nəgkiajien See also stop crying Whitesands: əji nəghajien Lit. strike + talk distribute V See also obey seraotem Kwamera: skwini dispute V Lenakel: ləhsiatou disput, rao rao N Tanna: ləsiarɨp Kwamera: avisə SW Tanna: wəhsi ərhav Lenakel: ətkaugəh Vaha: vah tam N Tanna: arɨgəho Whitesands: əfekgəm SW Tanna: ətɨgoh Vaha: ətɨgoh divert (1) V/TR Whitesands: arɨgəhu pusum samting, stia Kwamera: əkoui disregard; render powerless Lenakel: iko V/TR N Tanna: eko no lesen long SW Tanna: iko Kwamera: ərer əm̃ eisi Vaha: eko Lenakel: ail əkruh Whitesands: eko N Tanna: ətul ətɨp See crooked, be (1) SW Tanna: ərer əru Vaha: ətel ətu divert (2) V/TR Whitesands: ətul ətu See push aside disrespect; careless, be V/TR, dive under water V/INTR V/A daev no lukaot gud long wan samting Kwamera: asu Kwamera: o pən Lenakel: aum Lenakel: ol pən N Tanna: ahau N Tanna: ol pən SW Tanna: ahum SW Tanna: or pən Vaha: ahum Vaha: ol pən Whitesands: ahu Whitesands: ol pən divine s.th. V disseminate V mekem fasin blong kleva See share Kwamera: arkwəpsɨpɨs Lenakel: aroapsɨpɨs distant ADJ N Tanna: ahtɨmɨs See far SW Tanna: arkwopsɨpɨs

Vaha: ətkwopsapɨs SW Tanna: tapɨg Whitesands: ahtəni pɨspɨs Vaha: tapɨg Whitesands: asisɨg do; make V mekem door aperture N Kwamera: o doa Lenakel: ol Kwamera: kwəruə N Tanna: ol Lenakel: — SW Tanna: or N Tanna: nafiluə Vaha: ol SW Tanna: kwəruə Whitesands: ol Vaha: kwəluə Whitesands: nɨkulu dog N dog do s.th. in a perfunctory way Kwamera: kuri V/TR Lenakel: kuri mekem hareap, haf haf nomo N Tanna: kuri Kwamera: o pripri SW Tanna: kuri Lenakel: ol ita-ita Vaha: kuri N Tanna: oli itə-itə Whitesands: kuri SW Tanna: əriprip fr. Pol. Vaha: ol liplip Whitesands: ətu ətu doing what INT mekem wanem do s.th. until a certain time; extend Kwamera: — a hand V Lenakel: ətawɨl kasem, pusum han i go N Tanna: ota Kwamera: esije, estə SW Tanna: ehe Lenakel: eroatɨs Vaha: ehe N Tanna: ɨtoarus Whitesands: oh SW Tanna: eriaji Vaha: ətkwəsis do magic V Whitesands: ətuarus See worship V douse; clean; sprinkle V/TR door (1) N mekem i wet doa Kwamera: əfwi Kwamera: təpinhə Lenakel: awi Lenakel: nausiluə N Tanna: au N Tanna: nafiluə SW Tanna: əkwi SW Tanna: nəusiruə Vaha: əwali Vaha: nəusiluə Whitesands: oiyu Whitesands: namtɨlhuə dove N door (2) N sot leg doa Kwamera: mak Kwamera: təpinhə Lenakel: mak Lenakel: tapɨn N Tanna: mak N Tanna: — SW Tanna: mak

Vaha: mak dream; vision N Whitesands: mak drim See also (1) black dove; (2) Kwamera: nəməkrəhaien red-bellied fruit-dove Lenakel: napɨlaitan N Tanna: nap̃ɨlairɨn down, go V SW Tanna: nəmrərhav- See descend yen Vaha: nəmlahyen Dracontomelon vitiense N Whitesands: nəmərailien See dragon plum dribble N drag forcefully V/TR spet we i kamaot hem wan long maot pulum long graon Kwamera: nɨsəkwa* Kwamera: əvkəkini Lenakel: ni nəwa* Lenakel: vhikəkin N Tanna: nahuin noa* N Tanna: ewkəkan SW Tanna: nehe nəkw* SW Tanna: əvkəkin Vaha: nehe nəkw* Vaha: əvkəkan Whitesands: nəm noa* Whitesands: eikəpan Lit. liquid + mouth dragonfly N dried coconut husk N helikopta See coconut husk, dried Kwamera: kamsiwi Lenakel: yesugəu dried up, be (of water) V/A N Tanna: ies nəhau i drae SW Tanna: kamsuwi Kwamera: amə Vaha: kamsiu Lenakel: əmɨt Whitesands: ies nəhu N Tanna: amɨr SW Tanna: əmɨt dragon plum (Dracontomelon Vaha: amhə vitiense) N Whitesands: amɨr nakatambol Kwamera: nɨkori drill; lead in exercise; train s.o. Lenakel: noanul V/TR N Tanna: noanul eksasaes SW Tanna: kwənkor Kwamera: ərieki Vaha: kwənkol Lenakel: otih Whitesands: noankoli N Tanna: wɨr See also Appendix C SW Tanna: whai Vaha: whai dream V Whitesands: əwəri drim Kwamera: əməkraha drill a hole V/TR Lenakel: apɨlait mekem smol hol N Tanna: aməhlaiir Kwamera: vəsi ərori SW Tanna: əmrərhav Lenakel: vhe Vaha: əmlah N Tanna: uvɨh Whitesands: aməhlaiir SW Tanna: vhi

Vaha: vhi drop s.th. that’s too heavy; Whitesands: uvɨh pregnant, be (late stage) V, V/A hevi, i gat bel drink V Kwamera: pɨk peki dring Lenakel: əpkəpɨk Kwamera: ənɨm̃ i N Tanna: ɨpɨkɨpɨk Lenakel: amnuum̃ SW Tanna: əpkəpɨk N Tanna: ənɨm̃ Vaha: əpkəpɨk SW Tanna: nɨm̃ Whitesands: əmki əmki Vaha: nɨm̃ Whitesands: əmnɨm̃ Drosophila melanogaster N See also swallow See fruit fly drink belonging to s.o. N drown V dring blong draonem hem wan Kwamera: sɨnənɨm̃ * Kwamera: əm̃ henɨm Lenakel: nɨmo* Lenakel: amɨnɨm N Tanna: nɨm* N Tanna: amnɨm SW Tanna: ni* SW Tanna: əmnɨm Vaha: ni* Vaha: əmnɨm Whitesands: nɨmə* Whitesands: amnɨm drip; leak V/INTR drunk, be V/A i stap lik See intoxicated, be Kwamera: əməri Lenakel: aruməlh dry, be (1) V/A N Tanna: alh i drae SW Tanna: arkwərier Kwamera: əvəhak Vaha: ətkwələl Lenakel: avsɨk Whitesands: alhi-alhi N Tanna: əmiag SW Tanna: əvsɨk drive out V/TR Vaha: əvsɨk sanemaot Whitesands: asɨk Kwamera: əkoui irap̃ See dry place; See also (1) Lenakel: kohitə moist, be; (2) wet, be N Tanna: ohiarɨp̃ SW Tanna: əko ta dry, be (2) (not raining) V/A Vaha: əko takə ren i no foldaon Whitesands: əgorəkɨs Kwamera: enhɨn Lenakel: hən drop; leave V/TR N Tanna: əsɨg lego SW Tanna: hin Kwamera: ərfai Vaha: əsɨn Lenakel: wəta Whitesands: əsɨg N Tanna: əhlman SW Tanna: əta dry; dehydrated ADJ Vaha: əta i drae Whitesands: əlhmə rəkɨs Kwamera: mhiə

Lenakel: mərh N Tanna: aulu N Tanna: mətu SW Tanna: auru SW Tanna: mɨsiə Vaha: aulu Vaha: mɨsiə Whitesands: aulu Whitesands: mətu See also hide by ducking under s.th. dry food ADJ drae (kakae) Ducula pacifica N Kwamera: peikɨn See Pacific pigeon Lenakel: pɨkɨn N Tanna: pɨkɨn dull, be; dim, be; extinguished, be SW Tanna: pɨkɨn V/A Vaha: pɨkɨn i no sap, i no laet Whitesands: pɨkɨn Kwamera: fwə Lenakel: əpɨs dry place N N Tanna: əpɨs draeples SW Tanna: pɨs Kwamera: təfkəvəhak Vaha: pɨs Lenakel: tɨpavsɨk Whitesands: əpɨs N Tanna: tasɨk See also sharp, be; bright, be SW Tanna: tɨpəvsɨk Vaha: tɨpəvsɨk during daylight ADV Whitesands: tasɨk See daylight, during See dry, be (1) dust N dual number marker NUM MOD das tufala Kwamera: nɨməkwrur Kwamera: mi Lenakel: nɨmolul Lenakel: mil N Tanna: nɨmoulul N Tanna: mil SW Tanna: nɨməkwrur SW Tanna: mir Vaha: nɨmoluul Vaha: mil Whitesands: nɨmolul Whitesands: mil See twin; See also two dust off s.th. V/TR sakemaot das long wan samting duck N Kwamera: ouniouini wel dak Lenakel: eip̃itə-eip̃itə Kwamera: yereiig N Tanna: ohapɨspɨs Lenakel: — SW Tanna: arpita-arpita N Tanna: — Vaha: alpitakə SW Tanna: yereiig Whitesands: ohi rəkɨs Vaha: ghərei Whitesands: yerəhi dwarf N See midget duck V/INTR bendaon blong go insaed dwarf spirit N Kwamera: auru, asu irap̃ wan devel i givim ol sik Lenakel: aulu Kwamera: Karwasi

Lenakel: Kalwas earthquake (1); earthquake deity N Tanna: Kalwas N SW Tanna: Karwas etkwek Vaha: Kəlwas Kwamera: — Whitesands: Kalwas Lenakel: m̃ ig, M̃ ig See also spirit world N Tanna: nam̃ hig, Nam̃ hig dwell V/INTR SW Tanna: m̃ ig, M̃ ig i stap slip long Vaha: m̃ ig, M̃ ig Kwamera: arə Whitesands: nəm̃ hig, Lenakel: arɨk Nəm̃ hig N Tanna: atɨg See also demigod who lives SW Tanna: arə on Mount Tukwosmera Vaha: atə Whitesands: atɨg earthquake (2) N See life (1) etkwek Kwamera: nɨm̃ ɨm̃ ien dweller; landowner N Lenakel: — man we i liv long wan ples N Tanna: nɨnɨm̃ ɨnɨm̃ ən Kwamera: yarə SW Tanna: nɨm̃ nɨm̃ ien Lenakel: — Vaha: nɨm̃ nɨm̃ ien N Tanna: — Whitesands: nɨnɨm̃ ɨnɨm̃ ən SW Tanna: yarə Vaha: yatə earthquake deity N Whitesands: yatɨg See earthquake (1) ear N earthworm (Fam. Megascolecidae) sora N Kwamera: nɨfwregi* etwom Lenakel: nɨmatəlɨgo* Kwamera: m̃ əjikəro N Tanna: matəlg* Lenakel: m̃ ɨtkələu SW Tanna: nɨm̃ ətɨrgɨ* N Tanna: m̃ atikəlo Vaha: nɨm̃ ətəlg* SW Tanna: m̃ əjikərəu Whitesands: nɨpəgtəlgɨ* Vaha: m̃ əjikələu Whitesands: m̃ əjikərəu earthen oven N See also (1) grub worm; (2) oven blong laplap worm Kwamera: nəkwənɨm̃ ɨn Lenakel: noanumɨn earwig N N Tanna: noanum̃ ɨn wan bebet SW Tanna: nəkwənem̃ ɨn Kwamera: nɨpikɨn Vaha: nəkwənem̃ ɨn keihep Whitesands: noanum̃ ɨn Lenakel: — See also (1) roast in an N Tanna: — earthen oven or pot; (2) SW Tanna: kwənpikovɨn rocks for making an earthen sɨp oven; (3) tongs for raking Vaha: nɨpikɨn sɨm out hot stones from an oven Whitesands: nɨpikɨn tɨsɨm

89 easy; slow; gentle; easily; slowly; Lenakel: təp̃utəm gently ADJ, ADV N Tanna: təp̃utəm slo slo SW Tanna: təp̃utəm Kwamera: məru Vaha: təp̃utəm Lenakel: mərɨk† Whitesands: təp̃utəm N Tanna: mətɨg SW Tanna: mar edge; lip N Vaha: matə kona blong samting Whitesands: mərɨg Kwamera: tərhu* †See blossom Lenakel: nur* See (1) make it easy; (2) soft, N Tanna: nohl* be SW Tanna: nher* Vaha: nhel* eat (1) V/TR Whitesands: nohl* kakae See beak Kwamera: əni Lenakel: kɨn edible green fruit, k.o. (like a N Tanna: un melon) N SW Tanna: ən See fruit, k.o. (2) Vaha: an Whitesands: un eel N See freshwater eel eat (2) V kakae samting effort N Kwamera: əvegɨn, See perspiration əkwməni, əkwm̃ herə egg; testicle N Lenakel: avɨgɨn eg, bol blong man N Tanna: agvən Kwamera: kwənere* SW Tanna: əvɨgɨn Lenakel: noanalh* Vaha: əvɨgɨn N Tanna: noanalhɨ* Whitesands: augɨn SW Tanna: kwənerh* See (1) feed an animal; (2) Vaha: kwənelh* food Whitesands: noanalhɨ* See also (1) hatch an egg; (2) eat food with a leaf (as with a lay an egg napkin) V holem kakae wetem lif egg yolk; ginger N Kwamera: op̃en lokol kuri, yelo blong eg Lenakel: — Kwamera: kwənəm̃ ɨk N Tanna: — Lenakel: noanəm̃ ɨk SW Tanna: hakus N Tanna: naim̃ ɨk Vaha: — SW Tanna: kwənəm̃ ɨk Whitesands: aveg Vaha: kwənəm̃ ɨk Whitesands: noaneam̃ ɨk echo N saon hemi kambak Egretta sacra N Kwamera: təp̃utəm See Pacific reef heron

90 elbow N Kwamera: əvəhag See knee Lenakel: uvəg N Tanna: haag Emballonuridae N SW Tanna: əvhaag See bat, k.o. Vaha: əvhaag Whitesands: əvhaag Emoia sanfordi N See Sanford's emo skink enemy N enemi emptiness; stillness N Kwamera: təkəmir nogat man Lenakel: tɨkmɨr Kwamera: kwənamrɨg N Tanna: tɨkɨmɨr Lenakel: noanamlɨg SW Tanna: tɨkmɨr N Tanna: — Vaha: tɨkmɨr SW Tanna: kwənamrɨg Whitesands: tɨkɨmɨr Vaha: kwənamlɨg See also good friend Whitesands: noanamlɨg enough, be; satisfactory, be V/A empty part N i naf empti Kwamera: əm̃ hen Kwamera: tekɨ* Lenakel: aukɨr Lenakel: nɨwig* N Tanna: əm̃ hen N Tanna: nɨwig* SW Tanna: əm̃ hen SW Tanna: tɨki* Vaha: əm̃ hen Vaha: lesɨ* Whitesands: əm̃ hene Whitesands: nosɨ* See similar to each other, be empty space between two things ensorcel garden trespassers N V/TR See between See erect wild cane to ensorcel garden trespassers enclosed, be V/A See clogged, be entirely ADV fulwan enclosed area (1) N Kwamera: pam† rum blong wan samting Lenakel: popiə Kwamera: ɨm̃ ɨnaan N Tanna: apiəpiə Lenakel: təluən SW Tanna: piəpiə N Tanna: lɨm̃ ɨnan Vaha: piəpiə SW Tanna: rɨmnaan Whitesands: rafwin† Vaha: lɨmnaan †See all Whitesands: eluən See smooth, be enclosed area (2) N envy s.o.; covet s.th. V See net kavetem Kwamera: rerɨ* encourage V/TR rəməkresi tijim Lenakel: nɨki*

ramaklah erect s.th. (such as a young tree) by N Tanna: nɨki* tatəkləh supporting it V/TR SW Tanna: rɨki* stanemap wan samting raməkrəh kɨn Kwamera: ərpatək Vaha: li* taməkləh Lenakel: eipatkin kɨn N Tanna: əfargin Whitesands: nɨki* tətakləh SW Tanna: arpatək lan Vaha: alpatək Lit. insides + steal + TR Whitesands: apargin epiglottis N erect wild cane to ensorcel garden samting i hang insaed long maot, trespassers V/TR bihaen long tang stanemap wel ken blong blokem ol Kwamera: ureivo man long garen Lenakel: — Kwamera: arp̃ip N Tanna: viro Lenakel: — SW Tanna: nintoə N Tanna: — Vaha: nintoya SW Tanna: arp̃ip Whitesands: ureivə Vaha: əlp̃ip Whitesands: əpargin epilepsy N See also (1) perform sorcery; sik we i mekem man i foldaon mo (2) wild cane seksek Kwamera: nəkəvaan err in speech V/INTR Lenakel: nɨkavean mestem toktok N Tanna: nautən Kwamera: ərkawə, SW Tanna: nɨkəvaan əfwəkour Vaha: nɨkəvaan Lenakel: arawə Whitesands: nɨkaven N Tanna: ərawə SW Tanna: arkaowə erect posts (1) V Vaha: alkawə stanemap pos blong haos Whitesands: ərawə Kwamera: eri Lenakel: — erupt V/INTR N Tanna: — See explode SW Tanna: əkɨr Vaha: əkɨl Erythrura trichroa N Whitesands: əpargi See parrot finch erect posts (2) (for a house) V/TR escape V/INTR stanemap pos blong haos See exit Kwamera: rɨpesu Lenakel: atikiv in esophagus N N Tanna: əfarg in rop we i joenem maot long bel SW Tanna: afiu kɨn Kwamera: rukwinau ira* Vaha: afeu kɨn Lenakel: nentiva Whitesands: arɨgpahav lan N Tanna: — SW Tanna: ninrok ira*

Vaha: ni*tok ila* Lenakel: pao Whitesands: nintoi ila* N Tanna: pap SW Tanna: pakw estuary N Vaha: pakw ples we reva i kamaot long solwota Whitesands: pakw Kwamera: nɨsui nui Lenakel: nəlɨkɨ* nu every day ADV N Tanna: nəlkɨ* noh evri de SW Tanna: nɨhu nu Kwamera: ye nəpɨn me Vaha: nɨhu nu Lenakel: lauk lauk Whitesands: nəlkɨ* nəhu N Tanna: laug laug SW Tanna: rəkwamer- etch; write V rəkwamer raetem Vaha: təkwamet- Kwamera: rai təkwamet Lenakel: rai Whitesands: laug laug N Tanna: əte SW Tanna: rai evil; death; unfortunate Vaha: tai circumstances N Whitesands: əte nogud See also count Kwamera: nərəhayen Lenakel: nɨtətan eternal ADV N Tanna: nəratən See forever SW Tanna: nahasien Vaha: nahasien evening, be V/A Whitesands: nərahien See afternoon/evening, be See bad evening, in the Prep exaggerate V See afternoon/evening, in toktok tumas the Kwamera: ni pɨk nari Lenakel: əkarhɨpɨk evening meal for men N N Tanna: ən pɨk nat kakae blong kava SW Tanna: ni pɨk nar Kwamera: nəfunu Vaha: ni pɨk nat Lenakel: nahunu Whitesands: əni pɨk naji N Tanna: nafunu Lit. tell + much + thing SW Tanna: nəhunu Vaha: nahunu excavate (1) V/TR Whitesands: nəfunu digimaot fr. Pol. Kwamera: afwi Lenakel: vus event N N Tanna: ɨs See plans SW Tanna: əvus Vaha: əvus even though ADV Whitesands: avus nomata we Kwamera: pakw excavate (2) V/TR

93 karemaot long graon exist; lie (many things together) Kwamera: fi V/INTR Lenakel: vus i stap N Tanna: us Kwamera: əmak SW Tanna: vus Lenakel: lɨməl Vaha: vus N Tanna: ahtu Whitesands: us SW Tanna: swin Vaha: swin excel; succeed V/INTR Whitesands: əhməli mekem gud Kwamera: əsəri exit; escape; go out V/INTR Lenakel: asəl apomh i stap kamaot N Tanna: əsəl əfoməh Kwamera: ier SW Tanna: əsər Lenakel: ier Vaha: əsəl N Tanna: iet Whitesands: owipən SW Tanna: ier Vaha: iet exchange ritual, perform V Whitesands: iet See grind; perform exchange ritual expand V/TR See nudge (2) exchange s.o. or s.th. (1) V/TR swapem expensive, be V/A Kwamera: oserahagɨn See strong, be Lenakel: awɨlu in N Tanna: awlu in explode; erupt V/INTR SW Tanna: əwiruə kɨn i faerap Vaha: əwiluə kɨn Kwamera: ruə Whitesands: awilɨm Lenakel: aluəlu N Tanna: ɨp̃erə exchange s.o. or s.th. (2) V SW Tanna: ruə† See return (2) Vaha: luə† Whitesands: ahtmərerə exchange s.o. or s.th. (3) V/TR †See vomit See sell s.th. extend a hand (1) V excrement belonging to s.o. N See do s.th. until a certain sit sit blong time Kwamera: nihi* Lenakel: nɨsi* extend a hand (2); grope around N Tanna: nɨsi* V/INTR SW Tanna: nɨsi* pusum han i go Vaha: nɨsi* Kwamera: ərau Whitesands: nɨsi* Lenakel: heiəpa See also take feces out of N Tanna: ea intestines from an animal SW Tanna: ərau Vaha: əlau Whitesands: ea

94 extend a limb V/TR one's eyes; (5) side of the See throw sticks face; (6) star; (7) tears extend one’s hand V/TR eyelashes N pusum han blong gras blong ae we i stap long skin we i Kwamera: osə pehe kavremap ae rəgɨ* Kwamera: kəsənənime* Lenakel: ətɨk hiatəu Lenakel: nɨmomi nəlɨm* nəmɨrɨ* N Tanna: ətɨg iarɨp N Tanna: nɨməm̃ ei nəlm* nɨmt* SW Tanna: hen kwerm* SW Tanna: nɨmrhɨ nɨmr* Vaha: hen lɨm* Vaha: nɨmlɨ nɨmt* Whitesands: əhun nelmɨ* Whitesands: nɨmeimei nəmtə* extinguish V/TR Lit. hair + face/eye kilim faea Kwamera: əs efi face N Lenakel: alh əpu See eye N Tanna: ah ləmɨs SW Tanna: her əpu facepaint N Vaha: əlh epu kalakala olu putum long fes Whitesands: a lfu Kwamera: nəfərien Lit. blow + break Lenakel: nɨsipɨn, nɨvhɨlhan extinguished, be V/A N Tanna: nɨsipɨn See dull, be SW Tanna: nɨvharien Vaha: nɨvhelien extra, be V/A Whitesands: nɨsipɨn ekstra Kwamera: əkwaku face toward s.o., a direction (1); Lenakel: əwau look V N Tanna: ahgoau luk long SW Tanna: əkwak Kwamera: ətoni Vaha: əkwakw Lenakel: etəg Whitesands: əuau N Tanna: əhtag SW Tanna: arha eye; face; source; price N Vaha: alha ae, fes, praes blong samting Whitesands: əsəl Kwamera: nənime* See also see Lenakel: nəmɨrhɨ* N Tanna: nɨganəmt*, face toward s.o., a direction (2); nəmtɨ* visit s.o. V/TR SW Tanna: nɨmrh* lukluk long Vaha: nɨmth* Kwamera: əji peni Whitesands: nɨmtɨ* Lenakel: vaag See also (1) eyelashes; (2) N Tanna: vaag firstborn; (3) pupil; (4) rub SW Tanna: vaag

Vaha: vaag family line N Whitesands: vaag laen Kwamera: kwənəkus faint V Lenakel: noannul ae i blak N Tanna: noanol Kwamera: nənime* SW Tanna: kwənərəus rɨpitov Vaha: kwənələus Lenakel: — Whitesands: noanələus N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nɨmrɨ* rapɨg famine N Vaha: nɨmtɨ* tapɨg See hunger (3) Whitesands: nəmtɨ* təmapɨn fan N fan faith in, have V/TR Kwamera: kerieri See lean against Lenakel: kilil N Tanna: kilil, kelel falcon N SW Tanna: kherer See peregrine falcon Vaha: khelel Whitesands: kelel Falco peregrinus N See peregrine falcon fan V fanem fall N Kwamera: ereiri See waterfall Lenakel: ilil N Tanna: elel fall (1) V/INTR SW Tanna: erer foldaon Vaha: eilel Kwamera: m̃ ei Whitesands: elel Lenakel: haov See blow on N Tanna: əme SW Tanna: mɨr fantail N Vaha: mɨl See collared gray fantail Whitesands: m̃ ei far ADJ fall (2) (many things) V longwe folfoldaon Kwamera: isɨp̃ɨni, apen Kwamera: əsas Lenakel: isou Lenakel: əsas-əsas N Tanna: isou N Tanna: ɨsas-ɨsas SW Tanna: isokw SW Tanna: əsaah-əsaah Vaha: isəkw Vaha: əsaah-əsaah Whitesands: isou Whitesands: ərəg-ərəg See also nearby fall down on a person or animal so farewell, bid V/TR as to trap V/TR See bid farewell See trap a person or animal by falling down on top of it

96 fart V/INTR fat tissue (possessive) N See pass gas gris blong anamol Kwamera: nərp̃ə fast ADV Lenakel: nəlɨp̃ə See quickly N Tanna: nɨlɨp̃ə SW Tanna: nərp̃ə fasten s.th. V/TR Vaha: nəlp̃ə See carry s.o. on a stretcher Whitesands: nəlp̃ə fast from s.th. V/INTR fear V/TR See prohibit (2) i fraet long Kwamera: hekɨr fat N Lenakel: əgɨn See yam N Tanna: əgin SW Tanna: gɨn fat, be V/A Vaha: gɨn fatfat Whitesands: əgɨn Kwamera: əsisi See also make unconscious Lenakel: asis-asis N Tanna: asis-asis feather N SW Tanna: əsiis-əsiis See headdress Vaha: əsiis-əsiis Whitesands: asi-asi feathers N See swollen, be See (1) hair on the body; (2) hair on the head father-in-law N See uncle feces N See excrement father of s.o. N papa blong feed an animal V Kwamera: rɨm* givim kakae long wan animol Lenakel: rɨmo* Kwamera: əkwməni, N Tanna: tɨm* əkwm̃ herə SW Tanna: rɨm* Lenakel: avɨgɨn Vaha: tɨm* N Tanna: agvən Whitesands: tɨm* SW Tanna: əvɨgɨn See also (1) dad; (2) mother Vaha: əvɨgɨn of s.o. Whitesands: augɨn See eat (2) father’s brother’s child N See parallel cousin feeding trough N wud blong fidim anamol father’s sister’s child N Kwamera: nɨtətə kamə- See cross-cousin (1) kwməni, nərimɨru me fatigue N irə See sleepiness Lenakel: niko N Tanna: nego

SW Tanna: tɨkirao Vaha: niel Vaha: leselao Whitesands: nieli Whitesands: nego See also cross-cousin See canoe fetch by hooking s.th. V feel (1) V/TR hukum See grasp Kwamera: əkir Lenakel: — feel (2) V N Tanna: — See think (1) SW Tanna: əkir Vaha: əkil female animal N Whitesands: akil See animal (2) fetch s.th. V/TR female parallel cousin of a man See scoop s.th. out (1) N See (1) parallel cousin, cross- fever, have a V/INTR gender; (2) sister of a man See have a fever

(1) few ADJ

smol nomo fence N Kwamera: kwətɨni fenis Lenakel: noanəwin Kwamera: koup̃ə N Tanna: noanmɨsɨn Lenakel: noankɨlu SW Tanna: kwətɨksɨn N Tanna: noanɨkɨlu Vaha: kwənkwan SW Tanna: kəup̃ə nulɨn Vaha: kəup̃ə Whitesands: noanəwein Whitesands: kəup̃ə Ficus N fern N See banyan (1) fens Kwamera: nəmnhamu Ficus benghalensis N Lenakel: nɨkəukəu See banyan (3) N Tanna: — SW Tanna: mənkawkaw fig N Vaha: mənkəwhai See banyan (3) Whitesands: malkavhegi fight V fertile female animal N See make war See animal (3) fill in a hole (1) V/TR festival of exchanging food with kavremap wan hol wetem graon cross-cousins N Kwamera: ərəhavən kakae i go long ol tawian Lenakel: asuun Kwamera: nieri N Tanna: ətouɨn Lenakel: niel SW Tanna: ərəsuun N Tanna: niel Vaha: ətəsuun SW Tanna: nier Whitesands: ərasuun

98 fill in a hole (2) V/TR Vaha: kwənkwai kavremap wan hol wetem graon lɨm* Kwamera: — Whitesands: noanelmɨ* Lenakel: — See also (1) index finger; (2) N Tanna: — little finger; (3) middle SW Tanna: əno finger; (4) ring finger; (5) Vaha: əno thumb; (6) toe Whitesands: atrowei fingernail N fill in a hole (3) V sel fingga kavremap wan hol wetem graon Kwamera: pɨsivɨr Kwamera: ərhavən Lenakel: nɨfig Lenakel: — N Tanna: pɨsivɨr N Tanna: — SW Tanna: pɨsivɨr SW Tanna: əkrəsun Vaha: pɨsivɨl Vaha: — Whitesands: pɨsivɨr Whitesands: atrowi See also mash s.th. (1) fill up a basket V/TR finish V putum insaed long basket See complete (2) Kwamera: əvarɨp Lenakel: evarɨm finish a project well V/TR N Tanna: eatɨm i gud SW Tanna: əvarɨp Kwamera: — Vaha: əvatɨm Lenakel: ələl Whitesands: eatɨm N Tanna: əris SW Tanna: ərər fill up s.th. (with dirt, sand, rice, Vaha: ələl or water) V Whitesands: — putum insaed (samting olsem graon mo wota) finished, be V/A Kwamera: yas finis Lenakel: aokiato Kwamera: raka N Tanna: ies Lenakel: ita SW Tanna: iuk N Tanna: rəkɨs Vaha: vhik SW Tanna: ta Whitesands: kio Vaha: takə Whitesands: rəkɨs finch N See completely (1) See parrot finch finished cooking, be (of food) finger N V/A fingga kakae i rere finis Kwamera: nɨkwai rəg* Kwamera: afə Lenakel: noan nəlɨmɨ* Lenakel: atək N Tanna: noane lɨm* N Tanna: apə SW Tanna: kwənkwai SW Tanna: apə kwerm* Vaha: apə

Whitesands: apə first harvest N See also (1) cook s.th.; (2) fes garen i rere raw Kwamera: — Lenakel: — fire N N Tanna: nianmɨtə faea SW Tanna: kwənəfa Kwamera: nap̃ Vaha: kwənəfa Lenakel: nɨkəm Whitesands: noanalul N Tanna: nɨgəm SW Tanna: nap̃ first person dual exclusive object Vaha: nap̃ pronoun PRO Whitesands: nɨgəm See us (2) See warm oneself by a fire; See also (1) glowing, be; (2) first person dual exclusive possessive light a log; (3) spark; (4) pronoun PRO stoke a fire See our (2) firefly N first person dual exclusive subject See mushroom, k.o. (2) pronoun PRO See we (2) firm, be V/A See difficult, be (2) first person dual inclusive object pronoun PRO firmly (1) ADV See us (1) strong Kwamera: əkneikɨn first person dual inclusive possessive Lenakel: tɨmtɨm pronoun PRO N Tanna: məha-məha See our (1) SW Tanna: tɨmtɨm Vaha: tɨmtɨm first person dual inclusive subject Whitesands: əmaha pronoun PRO See we (1) firmly (2) ADV See strongly first person plural exclusive object pronoun PRO firstborn N See us (6) fasbon Kwamera: nəmri taik first person plural exclusive Lenakel: nɨmrɨ nɨpɨn possessive pronoun PRO N Tanna: nəmtɨ nɨpɨn See our (6) SW Tanna: nɨmrhɨn nupan first person plural exclusive subject Vaha: nɨmtɨn nɨpien pronoun PRO Whitesands: nɨmtɨ nɨpɨn See we (6) Lit. eye/source + banana See also lastborn first person plural inclusive object pronoun PRO See us (5)

100 first person plural inclusive fish N possessive pronoun PRO fis See our (5) Kwamera: nəmu Lenakel: nəm first person plural inclusive subject N Tanna: nəm pronoun PRO SW Tanna: kəmam See we (5) Vaha: nəm Whitesands: nəmu first person singular object pronoun See also freshwater eel PRO See I fish V/TR pulum fis first person singular possessive Kwamera: vi nəmu pronoun PRO Lenakel: vi nəm See my N Tanna: iu nəm SW Tanna: vi kəmam first person singular subject pronoun Vaha: vi nəm PRO Whitesands: ivi nəmu See I See also (1) fishing pole; (2) poison fish first person trial exclusive object pronoun PRO fishhook N See us (4) fis huk Kwamera: kwərvi nari first person trial exclusive possessive Lenakel: noanmɨtau pronoun PRO N Tanna: noanmɨtau See our (4) SW Tanna: kweru nar Vaha: kwənmətao first person trial exclusive subject Whitesands: noanao pronoun PRO See we (4) fishing line N laen blong pulum fis first person trial inclusive object Kwamera: kwənokwə pronoun PRO Lenakel: noanokwə See us (3) N Tanna: noapahan SW Tanna: kwənokwə first person trial inclusive possessive Vaha: kwənokwə pronoun PRO Whitesands: noanokə See our (3) fishing pole N first person trial inclusive subject wel ken blong sperem fis pronoun PRO Kwamera: kwənau See we (3) Lenakel: kwətəparɨp N Tanna: nəro, suk, first place, win V kahaupah See win first place SW Tanna: kwətəparɨp, piskuk† Vaha: kweafifi

101

Whitesands: noanao flap wings (1) V †fr. Bis. piskuk ‘fishhook’ flae olsem flaeng fokis Kwamera: ərp̃ərp̃ə fish scale N Lenakel: əukəuk skel blong fis N Tanna: — Kwamera: rɨrevi* SW Tanna: eiteitə Lenakel: nɨvilɨg* Vaha: eiteitə N Tanna: nɨvilɨgɨ* Whitesands: əsəsao SW Tanna: nɨrɨgəv* Vaha: nɨlɨgəv* flap wings (2) V Whitesands: nɨvilɨgɨ* i flae Kwamera: — five NUM Lenakel: əvi nəlɨmɨ* faef N Tanna: — Kwamera: krirɨm̃ SW Tanna: əvi kwerm* Lenakel: kətilɨm Vaha: evi lɨm* N Tanna: karilɨm Whitesands: evi nelmɨ* SW Tanna: kɨrkɨrɨp Vaha: kɨlkɨlɨp flap wings (3); flap arms V/INTR Whitesands: karilɨm flae Kwamera: ərou-ərau fix V/TR Lenakel: əlau-əlau See heal N Tanna: əlho-əlho SW Tanna: ərau-ərau fizzy, be; make fizzy V/A, V/TR Vaha: əlau-əlau boel from we i gat gas long hem Whitesands: ɨsao-ɨsao Kwamera: ererun Lenakel: erkalin flash (as in lightning) V/INTR N Tanna: asus laetning i faerap SW Tanna: erarun Kwamera: əruəpɨr Vaha: əlialin Lenakel: awlɨkəm Whitesands: arɨgrɨg N Tanna: atɨperə, oraipɨt flail; thrash about V/INTR SW Tanna: rwapɨg seksek Vaha: rwapɨg Kwamera: kwito-kwito Whitesands: əroaip, Lenakel: awito-awito arowapɨg N Tanna: orafit-orafit See lightning SW Tanna: kwito-kwito Vaha: kwito-kwito flat, be; blobbish, be V/A Whitesands: awɨt-awɨt i no raon Kwamera: əwtəwtə flame N Lenakel: awtəwtə See yam shoot N Tanna: awtəwɨtə SW Tanna: əwtəwtə flap arms V Vaha: əwtəwtə See flap wings (3) Whitesands: autəutə See also thin and flat, be

102 flat piece of wood (log cut in half) SW Tanna: kɨm̃ kɨm̃ N Vaha: kɨm̃ kɨm̃ flat wud Whitesands: kɨm̃ kɨm̃ Kwamera: tənkare* Lenakel: təlɨg* flick s.th. (1) (with a knife or stick) N Tanna: nɨtəniatɨp* V/TR SW Tanna: tənkar* slingim wetem naef Vaha: nɨkəva*† Kwamera: skəri Whitesands: — Lenakel: sul †See other half N Tanna: sul SW Tanna: sur flat surface N Vaha: sul See bed Whitesands: kɨl flea N flick s.th. (2) (by hand) V/TR fli, laos blong dog See tap on s.th. Kwamera: ur Lenakel: uvtuvt flip forward V/TR N Tanna: uvtuvt mekem kalipet SW Tanna: uvtuvt Kwamera: osəruə† Vaha: uvtuvt Lenakel: — Whitesands: uvtuvt N Tanna: emkafitokw† SW Tanna: horwhə flee V/INTR Vaha: əvsəluə go longwe Whitesands: emporu Kwamera: ap †See somersault Lenakel: akɨm N Tanna: agɨm float; swim V/INTR SW Tanna: ap swim (antap long wota) Vaha: ap Kwamera: eiai Whitesands: agɨm Lenakel: eiai N Tanna: eiai flesh N SW Tanna: eiai mit blong Vaha: eiai Kwamera: nusa* Whitesands: eiai Lenakel: akɨm N Tanna: iaia float around (as of smoke) SW Tanna: nusa* V/INTR Vaha: nukwakɨ* smok i stap go antap Whitesands: nuhegɨ* Kwamera: ənas Lenakel: ənaih flex V/INTR N Tanna: əhan mekem ol masel i taet SW Tanna: ənah Kwamera: kɨm̃ kɨm̃ , Vaha: ənah kɨnkɨn Whitesands: ənah Lenakel: kɨm̃ kɨm̃ See also smoke N Tanna: kɨnkɨn, ɨkɨm̃ kɨm̃

103 flood N follow (1); accompany V bigfala wota folem Kwamera: yapiwən Kwamera: kurirə Lenakel: yapiwən Lenakel: kwətisɨg N Tanna: naruəh N Tanna: uərisɨg SW Tanna: yapiwən SW Tanna: kwasɨg Vaha: nəhupkəm Vaha: spitəg Whitesands: naruəh Whitesands: orisɨg See also lead floor N See bed follow (2) V See walk (2) flower CL See bear a flower food N kakae flower of s.th. N Kwamera: nəvegɨnien flaoa blong Lenakel: navəgɨnan Kwamera: kwəjihi* N Tanna: nagwənən Lenakel: naogɨ* SW Tanna: nəvɨgɨnien N Tanna: nəgu* Vaha: nəvɨgɨnien SW Tanna: jihi* Whitesands: nawənien Vaha: nɨkug* See eat (2); See also (1) full, Whitesands: nəugɨ* be; (2) half-eaten food; (3) See bear a flower prestation; (4) spicy food; (5)

stuff food inside bamboo; (6) flowers, bear V/INTR wild food See bear plenty flute N food belonging to s.o. N See bamboo flute kakae blong Kwamera: sənə* fly N Lenakel: nəko* See (1) firefly; (2) fruit fly; N Tanna: nɨg* (3) horsefly; (4) housefly SW Tanna: na*, ne* Vaha: na*, nai* fly V/INTR Whitesands: nəgɨ* See jump food growing in the wild N flycatcher N See wild food See Melanesian flycatcher food prestation N foggy, be V/A See prestation sno, kolkol Kwamera: əməhakwi foot N Lenakel: oro See leg N Tanna: oro SW Tanna: ətokw foot, ball of the N Vaha: ətokw See ball of the foot Whitesands: oro

104 footprint of a person or animal; Lenakel: itugə track of s.th. N N Tanna: itogə trak blong SW Tanna: itugə Kwamera: təm̃ hek* Vaha: itogə Lenakel: nəm̃ i* Whitesands: itogə N Tanna: nəm̃ ee SW Tanna: tam̃ hek* foreigner; white person N Vaha: nɨm̃ hle* waet man Whitesands: təm̃ ei* Kwamera: pitogə Lenakel: yəmitugə for G N Tanna: yetimitugə See dative marker (1) SW Tanna: yametugə Vaha: yatmetogə force oneself to do s.th. V Whitesands: yetəmitogə fosem blong mekem See also stranger Kwamera: əmaha Lenakel: hap̃in foreshadow death V/TR N Tanna: ap̃in See predict or foreshadow SW Tanna: hap̃in death Vaha: hap̃in Whitesands: əkeikei† forever ADV †See obliged, be ol taem Kwamera: rerɨn forearm N Lenakel: lilɨn han N Tanna: itulɨn, lilɨn Kwamera: nei ye rəgɨ* SW Tanna: rerɨn Lenakel: nɨk le nəlmə* Vaha: telɨn N Tanna: nɨg ye nelmɨ* Whitesands: lilɨn SW Tanna: nai ye See still kwerm* Vaha: nai ye lɨm* forget s.th. V/TR Whitesands: nɨgi ye nəlmɨ* fogetem Lit. wood + toward + arm Kwamera: enou-enou Lenakel: əluin forehead; glans penis N N Tanna: aluin fored SW Tanna: ərukɨn Kwamera: nɨp̃əna* Vaha: eno-eno kɨn Lenakel: nɨp̃ənəkɨ* Whitesands: alulan N Tanna: nɨp̃ɨnəg* SW Tanna: nɨp̃ana* for him/her/it; because of Vaha: nɨp̃ana* him/her/it PRO, PREP Whitesands: nɨp̃ənəg* from hem See also (1) back of head; (2) Kwamera: tukwe penis Lenakel: ton N Tanna: ron foreign ADJ SW Tanna: tukun kam long defren ples Vaha: tukun Kwamera: pitoga Whitesands: oni

105 fork in the road N Kwamera: kefə rod i seraot tufala Lenakel: kuwər Kwamera: usiək N Tanna: kuwɨt Lenakel: pɨsiək SW Tanna: kuas N Tanna: ɨsɨm Vaha: kwies SW Tanna: pɨsiək Whitesands: kuwet Vaha: pɨsiək Whitesands: — freckles, have V/A See spotted, be fork in the wood N rod i split, i go tu freely give s.th. V/TR Kwamera: səpaag See supply s.th. Lenakel: səpaag† N Tanna: səpaag freshwater eel N SW Tanna: təpaag*, namarae səpaag* Kwamera: rukwinəmu Vaha: səpaag* Lenakel: vin le nu Whitesands: təpaag† N Tanna: nəm lao †See fork in tree branch SW Tanna: kəmam ye nu Vaha: nəm ye nu fork in tree branch N Whitesands: nəmu e nəhu han blong tri i goaot tu Lit. fish + in + river Kwamera: pɨsagi Lenakel: səpaag† friends N N Tanna: pɨsiə fren SW Tanna: pɨsag Kwamera: me nep̃ɨn Vaha: pɨsag Lenakel: nəwin Whitesands: təpaag† N Tanna: mɨnen †See fork in the wood SW Tanna: mɨnə tɨksɨn Vaha: mɨnə nulɨn form a circle (for dancing or Whitesands: nəwein trapping an animal) V Lit. PL + some mekem wan sirkel See also good friend Kwamera: koi Lenakel: arkoh frighten off V N Tanna: əgoh See make unconscious SW Tanna: ko Vaha: əko frond N Whitesands: əgoh See coconut leaf forward flip V/TR fruit N See flip forward frut blong Kwamera: kwənkwai* foundation N Lenakel: noa* See tree trunk (2) N Tanna: noa* SW Tanna: kwənkwa* four NUM Vaha: kwənkwa* fo Whitesands: noa*

106

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Vaha: təm Vaha: tuk nuwəh Whitesands: rɨm Whitesands: otuvəh full, be (3) (of food) V/A gable; jaw; triangle N bel i fulap triangle long haos Kwamera: — Kwamera: kaugə Lenakel: eip̃ɨs Lenakel: kaugə N Tanna: əhip̃ɨs N Tanna: nenkaugə SW Tanna: eip̃ɨs SW Tanna: kaugə Vaha: eip̃ɨs Vaha: kaugə Whitesands: əhip̃ɨs Whitesands: kaugə See also (1) food; (2) glutton gallbladder N full one N konkon leva i fulap Kwamera: kwənkanhe* Kwamera: nɨp̃ra* Lenakel: — Lenakel: nɨpələkɨn N Tanna: kalukaluk N Tanna: nɨp̃ət* SW Tanna: kwənkaghe* SW Tanna: nɨmitɨn Vaha: kwənkaghe* Vaha: nɨp̃la* Whitesands: kwənkalhmə* Whitesands: nɨp̃ət* See body Galliralus philippensis N See buff-banded rail fungus (skin condition) N game of scavenger hunt N ringwom See trick Kwamera: yaiyə-yaiyə Lenakel: nələk garbage N N Tanna: — See trash SW Tanna: yaiyə-yaiyə Vaha: yaiyə-yaiyə garden N Whitesands: yaiyə garen Kwamera: nəmhien funny, be; make a joke V/A Lenakel: nasuman (INTR), V/INTR N Tanna: nasumən fani SW Tanna: nəsimien Kwamera: əfkəmanə Vaha: nəsimien Lenakel: əusaan Whitesands: nasumien N Tanna: əsan See cultivate; See also weed a SW Tanna: əusaan garden Vaha: əusaan Whitesands: əusaan gardener N gadna future, in the ADV Kwamera: yəmhu sam taem Lenakel: yasum Kwamera: tu tui N Tanna: yasum Lenakel: tə ru SW Tanna: yəsim N Tanna: otuvɨh Vaha: yəsim SW Tanna: tuk tu Whitesands: yasum

108 gargle V/INTR N Tanna: os apnapɨn See rinse mouth SW Tanna: vəh apnapɨg Vaha: vah apnapɨg gate at the entrance of a village Whitesands: os apnapɨn N †Lit. carry + nothing + only get long vilej Lit. carry + randomly Kwamera: nəfkəruə Lenakel: nəkulu ghost (1) N N Tanna: nəkulu demon SW Tanna: nəkuru Kwamera: yeremhə Vaha: nəkulu Lenakel: yarmɨs Whitesands: nukulu N Tanna: yərmɨs SW Tanna: yarmhə gather V Vaha: yatɨmhiə hipap Whitesands: yermɨs Kwamera: osəsɨm̃ ɨn See die Lenakel: wafugɨn N Tanna: eafɨmən ghost (2) N SW Tanna: ofugɨn demon Vaha: ohafeimɨn Kwamera: yermama pen Whitesands: whapughɨn Lenakel: yavən pən N Tanna: yan pən gecko N SW Tanna: yermamə pən lised Vaha: yetmamə pən Kwamera: kweikwao, Whitesands: etəm pən kwekav Lenakel: yiuwao gifts, reciprocation of N N Tanna: kəp̃erh See unequal reciprocation of SW Tanna: kweikwao gifts Vaha: keikwao Whitesands: keikwao ginger N See egg yolk generation N See canoe girl (1) N gel genitals N Kwamera: prənohi See off-limits N Lenakel: pɨrəsuas N Tanna: pɨtanəkəku gentle; gently ADJ, ADV SW Tanna: piakəskəh See easy Vaha: pɨtanəkok Whitesands: pɨtakəku germinated coconut N See also boy (1) See coconut (germinated) girl (2) (affectionate term of get for free V address) N karem fri gel Kwamera: vehi ouər a† Kwamera: koko Lenakel: os apnapɨn Lenakel: koko

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N Tanna: koko give a name V SW Tanna: koko givim wan nem long Vaha: koko Kwamera: əsi hagɨn, segi Whitesands: koko Lenakel: hen See also boy (2) N Tanna: ahgɨl, əhun SW Tanna: hen nhag girl’s brother N Vaha: hen nəg See parallel cousin (1) Whitesands: hun nərgɨ* See also name N girl’s female parallel cousin N See parallel cousin, same- give birth; beget V gender bonem Kwamera: rərəhi girl’s male parallel cousin N Lenakel: — See parallel cousin, cross- N Tanna: — gender SW Tanna: rəh Vaha: ləh girl’s sister N Whitesands: ləs See same-gender sibling See carry a large object; See also placenta give V/TR givim give birth to (1) (for animals) Kwamera: vei V/TR Lenakel: si anamol i bonem pikinini N Tanna: fa Kwamera: kwəhi SW Tanna: si Lenakel: əva Vaha: leh, vah N Tanna: əəh Whitesands: əf SW Tanna: kus See tempt s.o. Vaha: kus Whitesands: uah give; shop V See also (1) offspring; (2) givim, pem ol samting pregnant, be (2) Kwamera: əriari Lenakel: avɨra give birth to (2) (for people) N Tanna: ətuat V/TR SW Tanna: əvrə bonem pikinini Vaha: əvtə Kwamera: əkwahakwei Whitesands: ətuati Lenakel: eimək N Tanna: eimək give affection V SW Tanna: eimək kisim, hang long Vaha: eimək Kwamera: akei Whitesands: eimək Lenakel: akei See also pregnant, be (3) N Tanna: akei SW Tanna: akei give sarcastic praise V Vaha: akei switim wetem toktok Whitesands: akei Kwamera: — Lenakel: asɨmɨlə

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N Tanna: ol mɨlə SW Tanna: gət SW Tanna: asəmrə Vaha: gət Vaha: — Whitesands: gət Whitesands: — See also fire See also praise glutton N give s.o. a piggyback ride V/TR man we i kakae eni samting karem long bak Kwamera: yaoəgənam Kwamera: əkeke Lenakel: yaoəgənam Lenakel: ləkɨs N Tanna: yaoəgənəm N Tanna: ləkan SW Tanna: yaoəgənam SW Tanna: əkəkɨn Vaha: yaoəgənam Vaha: əkəkɨn Whitesands: yaoəgənam Whitesands: ələkɨs See also full, be (3) give s.th. abundantly/freely gnash teeth (1) V/INTR V/TR kakae tut See supply s.th. Kwamera: əkworuə Lenakel: əwəlaluə glans penis N N Tanna: igəh See forehead SW Tanna: əkwəruə Vaha: əkwəluə glossy swiftlet (Collocalia Whitesands: owahluə esculenta) N See also tooth wan smol pijin we hemi blak mo waet gnash teeth (2) V/INTR Kwamera: kirikəpəu kakae tut Lenakel: — Kwamera: nəsi N Tanna: — Lenakel: əwətin nəlu* SW Tanna: kɨrkəpəu N Tanna: otainpən Vaha: kɨlikəpəu nelw* Whitesands: kulikəpəu SW Tanna: əkwətərəkɨn See also Appendix B kwer* Vaha: əkwətələkɨn glow V/INTR nɨkwel* i saen smol Whitesands: owhaluə Kwamera: ser nəlu* Lenakel: sel N Tanna: uup go V SW Tanna: ser go Vaha: sel Kwamera: evən, en Whitesands: atuo Lenakel: vən N Tanna: vən glowing, be (of fire) V/A SW Tanna: vən faea i red Vaha: vən Kwamera: gət Whitesands: vən Lenakel: gət See also come N Tanna: aɨləp

111 go around (1) V/INTR N Tanna: Ughɨn See happen SW Tanna: Kughen Vaha: Kughen go around (2) V Whitesands: Ughen folem, goraon Kwamera: ukurao† go down V Lenakel: ələlao See descend N Tanna: apəkol SW Tanna: kurao going where INT Vaha: whatəlao stap go wea Whitesands: təlao Kwamera: awəku †See crowd around Lenakel: ətəən N Tanna: — go around (3); cross over V SW Tanna: ukaa goraon Vaha: əwhən Kwamera: ərkurau Whitesands: — Lenakel: ələlao See also where N Tanna: etəlao SW Tanna: arkurao go inland V/INTR Vaha: ətəlao See go ashore Whitesands: təlao See ridge beam Golden Ages (mythical time period when life was extremely good) N go ashore; go inland V/INTR taem blong ol kastom stori goso Kwamera: nɨprou Kwamera: varei Lenakel: ɨprou Lenakel: əlhopat N Tanna: nɨprou N Tanna: var SW Tanna: rao nɨprou SW Tanna: vhiakw Vaha: lao nɨprou Vaha: vhiakw Whitesands: — Whitesands: vhari See inland; See also wash s.th. gone, be V/A ashore See non-existent, be goat N good, be V/A biligot i gud Kwamera: nəni Kwamera: amasan Lenakel: nəni Lenakel: ɨvt N Tanna: nəni N Tanna: wɨr SW Tanna: nəni SW Tanna: huvə Vaha: nəni Vaha: huvə Whitesands: nəni Whitesands: wɨr fr. Eng. nanny goat See goodness; See also bad, be

God N goodbye INTJ God ta ta Kwamera: Kwum̃ eisən Kwamera: im̃ a* Lenakel: Ughin Lenakel: im̃ a

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N Tanna: im̃ a* Kwamera: nəkwətənə SW Tanna: im̃ a* Lenakel: napinu Vaha: im̃ a* N Tanna: napin nəhau, Whitesands: im̃ a* napinat SW Tanna: nəkwətanə good friend; cross-cousin; village Vaha: nəkwətanə belonging to one’s cross-cousins N Whitesands: nɨpəgloatəni tawian we kastam i talemaot se yu swapem kago wete goshawk N Kwamera: nəpəg əvəkak See brown goshawk Lenakel: nəpəg nəwək ausɨk gossip (1); slander V N Tanna: nəpəg nəu toktok blong nasara asɨk Kwamera: ni nɨkare* SW Tanna: nəpag Lenakel: — nɨkwənai N Tanna: — əusɨk SW Tanna: ni nɨkar* Vaha: nəpag Vaha: ni nɨkalɨ* nɨkwənai Whitesands: əni nɨkalɨ* əusɨk Lit. tell + side Whitesands: nɨpəg nəuasɨk See also (1) enemy; (2) gossip (2) V friends See guess goodness N go through puberty (for a man) gudfala fasin V Kwamera: namasanien boe i stap kam bigwan Lenakel: nɨvtan Kwamera: ətəmaruə N Tanna: nɨwɨrən Lenakel: aluə SW Tanna: nɨhuvəyen N Tanna: aluə Vaha: nɨhuvəyen SW Tanna: ətamaruə Whitesands: nɨmətagien Vaha: ətamaluə See good, be Whitesands: aluə See also pubescent girl go out (1) V/INTR go aot grandchild N Kwamera: irp ̃ bubu Lenakel: ieratou Kwamera: m̃ ip̃i* N Tanna: etarəp Lenakel: m̃ ip* SW Tanna: tərhav N Tanna: m̃ ɨp̃ɨ* Vaha: itam SW Tanna: m̃ ɨkɨp* Whitesands: yetgəm Vaha: m̃ ɨkɨp* Whitesands: m̃ ipɨ* go out (2) V/INTR See also child See exit grandparent N gorge; riverbed N abu krik Kwamera: rɨp

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Lenakel: rɨp* Lenakel: — N Tanna: tɨp̃ɨ* N Tanna: — SW Tanna: rɨp* SW Tanna: kərətei Vaha: tɨp* Vaha: kələtei Whitesands: tɨpɨ* Whitesands: kələtei See also great-grandparent grate coconut (1) V/TR grasp; feel V/TR sikrasem kokonas holem Kwamera: ərəsi Kwamera: ərap Lenakel: akeih Lenakel: yap N Tanna: akiah N Tanna: ek SW Tanna: əraih SW Tanna: rap Vaha: əlaih Vaha: lap Whitesands: akiəh Whitesands: ek grate coconut (2) V/TR grasp s.th. in the claws V/TR skrasem kokonas holemtaet Kwamera: əutwai Kwamera: əpeki tərini Lenakel: autuai Lenakel: yapətin N Tanna: autuai N Tanna: əmkɨtain SW Tanna: autwai SW Tanna: apkətərəkɨn Vaha: autwai Vaha: apkətələkɨn Whitesands: akiəh Whitesands: əmkərain grater; shell for grinding coconut grass N N gras grata Kwamera: nurhi Kwamera: kəutwai Lenakel: nɨm̃ anvhual Lenakel: kautuai N Tanna: m̃ anuvɨlh N Tanna: kautuai SW Tanna: m̃ ənwhirɨk SW Tanna: kaotwai Vaha: m̃ ənwhelɨk Vaha: kaotwai Whitesands: m̃ ənvəlhi Whitesands: kəutwai fr. Bis. grata grasshopper N grasopa grave (1) N Kwamera: kəvitarɨg gref Lenakel: piru Kwamera: tapu N Tanna: pitɨp Lenakel: təu SW Tanna: kəuraiyuk N Tanna: suwɨt Vaha: kəulaiyuk SW Tanna: təkw, suranə Whitesands: pitu Vaha: təkw See also praying mantis, k.o. Whitesands: nɨtəu See (1) make a yam mound; grasshopper, k.o. (with glowing (2) mound (esp. of yams); (3) eyes) N mountain grasopa Kwamera: kinhə

114 grave (2) N N Tanna: rat See pit (1) SW Tanna: kahaha Vaha: kahaha gravel (volcanic subsoil) N Whitesands: kaha tərah waetgraon Lit. ancestor + bad Kwamera: nəvəjiəpɨk See also grandparent Lenakel: noanəteipɨk N Tanna: weai-weai greatness; title; width N SW Tanna: kwənəjiəpɨk taetel Vaha: kwənəjiəpɨk Kwamera: nasorien Whitesands: noanəriəpɨg Lenakel: nipəran N Tanna: nepətən gray (of animals) ADJ SW Tanna: nehuəyen gre Vaha: nasolien Kwamera: kəmrakw- Whitesands: neipətien kəmrakw Lenakel: kəmrao greed N N Tanna: kəmtap̃ See moisture SW Tanna: kəmrakw- kəmrakw green, be (of plants which are Vaha: kəmtakw- growing well) V/A kəmtakw grin Whitesands: kəmtao-əmtao Kwamera: əmrɨmerə See ashes Lenakel: amimra N Tanna: amimɨtə gray, be (of hair) V/A SW Tanna: ɨmrɨmrə gre hai Vaha: əmlɨmtə Kwamera: əkweiwur Whitesands: əmeimtə Lenakel: owiəkɨrən See unripe, be (1) N Tanna: əwiətən SW Tanna: akweiwur green crab N Vaha: əkulkutən See crab, k.o. (green) Whitesands: əwiəgtən See also hair on the head (1) green leafy vegetable N See sunset hibiscus great, be; big, be; much, be V/A bigfala greenstone pendant N Kwamera: asori wan grin ston we oli hangem long Lenakel: asul nek N Tanna: asol Kwamera: kwenevɨr SW Tanna: ehuə Lenakel: nuvɨr Vaha: asol N Tanna: nuvɨt Whitesands: eipət SW Tanna: kwenuvɨr Vaha: kwenuvɨr great-grandparent N Whitesands: noanuvɨt bubu Kwamera: kaha ərəha grind; perform exchange ritual V Lenakel: kahatat sikrasem

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Kwamera: əjai Vaha: uvlə Lenakel: əjai Whitesands: eiviə N Tanna: aria SW Tanna: əjai grow old (females) V/INTR Vaha: əjai i kam olfala woman Whitesands: ətariə Kwamera: prənemhə See chew leaves Lenakel: — N Tanna: — groan V/INTR SW Tanna: piəhuaru mekem noes olsem i harem nogud Vaha: — Kwamera: ətəpar Whitesands: pətawəhli Lenakel: owag See old woman N Tanna: ekɨmɨs SW Tanna: ətəpar grow old (males) V/INTR Vaha: ətəpal i kam olfala man Whitesands: eiao əpoməh Kwamera: ərgharə Lenakel: əhigəlh grope around V/INTR N Tanna: agwɨlh See extend a hand (2) SW Tanna: əhwaru Vaha: əhwalu grope with the hands V/TR Whitesands: awəlhi See knead See old man ground; dirt N grub worm N graon wan bebet, olsem wom, we oli kakae Kwamera: tənə Kwamera: p̃ɨr Lenakel: nɨmoptən Lenakel: p̃ɨrsin N Tanna: nɨməptən N Tanna: p̃ɨrɨsin SW Tanna: nɨmoptanə SW Tanna: p̃ɨrsin Vaha: nɨmoptanə Vaha: p̃ɨrsin Whitesands: nəftəni Whitesands: p̃ɨrsin See also (1) earthworm; (2) group N worm grup Kwamera: kusen, grunt because of hard work təmwen V/INTR Lenakel: nowhin mekem wan noes taem yu hadwok N Tanna: nowhin Kwamera: əmətɨt SW Tanna: kwhen Lenakel: əmətɨt Vaha: kuhen N Tanna: arɨprɨp Whitesands: nowhin SW Tanna: əmətɨt Vaha: əmətɨt grow; precede V/INTR Whitesands: əmərɨt gro, go fastaem Kwamera: verə grunt in one's sleep; sleepwalk Lenakel: eiviə V/INTR N Tanna: əviə mekem noes long slip SW Tanna: uvrə Kwamera: einən

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Lenakel: eipət hair braids N N Tanna: əmərɨt See circumcision SW Tanna: eipət Vaha: eipət hair on the body; feathers N Whitesands: eipɨt feta, hea Kwamera: nɨmer* grunt to let one's presence known Lenakel: nɨmomi* V/INTR N Tanna: məme* mekem noes blong talemaot se yu yu SW Tanna: nɨmr* stap Vaha: nɨml* Kwamera: uun Whitesands: məmei* Lenakel: arəm See also (1) beard; (2) N Tanna: uun eyelashes; (3) hair on the SW Tanna: uun head; (4) pluck feathers Vaha: uun Whitesands: awɨn hair on the head (1) N hea (long hed) guard V/TR Kwamera: nɨm̃ ai See jealously guard nukwəne* guess; gossip; lie V Lenakel: noanu* talemaot olbaot nomo N Tanna: noanu* Kwamera: ni əpnapɨn SW Tanna: nɨkwəne* Lenakel: əni apnapɨn Vaha: nɨkwəne* N Tanna: ən apnapɨn Whitesands: noanu* SW Tanna: ni apnapɨg See also (1) gray, be; (2) hair Vaha: ni apnapɨg on the body Whitesands: əni apnapɨn Lit. tell + randomly hair on the head (2); feathers N See also (1) liar; (2) tell a lie hea (long hed), feta Kwamera: kwənəpugə gums N Lenakel: yoanun mit blong tut N Tanna: yoanun Kwamera: negha* SW Tanna: kwənəpugə Lenakel: nəukərɨ nəlu* Vaha: kwənəpugə N Tanna: manegaha* Whitesands: yoanun əsen SW Tanna: nukne kweru* See also (1) hair on the body; Vaha: nukne (2) headdress; (3) pluck nɨkwəlu* feathers Whitesands: nigəha* hair wrapper, use V gust V/INTR See wrap penis win i seksekem samting Kwamera: eikweikwi Halcyon chloris N Lenakel: — See white-collared kingfisher N Tanna: ahləpɨk SW Tanna: eikwaiyuk half-eaten food N Vaha: eikwaiyuk haf kakae Whitesands: ahlfu Kwamera: tərevi*

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Lenakel: nɨpkəlu* Vaha: əkwan N Tanna: — Whitesands: owanin SW Tanna: təutavɨ* See also neck Vaha: təutavɨ* Whitesands: — hang s.th. up on a line V/TR See also food hangem long wan rop Kwamera: rukw hammer a nail V/TR Lenakel: ərwit kilim N Tanna: ətu Kwamera: ərui SW Tanna: rukw Lenakel: ho pən Vaha: tukw N Tanna: əhti pən Whitesands: ətu SW Tanna: əsɨk pən Vaha: asɨk pən happen (1) V/TR Whitesands: əhji pən See fulfill itself See also nail (for hammering) happen (2); go around; walk hammer s.th. V/TR around V/INTR See pound s.th. (2) i stap go Kwamera: avən† hand N Lenakel: avən See arm N Tanna: an SW Tanna: avən hand, extend a V Vaha: avən See do s.th. until a certain Whitesands: an time †See walk (1) handle N happy, be V/A See arm glad Kwamera: agien hang V Lenakel: agien hang N Tanna: agiɨn Kwamera: əgher SW Tanna: agien Lenakel: əkir Vaha: agien N Tanna: əkul Whitesands: agien SW Tanna: əker Vaha: əkel hard (not soft), be V/A Whitesands: əkul See strong, be See hook-shaped branch; See also stuck, be (3) harvest N See first harvest hang or wear s.th. around the neck V hat N hangem long nek hat Kwamera: arkouani Kwamera: kəfəfau Lenakel: owan Lenakel: kəvhao N Tanna: owanin N Tanna: kəfəfau SW Tanna: əkwan SW Tanna: kəvəvhao

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Vaha: kəvəvhao have a meeting; be in mourning Whitesands: kəfəfau V/INTR See wear a hat sidaon long wan miting Kwamera: əkurei hatch an egg V Lenakel: — slip long eg blong mekem se pikinini N Tanna: — i kamaot SW Tanna: əkwətə Kwamera: ərui tɨni Vaha: əkwətə Lenakel: — Whitesands: aharəg N Tanna: — See (1) sit; (2) meeting SW Tanna: əsɨk tɨni Vaha: asɨk tɨni have an odor; stink V Whitesands: əji nətɨn i sting Lit. strike + child Kwamera: apien See also (1) egg; (2) lay an egg Lenakel: eipien N Tanna: apiɨn hate (1) V SW Tanna: apien no laekem Vaha: apien Kwamera: rerɨ* rɨrhi Whitesands: əpien erəha Lenakel: nɨki* have an orgasm V ramhotat See have sexual intercourse N Tanna: nɨki* tatətrat (1) SW Tanna: rɨki* raməsɨkyah have a relationship V/INTR Vaha: li* kam fren tamasɨkyah Kwamera: vəhi nieri Whitesands: nɨki* tatəjirah Lenakel: ləs nier N Tanna: os niel hate (2) V/TR SW Tanna: vəh nier no laekem Vaha: vah niel Kwamera: əm̃ əki Whitesands: os nieli Lenakel: əməkin, Lit. have + cross-cousin erhaau N Tanna: etəhau have breathing difficulties SW Tanna: əməkɨn V/INTR Vaha: əməkɨn See breathe Whitesands: əməkilə have diarrhea (1) V/INTR have a fever V/INTR bel i ron i fiva Kwamera: parɨsparɨs Kwamera: okiei-okiei Lenakel: apeiaiəh Lenakel: ərəp̃-ərəp̃ N Tanna: apiəh N Tanna: ətəp̃-ətəp̃ SW Tanna: əpiarh SW Tanna: okiei-okiei Vaha: əpialəh Vaha: okiai-okiai Whitesands: əpiaiaəh Whitesands: ətəpu-ətəpu

119 have diarrhea (2) V have sexual intercourse often with See run s.o.; have high libido V/TR tumas seks have faith in V/TR Kwamera: — See lean against Lenakel: əvis N Tanna: avɨs have freckles V/A SW Tanna: əvis See spotted, be Vaha: əvis Whitesands: avis have high libido V/TR See have sexual intercourse hawk N often with s.o. See brown goshawk have scabies V/INTR he; she; it (SBJ); him; her; it (OBJ) See scabies, have PRO hem have sexual intercourse (1); have Kwamera: in an orgasm V Lenakel: in go long (wan woman) N Tanna: in Kwamera: ehi SW Tanna: in Lenakel: es Vaha: in N Tanna: ərɨg Whitesands: in SW Tanna: es Vaha: es head, back of N Whitesands: arɨg See back of head have sexual intercourse (2) head belonging to s.o. N (vulgar) V hed blong fakem Kwamera: kap̃ə Kwamera: ewəs Lenakel: təh* kap̃ə Lenakel: aslig N Tanna: rəha* kap̃ə N Tanna: əht SW Tanna: kapə* kap̃ə SW Tanna: əsɨk Vaha: kapə* kap̃ə Vaha: asɨk Whitesands: rəh* kapə Whitesands: əhji See strike; hit headdress; feather N feta long hea have sexual intercourse (3) Kwamera: kaiyo (vulgar) V Lenakel: naiyo klaem (long wan woman) N Tanna: naiyo Kwamera: utə SW Tanna: naro Lenakel: — Vaha: nalo N Tanna: — Whitesands: naiyo SW Tanna: haktə See also (1) pluck feathers; Vaha: əktə (2) wear s.th. in the hair Whitesands: əri See climb heal; repair; fix V/TR mekem gud

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Kwamera: omasan jes blong man i soae Lenakel: ol ut Kwamera: sɨmaha N Tanna: ol wɨr Lenakel: sɨmha SW Tanna: or huvə N Tanna: toamhə Vaha: ol huvə SW Tanna: sɨpma Whitesands: ol vivi Vaha: sɨpma Whitesands: sɨməhan health; strength N paoa, helt heat up V/TR Kwamera: nəsanɨnien mekem i hot Lenakel: nəsanɨnan Kwamera: o nəpnəpan N Tanna: nəsanənən Lenakel: ol əkəpan SW Tanna: nəsanɨnien N Tanna: ol əpei-apei Vaha: nəsanɨnien SW Tanna: or apan-apan Whitesands: nəsanɨnien Vaha: əlag apei-apei Whitesands: ol təp̃ei ap̃ei healthy, be; strong, be V/A strong heaven N Kwamera: əsanɨn See sky (3) Lenakel: əsanɨn N Tanna: əsanɨn heaviness; unity N SW Tanna: əsanɨn yuniti Vaha: əsanɨn Kwamera: nɨpamien Whitesands: əsanɨn Lenakel: — N Tanna: — hear V SW Tanna: nɨpamien See think (1) Vaha: nɨpamien Whitesands: nəfɨgəmien hear for sure V/TR See heavy, be harem klia se Kwamera: regi sas heavy, be; serious, be; pregnant, Lenakel: əro əsas be (late stage) V/A N Tanna: əto asə hevi SW Tanna: ərɨg əsaah Kwamera: pam Vaha: əlɨg əsaah Lenakel: pɨkəm Whitesands: əto əsas N Tanna: əfɨgəm SW Tanna: pam heart N Vaha: pam hat Whitesands: əfɨgəm† Kwamera: nɨkenaku irə* †See pregnant, be(5) Lenakel: noanenao la* See unity; See also light, be N Tanna: noanenau SW Tanna: nɨkyenakw heavy, drop s.th. that is V ira* See drop s.th. that is too Vaha: nɨkenakw ila* heavy Whitesands: ninao ila* heel; ankle; wrist N heartburn N ples we lek o han i joen

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Kwamera: kum̃ er, here INTJ kurpəs ia Lenakel: ulpəs Kwamera: in N Tanna: ulpas Lenakel: nah SW Tanna: kurpəs N Tanna: inu Vaha: kulpəs SW Tanna: nah Whitesands: kulpəs Vaha: nah See also (1) throw s.th. by Whitesands: ah flicking of the wrist; (2) kneel hermit crab (Coenobitidae) N nakato height N Kwamera: kwiehi See length Lenakel: wusi-wusi N Tanna: wɨsi-wɨsi help; assist V SW Tanna: kukakɨs givhan Vaha: kukakɨs Kwamera: asitu Whitesands: wusi Lenakel: asitu See also (1) coconut crab; (2) N Tanna: asitu crab, k.o. (brown); (3) crab, SW Tanna: asitu k.o. (green) Vaha: asitu Whitesands: asiru heron N See Pacific reef heron help; assistance N givhan hesitate CL Kwamera: nasituyen mekem slo slo Lenakel: nasituan Kwamera: o tanpɨn N Tanna: nasituən Lenakel: ol tan pən SW Tanna: nasituyen N Tanna: ol me Vaha: nasituyen SW Tanna: or tan pən Whitesands: nasiruyen Vaha: ol tan pən Whitesands: ol tan pən her (OBJ) PRO hesitatingly ADV See he See slowly her (POSS) PRO hibiscus N See his See sunset hibiscus herbal medicine N hibiscus skirt N lif meresin See bark skirt Kwamera: məkwinari Lenakel: nɨkonar Hibiscus tiliaceus N N Tanna: nɨgəp̃ət See cottonwood SW Tanna: nɨmoknar Vaha: nɨmoknat hiccup CL Whitesands: nɨgo naji mekem olsem kof See also pills Kwamera: rer* ramtɨk Lenakel: nɨki*

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ramhaləl hide under s.th. V N Tanna: nɨki* tatəluə haed aninit long wan samting SW Tanna: rɨki* ramtɨk Kwamera: ukreigi Vaha: li* tamtɨk Lenakel: ətkig Whitesands: nɨki* tatɨtɨk N Tanna: agelɨg SW Tanna: rkwərɨg hidden ADV Vaha: tɨkwəlɨg See secretly Whitesands: owheg hidden place; shade N high ADJ ples i haed hae Kwamera: ik ɨpɨspɨs Kwamera: irənhə Lenakel: ik hanpɨs Lenakel: ilɨs N Tanna: tapɨspɨs ikɨn N Tanna: ilɨs SW Tanna: ik ap̃ɨs-ap̃ɨs SW Tanna: yerpɨrɨg Vaha: ik henp̃ɨs† Vaha: yetɨplɨg Whitesands: — Whitesands: ilɨs †See sheltered place See also length hide V highest branch N haed han blong tri we i antap we i antap Kwamera: ərkwafə, ofafə Kwamera: — Lenakel: əlwaig Lenakel: tiəvɨn N Tanna: əhlwaig N Tanna: tuvin SW Tanna: erkwaig SW Tanna: kwətumɨr Vaha: elkwaig Vaha: tumtum Whitesands: əhlwaig Whitesands: kɨlimlimu hide-and-seek game N high tide, be V/INTR pleple blong pikinini, we oli haed solwota i kam antap Kwamera: kwətəpasinə Kwamera: ərərukw Lenakel: kwətəpasinə Lenakel: ɨtəm N Tanna: — N Tanna: ɨtam SW Tanna: kwətəpasinə SW Tanna: təm təm Vaha: kwətəpasinə Vaha: təm təm Whitesands: kəmhətu Whitesands: agəlu See also (1) play; (2) trick See also low tide, be hide by ducking under s.th. hill N V/INTR smol hil haed aninit wan samting Kwamera: nahakw Kwamera: əprirɨg Lenakel: natət Lenakel: ətkəlul N Tanna: narɨt N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nahakw SW Tanna: harmirɨg Vaha: nahakw Vaha: halmilɨg Whitesands: narət Whitesands: alɨg-alɨg See also mountain See also duck V/INTR

123 hillside N hit s.th. in order to trap it V/TR saed blong wan hil See trap s.th. by hitting it Kwamera: nɨpəsegi tənə Lenakel: nult* hit s.th. or s.o. (1) V/TR nɨmomtən kilim N Tanna: nɨpəg nəmtɨ* Kwamera: ewəs, əkwi nɨmoptən Lenakel: aslig SW Tanna: kwenhig tanə N Tanna: əht Vaha: nheg tanə SW Tanna: əsɨk Whitesands: nɨpəg sinati Vaha: asɨk Whitesands: əhji him PRO See (1) have sexual See he intercourse (1); (2) hatch an egg; See also (1) pretend to his; her; its (POSS) PRO hit; (2) shoot a bullet blong Kwamera: səvəni hit s.th. or s.o. (2) V/TR Lenakel: tahan kilim N Tanna: rahan Kwamera: ousi SW Tanna: kafan Lenakel: ho Vaha: kafan N Tanna: oh Whitesands: rahan SW Tanna: uh See belonging to (2); See also Vaha: huə (1) my; (2) your; (3) our; (4) Whitesands: uh their See also (1) remember (2); (2) remind hiss V/INTR mekem wan saon olsem gas i kamaot hit s.th. or s.o. (3) by accident Kwamera: ətkərit V/TR Lenakel: ətkərir akseden long wan samting N Tanna: asus Kwamera: ousi pekɨn SW Tanna: ətkərir Lenakel: olpɨkɨn Vaha: ətkəlit N Tanna: ohpɨkən Whitesands: ətkəlili SW Tanna: uhpɨkɨn Vaha: huəpɨkɨn history; song N Whitesands: uhpɨkɨn histri Kwamera: nətətao hit the bull's-eye V/INTR Lenakel: — hitim samting taem yu sakem ston, N Tanna: — bonaro, o wud SW Tanna: nətətao Kwamera: erukw sas Vaha: nətətao Lenakel: arwəsaas Whitesands: nətətao N Tanna: aht əsas See tattoo SW Tanna: arkwosaah Vaha: ətkwosaah hit, pretend to V Whitesands: əhji əsas See pretend to hit See also (1) sharpshooter; (2) shoot an arrow and miss

124 hive; bedding N N Tanna: egoətain haos blong sukapak SW Tanna: əviətərəkɨn Kwamera: nimaha* Vaha: eiatələkɨn Lenakel: nimaa* Whitesands: əgərain N Tanna: nimaa* SW Tanna: nimaa* hole; pit N Vaha: nimaa* hol Whitesands: nimaa* Kwamera: ruə*, nɨp̃əg Lenakel: noakəmɨl hoard V/TR N Tanna: noakuahal mekem fasin blong gridi SW Tanna: kwətəgtap Kwamera: okriri, əptɨg Vaha: kwətəgkap tɨ* Whitesands: nɨp̃əg Lenakel: əumɨs N Tanna: əumɨs hole for planting N SW Tanna: əptɨg kɨn See digging stick (2) Vaha: əveirɨs Whitesands: əumɨs hole in a tree N See hunger (3) See mound for planting hold hands with s.o. (1) V/INTR hole in stone or wood N holem han hol (long ston) Kwamera: əturɨm̃ Kwamera: nɨp̃əg Lenakel: atulɨm Lenakel: nəp̃əg N Tanna: ətuilɨm N Tanna: nɨp̃əg SW Tanna: əturəm̃ SW Tanna: nɨp̃əg Vaha: ətuləm̃ Vaha: nɨp̃əg Whitesands: ətuatuilɨm Whitesands: nɨp̃əg hold hands with s.o. (2) V hole with water N See sticky, be See water hole hold on to s.o. or s.th. V/TR holler V holem See shout Kwamera: əkwtəmhiri Lenakel: yapətin hometown N N Tanna: əskəlɨm vilej SW Tanna: raptərəkɨn Kwamera: im̃ ə* Vaha: əskwalɨm Lenakel: im̃ ə* Whitesands: əskəlɨm† N Tanna: im̃ ə* †See press (3) SW Tanna: im̃ a* Vaha: im̃ a* hold s.th. in place by standing on it Whitesands: im̃ a* V/TR stanap long samting blong holem honeyeater N hem See cardinal honeyeater Kwamera: əviə tərini Lenakel: heiəvkətin

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Hong Kong taro (Xanthosoma Lenakel: tah* apat sagittifolium) N N Tanna: rəh* apat taro fiji SW Tanna: kapa* apat Kwamera: nɨpikau Vaha: kapa* apat Lenakel: kɨpia Whitesands: rəh* nəpati N Tanna: kɨpia SW Tanna: nəpikao horn-shaped thing (such as the Vaha: nɨtəliwə new moon) N Whitesands: teitogə i olsem hon blong buluk See also (1) taro; (2) Appendix Kwamera: kwənəpati C Lenakel: tanəpat N Tanna: rəhnəpat hook N SW Tanna: kwənəpat See fishhook Vaha: kwənəpat Whitesands: rəhnəpati hooked pole used in traditional dance N horsefly N wud blong toka bigfala flae Kwamera: kəkir Kwamera: kətə Lenakel: keiwinamɨn Lenakel: kətə N Tanna: keinamɨn N Tanna: kətə SW Tanna: nasko SW Tanna: kətə Vaha: nɨsko Vaha: kətə Whitesands: nəsko Whitesands: kətə See also dance; song See also (1) firefly; (2) fruit fly; (3) housefly hook-shaped branch N han blong tri we i huk hot, be V/A Kwamera: kəkir i hot Lenakel: — Kwamera: apnapan N Tanna: — Lenakel: akəpan- SW Tanna: kəkir akəpan Vaha: kəkil N Tanna: ap̃ei-ap̃ei Whitesands: kakil SW Tanna: əp̃an-əp̃an See hang Vaha: ap̃ei-ap̃ei Whitesands: ap̃ei-ap̃ei hoot; squeal V/INTR See also cold, be mekem wan noes Kwamera: əkit house N Lenakel: akit haos N Tanna: auiək Kwamera: nim̃ ə SW Tanna: akit Lenakel: nim̃ ə Vaha: əkit N Tanna: nim̃ ə Whitesands: eao SW Tanna: nim̃ ə Vaha: nim̃ ə horn; tusk (of pigs) N Whitesands: nim̃ ə hon blong buluk, tut blong pig See also lean-to Kwamera: ka* kəpati

126 house, k.o., that is round N Kwamera: -əf- raon haos Lenakel: -hətol- Kwamera: nim̃ ə tɨkiskisi N Tanna: -arhol- Lenakel: nim̃ ə tɨkiskis SW Tanna: -hawor- N Tanna: nim̃ ə tɨkiskis Vaha: -əhol- SW Tanna: nim̃ ə tɨkiskis Whitesands: -ərholə- Vaha: nim̃ ə tɨkiskis Whitesands: nim̃ ə tɨkiskisi how many/much INT hamas housefly N Kwamera: kevə flae Lenakel: kuh Kwamera: yeg N Tanna: kuvɨh Lenakel: kiəg SW Tanna: kuvhuun N Tanna: kiag Vaha: kuvɨh SW Tanna: ierəg Whitesands: kuvɨh Vaha: ieləg Whitesands: kiəg huh? INTJ See also (1) firefly; (2) fruit ei? fly; (3) horsefly Kwamera: ei Lenakel: ei house for circumcision (for hiding) N Tanna: ei N SW Tanna: ei haos blong sakomsaes Vaha: ei Kwamera: nim̃ ə nurur Whitesands: ei Lenakel: — N Tanna: — hum; murmur V/INTR SW Tanna: nim̃ ei mekem noes be maot i no open nəvhagə Kwamera: əmnəmun im̃ ə nəvhagə Lenakel: amun-amun Vaha: nim̃ ei N Tanna: əmnamun nəvhagə SW Tanna: ətmunmun Whitesands: nim̃ ənfagə Vaha: əmnəmɨn Whitesands: ətag-ətagət house for newborns N haos blong woman i jas bonem human ADJ pikinini blong man Kwamera: nim̃ əmtəmei- Kwamera: kɨjir tə Lenakel: til Lenakel: nim̃ amɨtə N Tanna: etəm N Tanna: nim̃ amɨtə SW Tanna: jir SW Tanna: nim̃ əmtə Vaha: jil Vaha: nim̃ əmtə Whitesands: itəmi Whitesands: nim̃ amrə

Lit. house + blood humble, be V/A See newly born, be tingting i daon Kwamera: vəhi irap how INT atukw olsem wanem? Lenakel: os iao atu

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N Tanna: osiəhau atɨp [OBJ]† SW Tanna: vəhsiəhu SW Tanna: əmkərəv atukw Vaha: əmkələv Vaha: ləhsiəhu Whitesands: sweiwei tatuh atukw [OBJ]† Whitesands: ləsahu aru †Lit. hunger + hits + OBJ Lit. carry + down + REFL See also (1) carry s.th. in one hurricane N hand; (2) proud, be See wind (1) humidity N hurry (1) V See steam N hareap Kwamera: rei men hunger (1) N Lenakel: ətɨk məlin hanggri N Tanna: əru məhlin Kwamera: swei SW Tanna: hai mɨren Lenakel: sweiwei Vaha: hai mɨlien N Tanna: sweiwei Whitesands: arə məlhin SW Tanna: sweiwei Vaha: sweiwei hurry (2) V Whitesands: sweiwei hareap Kwamera: əpi kəprəpur hunger (2) (for meat) N Lenakel: ətkətɨkna i wantem kakae mit N Tanna: autaut Kwamera: naugə SW Tanna: hai kwənəprə- Lenakel: naugə əprə N Tanna: naugə Vaha: hai SW Tanna: naugə kwənəptəptə Vaha: naugə Whitesands: aht ərəmrhin- Whitesands: naugə əmrhin

hurt, be V/A hunger (3); famine; tuberculosis i pen N Kwamera: amsəmisə hanggri Lenakel: amhə Kwamera: nukumhə N Tanna: ahmə Lenakel: nəumɨs SW Tanna: əmhə N Tanna: nəumɨs Vaha: əmhaa SW Tanna: nɨkumhə Whitesands: amhə Vaha: nɨkumɨs Whitesands: nəumɨs husband N See hoard See man (2) hungry, be V/A husk N hanggri See (1) coconut husk, dried; Kwamera: swei ramousi (2) skin [OBJ]† Lenakel: əmek hypocrite N N Tanna: sweiwei tatoh See carver

128 hypocritically speak V ignite (2) V/TR See carve laetem faea Kwamera: hiai I; me PRO Lenakel: lu nɨkəm mi N Tanna: əhg Kwamera: yəu SW Tanna: siai nap̃ Lenakel: yəu Vaha: siai nap̃ N Tanna: yəu Whitesands: asiə SW Tanna: yəu Vaha: yəu ignorant, be V/A Whitesands: yəu See stupid, be idiot N ignore the consequences V idiot nomata yu harem pen, be yu mekem Kwamera: yarmar Kwamera: o manmanu Lenakel: — Lenakel: ol əuun N Tanna: yalmal N Tanna: ol əsɨn SW Tanna: yarmar SW Tanna: or əsuun Vaha: yalmal Vaha: ol əsuun Whitesands: yalməli Whitesands: ol əsuun Lit. make + cover if (1) CONJ sapos illegitimate child N Kwamera: tɨrɨni mɨnuə† pikinini blong rod Lenakel: təmə Kwamera: yaknohi N Tanna: okəmə yenmi SW Tanna: tukmə nari Vaha: tukmə Lenakel: — Whitesands: okəmə N Tanna: — †Lit. he will say SW Tanna: kwajikovə kape swatuk if (2) (contrafactual) CONJ Vaha: keno eno sapos kape swatuk Kwamera: ko Whitesands: naji rarpɨn† Lenakel: to †See wild animal N Tanna: okol SW Tanna: to image; ghost N Vaha: to piksa Whitesands: ko Kwamera: nanmɨ nari Lenakel: nanɨmnar ignite (1) V/INTR N Tanna: narmɨ nat i laet SW Tanna: nanmɨnar Kwamera: awəkw Vaha: nanmɨnat Lenakel: wo Whitesands: narmɨ nati N Tanna: wəp Lit. spirit of s.th. + thing SW Tanna: uək Vaha: uək imitate; try; reenact V/TR Whitesands: uwo kopiim

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Kwamera: uvnihi, əghan indented, be (2) V/A Lenakel: asɨgəvɨn See collapsed, be N Tanna: asɨgəvɨn SW Tanna: sɨgəvɨn independent, become V Vaha: sɨgəvɨn See become independent Whitesands: sɨkovɨn See also try hard index finger N nambawan fingga impede V Kwamera: pɨsesə See prohibit (1) Lenakel: huatɨkunar N Tanna: yəgətun impersonal marker G SW Tanna: kosəsiwə makem se yumi no save se hu ya i Vaha: kosəsiwə mekem Whitesands: yəgətun Kwamera: k- See also (1) finger; (2) little Lenakel: k- finger; (3) middle finger; (4) N Tanna: k- ring finger; (5) thumb SW Tanna: k- Vaha: k- Indian mulberry tree (Morinda Whitesands: k- citrifolia) N See also animal marker morinda, yalatri Kwamera: nowes important ADJ Lenakel: — See beloved N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nowiəs incantation uttered with kava N Vaha: nowiəs prea long speret (blong kava o Whitesands: nowiəs Matiktik) See also Appendix C Kwamera: tamafa Lenakel: tamavhə indirect object marker G N Tanna: tamafə See dative marker (2) SW Tanna: tamavhə Vaha: tamavhə individually ADV Whitesands: təmafə wan wan fr. Pol. Kwamera: riji-riji See also kava (ceremonial) Lenakel: kɨmarir N Tanna: atit increase V SW Tanna: rikrik See climb Vaha: jikjik Whitesands: kəjiə-kəjiə indented, be (1) V/A See one olsem nambuton Kwamera: pisu, pəg inform V Lenakel: pisu talem save N Tanna: ɨrukrukɨn Kwamera: ni əsas SW Tanna: pisu Lenakel: əni əsas Vaha: pisu N Tanna: — Whitesands: pisu SW Tanna: ni əsaah

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Vaha: ni əsaah inside of s.th.; mouth; volition N Whitesands: əni əsas insaed long See also reveal Kwamera: nəkwa* Lenakel: nowa* inhale smoke from a pipe V/TR N Tanna: noa* See blow SW Tanna: nəkwa* Vaha: nəkwa* inheritance (1) N Whitesands: noa* karem long papa o mama See dribble; See also obey Kwamera: nəsuer† Lenakel: nalu inside out, turn s.th. V/TR N Tanna: nəhlɨp See turn s.th. inside out SW Tanna: nəsuər Vaha: nəsuət insides (center of emotion) N Whitesands: nahlu See voice (2) †See memorial insignificant ADJ inheritance (2) N See random

See memorial inspect V/TR

See check on inland ADV is/wes, long maontan instrumentive marker G Kwamera: parei makem se wan samting Lenakel: pat Kwamera: k- N Tanna: par Lenakel: k- SW Tanna: fiak N Tanna: k- Vaha: fiak SW Tanna: k- Whitesands: pari Vaha: k- See go ashore; See also lean-to Whitesands: k- inland, go V/INTR intentional prefix G See go ashore makem se bae i jas mekem Kwamera: na- Inocarpus fagiferus N Lenakel: — See Tahitian chestnut N Tanna: n- SW Tanna: na- in order that; quote marker REL, Vaha: na- G Whitesands: o- se Kwamera: m̃ ə internal membrane N Lenakel: m̃ ə samting i separatem skin mo mit long N Tanna: m̃ ə an animol SW Tanna: m̃ ə Kwamera: negə-negə Vaha: m̃ ə Lenakel: nigə lan Whitesands: m̃ ə N Tanna: nigə SW Tanna: nigeigə in pain, be V/A Vaha: nigeigə See burn Whitesands: negə-negə

131 interpret (1) V SW Tanna: ap̃ɨs eksplenem Vaha: ap̃ɨs Kwamera: ərpɨfĩ Whitesands: ap̃ɨs Lenakel: — N Tanna: — in vain; without respect ADV SW Tanna: hoprai mekem nating Vaha: ohaptai Kwamera: o təkun Whitesands: — Lenakel: əti See split s.th. lengthwise N Tanna: — SW Tanna: or təkun interpret (2) V Vaha: ol təkun See cut s.th. into small Whitesands: ol rəkɨn pieces (2) Ipomoea batatas N interrupt V/TR See sweet potato holem toktok blong Kwamera: əgkiari havən iris N Lenakel: əkar əsuu See star N Tanna: əghat əsɨn SW Tanna: əgkiar əsuun irritated, be (of skin, as in a rash) Vaha: əgkiat əsuun V/A Whitesands: əghaji əsun skin i soa Lit. talk + cover Kwamera: ərkwərkwə Lenakel: — intestines N N Tanna: — gat blong SW Tanna: əkwəkwə Kwamera: naninha* Vaha: əkwəkwə Lenakel: nəsɨga* Whitesands: auwəwə N Tanna: nɨsiga* SW Tanna: nɨsinau* island N Vaha: nɨsinau* See land Whitesands: nɨsɨga* isolated place N in the afternoon/evening PREP kwaet ples See afternoon/evening, in Kwamera: kopɨn the rusikokɨn Lenakel: iko ruhiko in the bush PREP PHR ikɨn See bush, in the N Tanna: taruən-aruən ikɨn in the future ADV SW Tanna: ruhiko ikɨn See future, in the Vaha: tuheko ikɨn Whitesands: inu tuheko intoxicated, be; drunk, be V/A ikɨn drong Kwamera: ap̃ɨs, akonə it (SBJ/OBJ) PRO Lenakel: ap̃ɨs See he N Tanna: ap̃ɨs

132 itch V/INTR kape tahik See scabies, have Whitesands: nɨvito raha nɨtəhi its (POSS) PRO Lit. stinging nettles + BEN + See his ocean it's not V join; continue V/TR i no se joen, gohed Kwamera: rɨpko mhə Kwamera: orərɨp̃, Lenakel: sənian mə rɨp̃ɨnp̃ɨn N Tanna: sənən mə Lenakel: lɨp̃ɨn SW Tanna: pəh nien mə N Tanna: ɨlp̃ɨn Vaha: pəh nien mə SW Tanna: ɨrp̃ɨn Whitesands: sənien mə Vaha: ɨlpɨñ Whitesands: lɨp̃ɨn Java cedar (Bischofia javanica) N redwud, nakoka joint N Kwamera: nəkoko joen blong han mo leg Lenakel: — Kwamera: nukuru N Tanna: — Lenakel: lɨlpɨn ikɨn SW Tanna: nəkukə N Tanna: tɨlpɨn ikɨn Vaha: nəkukə SW Tanna: rɨrpɨn ikɨn Whitesands: nəkokə Vaha: tɨlpɨn ikɨn See also Appendix C Whitesands: tɨlpɨn ikɨn jaw N joke V/INTR See funny, be See gable jolt; nod off (1) V/INTR jealously guard V/TR sakem hed o pulum bodi (sipos yu i jalous wantem slip) Kwamera: eitieti Kwamera: — Lenakel: eirer Lenakel: aviu N Tanna: eitet N Tanna: aut SW Tanna: eitet SW Tanna: vhik-vhik Vaha: eitet Vaha: vhek-vhek Whitesands: eihe Whitesands: ovlin-ovlin jellyfish N jolt; nod off (2) V nanggalat long solwota sakem hed from we yu wantem slip Kwamera: nəwirəkw sei Kwamera: anuanu təsi Lenakel: apɨliuk Lenakel: nowiro taha N Tanna: apɨliug teihei SW Tanna: vi kəviəm N Tanna: nəwitəp Vaha: vi kəviəm itəhei Whitesands: əvi namu SW Tanna: nəwirəkw kape tahik judge V/TR Vaha: nəwitəkw skelem

133

Kwamera: əkiri Lenakel: nɨkavə Lenakel: akil tɨvt N Tanna: nɨkaa N Tanna: akil muəh SW Tanna: nɨkavə SW Tanna: əkir əm̃ hen Vaha: nɨkavə Vaha: əkil əm̃ hen Whitesands: nɨkavə Whitesands: əkil əm̃ hen See also Appendix C jump; fly V/INTR kava drunk during daylight N flae, jam kava oli dring long delaet Kwamera: ivə Kwamera: kwətɨni Lenakel: ivɨk Lenakel: — N Tanna: ivɨg, ətɨp N Tanna: — SW Tanna: ivə SW Tanna: kwətɨni Vaha: ivə Vaha: kwətɨni Whitesands: iwɨg Whitesands: nətɨn See small one jump down V/INTR jam daon kava pulp N Kwamera: ivə irap See pulp (esp. kava) Lenakel: ivɨk iau N Tanna: ivɨg iəhau kidding, you’ve got to be INTJ SW Tanna: ivə əhu See you’ve got to be kidding

Vaha: ivə əhu kidney N Whitesands: iwɨg iahu kidni

Kwamera: nɨkwənkweri* jump over V/TR Lenakel: noanokouk jam ova la* Kwamera: əviə əueni N Tanna: noanɨkwerɨ* Lenakel: iapəko SW Tanna: kapa* kapier N Tanna: eapego in Vaha: kwənəukəuɨk SW Tanna: əviəro kɨn ila* Vaha: ivəlo kɨn Whitesands: noanukweitɨ* Whitesands: eapego lan kill V/TR kava (ceremonial) N See murder kava blong wan bigfala de Kwamera: təpugə kingfisher N Lenakel: təpugə See white-collared kingfisher N Tanna: təpugə SW Tanna: təpugə knead; squeeze; grope with the Vaha: təpugə hands V/TR Whitesands: nosɨmeriəg skwisim See also incantation uttered Kwamera: ərap with kava Lenakel: hiapəkru N Tanna: iapetɨp kava (Piper methysticum) N SW Tanna: ərap kava Vaha: əlap Kwamera: nɨkavə Whitesands: eam

134 knee; elbow N knot in wood N joen long leg o han joen long wud Kwamera: nɨkru* Kwamera: nukup̃e* Lenakel: nəulɨ* Lenakel: nɨpur* N Tanna: nulɨ* N Tanna: nɨpur* SW Tanna: nɨkur* SW Tanna: nɨpkur* Vaha: nɨkul* Vaha: nɨpkulɨ* Whitesands: nəulɨ* Whitesands: nɨpri* kneel V/INTR know V bodaon See able, be Kwamera: nɨm̃ inukrhɨ* Lenakel: sinəulɨ* lame person or animal; tame N Tanna: ɨsinpən nulɨ* animal (1) N SW Tanna: ənɨmkur handikap Vaha: ənɨmkulɨn Kwamera: kəvəvə Whitesands: asiolɨn Lenakel: kəvə-kəvə Lit. bury + ankle N Tanna: — SW Tanna: kəvəvə knife N Vaha: kəvəvə naif Whitesands: rərə Kwamera: nau See also (1) quadriplegic; (2) Lenakel: nau wild animal N Tanna: mai SW Tanna: nau lame person or animal; tame Vaha: nau animal (2) N Whitesands: nau bodi i slak See bamboo; See also (1) Kwamera: yəpou circumcise; (2) sharpen a Lenakel: — knife; (3) scoop s.th. out (3); N Tanna: yapou (4) smash s.th. open (1) SW Tanna: yəpou Vaha: yəpou knock down s.th. in a tree (as birds Whitesands: yəpou or fruit) by throwing an elongated See tired object V/TR land; island N stonem, kilim blong i foldaon graon, aelan Kwamera: osiə raka Kwamera: tənəm̃ erɨs Lenakel: ohita Lenakel: nɨtən N Tanna: agəpis N Tanna: nɨtən SW Tanna: əwhita SW Tanna: tanə Vaha: huə takə Vaha: tanə Whitesands: owi rəkɨs Whitesands: təni knot in a rope, make a V/TR landowner N See tie a knot in a rope See dweller knot in muscle N large seed belonging to a fruit N See testicle (2) See seed (large)

135 lastborn N Vaha: luai lasbon Whitesands: ewə Kwamera: kwəna- See also (1) egg; (2) hatch an kwtənien egg Lenakel: nautən N Tanna: nautən lazy, be V/A SW Tanna: kutmɨr les Vaha: kutmɨl Kwamera: arpaha Whitesands: nɨsi nɨpɨn Lenakel: alɨfə See also firstborn N Tanna: alpah SW Tanna: arpah late ADV Vaha: alpah See slowly Whitesands: alpah See also lethargic, be later; next ADV afta lead V/TR Kwamera: kurira lidim Lenakel: kwətisɨg Kwamera: iri N Tanna: uərisɨg Lenakel: ir SW Tanna: kwasɨg N Tanna: it Vaha: spitəg SW Tanna: kɨr Whitesands: warisɨg Vaha: kɨt Whitesands: it† lattice of wild cane, make a †See train an animal or child V/INTR See also follow See make a lattice of wild cane lead by a rope V/TR lidim wetem rop laugh V/INTR Kwamera: əsighi See smile Lenakel: asɨg N Tanna: əsɨg lava bombs N SW Tanna: əsɨg ston blong volkeno Vaha: əsɨg Kwamera: kwənkwikwə* Whitesands: asɨg Lenakel: noanowiwə See also (1) rope; (2) take N Tanna: nuvet part in circumcision ritual SW Tanna: kwənkwikwa Vaha: kwənwikwə leader N Whitesands: noanəwiwə See chief (2) See also volcano steam and ash lead in exercise V/TR See drill lay an egg V/TR sakem ek leaf, eat food with V Kwamera: ruai See eat food with a leaf Lenakel: eiwai N Tanna: eoin leaf, k.o. (1) (aromatic, used in SW Tanna: ruai dances) N

136 wan lif we i smel gud Kwamera: əhatətə Kwamera: nisei Lenakel: hatətə Lenakel: nɨsei N Tanna: ahatata N Tanna: manɨsei SW Tanna: hatətə SW Tanna: nɨsei Vaha: hatətə Vaha: mənəsei Whitesands: ahtətə Whitesands: kaokəsei See also dance; song lean-to N haos long bus leaf, k.o. (2) (used to stop Kwamera: nim̃ ə parei bleeding) N Lenakel: nim̃ ə lətən lif maresin oli yusum olsem plasta N Tanna: nim̃ ə əntən Kwamera: — SW Tanna: nim̃ ə fiak Lenakel: nɨsei kətənɨk Vaha: nim̃ ə fiak N Tanna: — Whitesands: nim̃ ə pari SW Tanna: təkarəkar Lit. house + inland Vaha: təkalkal Whitesands: nɨsisua leave V/TR See also bleed See drop leaf, k.o. (3) (with scattered ends) leaves, chew V V/A See chew leaves wan kaen lif Kwamera: əkrəkiri left; left-handed; evil ADJ Lenakel: ol karɨsɨrɨs lef saed N Tanna: ɨtas-ɨtas Kwamera: mowur SW Tanna: əkrəkir Lenakel: mul Vaha: əkləkil N Tanna: mol Whitesands: ələkili SW Tanna: mawor Vaha: mawol leaf of a tree or plant (generic) N Whitesands: mawul lif blong See ambidextrous; See also Kwamera: nɨm̃ ei* right Lenakel: nɨm̃ alɨ* N Tanna: nɨm̃ al* left-handed ADJ SW Tanna: nɨm̃ ar* See left Vaha: nɨm̃ alɨ* Whitesands: nɨm̃ al* leftover, be (from previous day, of See surface of s.th. drinks or food) V/A See stale, be leak V/INTR See drip leg; foot N leg blong leaking, be not V/A Kwamera: nɨsu* See clogged, be Lenakel: nɨlɨkɨ* N Tanna: nelk* lean against; have faith in V/TR SW Tanna: nɨhu* trastem Vaha: nɨhu*

137

Whitesands: nelk* Kwamera: ətəni See also (1) ball of the foot; Lenakel: əlhao ikɨn (2) become independent; (3) N Tanna: epin-epin shin; (4) sit with legs SW Tanna: ətən-ətən straight forward; (5) sole of Vaha: ləhu-ləhu foot; (6) toe Whitesands: epin-epin See also (1) make level; (2) length; height N spread out s.th.; (3) squat; be longfala blong hem unlevel Kwamera: nəpomɨsien Lenakel: napomhan liar N N Tanna: nəfomahən man blong giaman SW Tanna: napomhien Kwamera: yeikuə Vaha: nikəluyen Lenakel: yeiuə Whitesands: nəfoməhen N Tanna: yeiuə See long, be SW Tanna: yeikuə Vaha: yeikuə lest, or else CONJ Whitesands: yeiuə sapos no, nogud See tell a lie; See also guess Kwamera: kamo Lenakel: tam̃ o libido, have high V/TR N Tanna: — See have sexual intercourse SW Tanna: tam̃ ə often with s.o. Vaha: tam̃ ə Whitesands: məta lichen N See (1) moss; (2) mushroom, let V k.o. (2) See negate lick V/TR let alone V/TR likim See respect Kwamera: pasi Lenakel: eipaih let go of s.th. V N Tanna: əpah See cease SW Tanna: paih Vaha: paih lethargic, be V/A Whitesands: əpah i sik Kwamera: oktu lie (not speak the truth) V Lenakel: — See (1) guess; (2) tell a lie N Tanna: — SW Tanna: əktu lie (many things together) Vaha: əktu V/INTR Whitesands: əkutu See exist mətamliu See also lazy, be lie lengthwise V i slip level, be V/A Kwamera: ərkwau level Lenakel: alwao

138

N Tanna: əkioh mekem faea i hot SW Tanna: rkwao Kwamera: sɨregɨn Vaha: lkwao Lenakel: hapilɨgɨn Whitesands: lwao N Tanna: ehtigɨn SW Tanna: hapitgɨn life (1); animism; culture N Vaha: hapitgɨn laef Whitesands: ahtɨgɨn Kwamera: narəyen See also fire Lenakel: narɨkan N Tanna: natɨgən lightning N SW Tanna: narəyen laetning Vaha: natəyen Kwamera: nowapɨrien Whitesands: natɨgien Lenakel: naolhɨkəman See dwell N Tanna: nɨpɨtɨn SW Tanna: narowapɨgien life (2); breathing; panting N Vaha: nəlowapɨgien laef Whitesands: napinəpuyen Kwamera: neyahagien See flash (as in lightning); Lenakel: nəmivhan See also thunder N Tanna: nəməgəhən SW Tanna: nɨmraghien like V See love V Vaha: nɨmlagəhien Whitesands: nəmnəhagien like this ADV See breathe olsem Kwamera: yanhirə lift up; appoint V Lenakel: məklan leftemap N Tanna: mɨn nulan Kwamera: vəhi utə SW Tanna: məkneikɨn Lenakel: ləhsit Vaha: kəmeineikɨn N Tanna: lɨsipɨr Whitesands: əm̃ eiko SW Tanna: wəhsi haktə Vaha: vah pəktə limb, extend a V/TR Whitesands: ləfəri† See throw sticks †See (1) tip s.th. upwards; (2) proud, be limber, be V/A Lit. lift + up See tired, be light, be (not heavy) V/A limp V/TR i laet, i no hevi wokbaot nogud long wansaed leg Kwamera: əruverəv Kwamera: əfi ərəha Lenakel: alukaluk Lenakel: askɨn† N Tanna: alukaluk N Tanna: eihoal SW Tanna: aruvəruvə SW Tanna: ausiah Vaha: aluvəluvə Vaha: ausiah Whitesands: əveivɨg Whitesands: aliwək rah‡ See also heavy, be †See walk with a walking stick light a log to move a fire V/TR ‡Lit. walk + badly

139

Linckia laevigata N Kwamera: kwəji, owihi See blue starfish Lenakel: əswas N Tanna: əkəku, line (1) N nəjiakəku laen SW Tanna: kwəji Kwamera: kwətərhen Vaha: kwəji Lenakel: kwətərhen Whitesands: əkəku N Tanna: kwətərhen SW Tanna: kwətərhen little finger N Vaha: kwətəlhen smol fingga Whitesands: kwətərhen Kwamera: pɨsowihi Lenakel: pisəsuas line (2); row N N Tanna: pɨsəkəku laen SW Tanna: pɨsəkəskəh Kwamera: tərhe* Vaha: pɨsəkok Lenakel: tərhe* Whitesands: pɨsəkəku N Tanna: — See also (1) finger; (2) index SW Tanna: tərhe* finger; (3) middle finger; (4) Vaha: təlhe* ring finger; (5) thumb Whitesands: laen† †Bis. live V/INTR i laef line for fishing N Kwamera: mɨru See fishing line Lenakel: əmivh N Tanna: əmegəh line tracing a family N SW Tanna: ragh See family line Vaha: lagəh Whitesands: əmiəgəh lip N See (1) edge; (2) beak liver N leva liquid of s.th. N Kwamera: nəkənməp̃i* wota blong Lenakel: nanməpɨ* Kwamera: nɨse* N Tanna: nɨganɨmapu* Lenakel: ni* SW Tanna: nɨkanmap* N Tanna: nəhui* Vaha: nɨkanmap* SW Tanna: nehe* Whitesands: nəkənməp̃ɨ* Vaha: nhe* Whitesands: nəhu* lizard, k.o. (large) N See dribble; See also (1) pour lised liquid into s.th.; (2) pour Kwamera: wapu liquid out of s.th.; (3) tears Lenakel: ruru N Tanna: yarupagwən listen V/TR SW Tanna: wap See think (2) Vaha: wap Whitesands: yarunien little ADJ smol

140 locust, k.o. N Whitesands: əpoməh lokas See (1) length; (2) shout; See Kwamera: kwəvitarɨg also small, be Lenakel: yawitalɨg N Tanna: yawitalɨg longest one; tallest one N SW Tanna: kəntar longfala wan Vaha: kəntal Kwamera: kəriəp̃əm̃ ɨs Whitesands: kəntali Lenakel: kaiəpomh N Tanna: kaefəməh log cut in half N SW Tanna: kaiyəpomh See flat piece of wood Vaha: kaiyəlik Whitesands: kayəpəməh logjam N ol wud oli hipap long time ADV Kwamera: nɨkavəkavə long taem Lenakel: nɨkaukau Kwamera: terei N Tanna: nɨkəka Lenakel: nuw SW Tanna: nɨkavəkavə N Tanna: nuwəh, roe Vaha: nɨkavəkavə SW Tanna: tu Whitesands: nɨləsɨg† Vaha: nuwəh †See trash Whitesands: nuwəh See also soon logjam V ol wud oli hipap look V Kwamera: hatan See face toward s.o., a Lenakel: hatin direction (1) N Tanna: asgɨn SW Tanna: hajin look around V/INTR Vaha: hajin lukluk raon Whitesands: agərain Kwamera: ətui-ətui Lenakel: eitait-eitait loiter; wander V/INTR N Tanna: eam-eam go olbaot tumas SW Tanna: ararha Kwamera: ərikəkə Vaha: alhalha Lenakel: rotələ Whitesands: eraiɨr N Tanna: eigəs† See (1) born, be; (2) wake up SW Tanna: arikəkə Vaha: əlikəkə look for s.th.; snoop V/TR Whitesands: ətowi-təwi lukaotem †See look for s.th. Kwamera: eigəs Lenakel: eigəsin long, be; tall, be V/A N Tanna: eigəs† longfala SW Tanna: eigəs Kwamera: əp̃əm̃ ɨs Vaha: eigəs Lenakel: apomh Whitesands: əsalin‡ N Tanna: əfəməh † See loiter SW Tanna: apomh ‡See check on Vaha: ikəlu See also search for

141 look like s.o. or s.th. V/TR Lenakel: olkeikei See resemble s.th. else N Tanna: olkeikei SW Tanna: orkeikei loose, be (not tight) V/A Vaha: olkeikei samting i stap pleple Whitesands: olkeikei Kwamera: əpəkɨr-əpəkɨr Lenakel: alək-alək low tide, be V/INTR N Tanna: alək-alək solwota i drae SW Tanna: əparɨk-əparɨk Kwamera: maha Vaha: əpələk-əpələk Lenakel: ɨmaas Whitesands: ɨpələkɨ-pələk N Tanna: ɨmaas See also coil, wind up (1) SW Tanna: ɨmaas Vaha: ɨmaas lorikeet N Whitesands: ɨmaas See rainbow lorikeet See also high tide, be lost, be V/A Lucanidae N i lus samples See stubborn person Kwamera: ərwei Lenakel: əlwei† lungs N N Tanna: əlwəi waetleva, lang SW Tanna: erwei Kwamera: təparuvareva Vaha: əlwei Lenakel: tɨpalukaluk Whitesands: əlwei N Tanna: kalukaluk †See miss the road SW Tanna: tɨparəruvə Vaha: təpaluvəluvə louse (Fam. Pediculidae) N Whitesands: tɨpaləluə laos Kwamera: ur Lycosidae N Lenakel: kur See wolf spider N Tanna: kɨgɨt SW Tanna: kerh machete N Vaha: ket bus naef Whitesands: kɨgɨt Kwamera: nisə Lenakel: nau nisə love N N Tanna: nisə lav SW Tanna: nau nisə Kwamera: nokeikeiyen Vaha: nau nisə Lenakel: nolkeikeian Whitesands: nau nisə N Tanna: nolkeikeiən See also (1) axe; (2) split s.th. SW Tanna: norkeikeiyen lengthwise (3) Vaha: nolkeikeiyen Whitesands: nolkeikeiyen maggot N See beloved bebet (pikinini blong flae we i stap long kakae we love; like; want; need V Kwamera: irər lavem, wantem Lenakel: sɨlət Kwamera: okeikei N Tanna: sɨlɨt

142

SW Tanna: sɨrət Kwamera: rəri təku Vaha: kwiləl Lenakel: hatɨk təu Whitesands: urəl N Tanna: aru nɨtou SW Tanna: hai təkw magic, do V Vaha: hai təkw See worship V Whitesands: aru nɨtou Lit. spear + mound magical stone N See grave; See also (1) mound ston blong masing (esp. of yams); (2) yam Kwamera: kivər trellis Lenakel: kivər N Tanna: — make fizzy V/TR SW Tanna: kivər See fizzy, be Vaha: kəvər Whitesands: kamnən make it easy V mekem i isi magician responsible for a totem Kwamera: o nɨməruyen N Lenakel: — man we i wokem ston blong garen o N Tanna: — ren SW Tanna: or nɨmarien Kwamera: tupunəs Vaha: ol nɨmatəyen Lenakel: tupunəs Whitesands: ol nəmətɨgien N Tanna: tupunəs See easy SW Tanna: tupunas Vaha: tupunas make level V/TR Whitesands: tupunɨs mekem level Kwamera: ərar make V Lenakel: alu See do N Tanna: alu SW Tanna: əkranə make a joke V/INTR Vaha: əklanə See funny, be Whitesands: ahlu See also level, be make a lattice of wild cane V/INTR make nice V/TR bildim ples blogn yam long wel ken See prepare (2) Kwamera: əhiari Lenakel: eipiəg make noise V/INTR N Tanna: eipiəg mekem noes SW Tanna: aiyous Kwamera: arukw Vaha: əlpələg Lenakel: atp̃əluəh Whitesands: eipiəg N Tanna: atp̃erəh SW Tanna: əməteih make a lot of noise V/INTR Vaha: əməltei See mourn Whitesands: atp̃ərerəh See sprout above ground; See make a yam mound V/TR also (1) mourn; (2) noise; (3) planem yam rattle

143 make s.th. level V SW Tanna: nəvə See spread out s.th. Vaha: navə Whitesands: nɨgəvɨg make twine; twirl twine V/TR See also Appendix C mekem twaen Kwamera: ərəri male animal N Lenakel: — See animal (4) N Tanna: — SW Tanna: eit male parallel cousin of a woman Vaha: eit N Whitesands: er See parallel cousin, cross- gender make unconscious; frighten off V malnourished, be (1) V/A mekem i fraet, mekem i slip we i haf bunbun ded Kwamera: əvirɨg Kwamera: əsuapɨr Lenakel: avilɨg Lenakel: mɨseai N Tanna: avilɨg N Tanna: — SW Tanna: əvirɨg SW Tanna: əsuapɨr Vaha: əvilɨg Vaha: əsuapɨl Whitesands: avilɨg Whitesands: əghi See also (1) hunger; (2) See also fear hungry, be make walls with wild cane V/TR malnourished, be (2) V/A mekem wol wetem wel ken bunbun Kwamera: arɨp Kwamera: — Lenakel: alial Lenakel: — N Tanna: əru N Tanna: — SW Tanna: ariar SW Tanna: akirus Vaha: alial Vaha: akilus† Whitesands: arɨgi Whitesands: akilkili† †See skinny, be make war; fight V rao rao man (1) N Kwamera: ərɨwagɨn man Lenakel: əluakɨn Kwamera: yemə† N Tanna: ələwagɨn Lenakel: us SW Tanna: arəwagɨn N Tanna: suah Vaha: aləwagɨn SW Tanna: kwən Whitesands: aləwagɨn Vaha: kwən Whitesands: suah Malay apple (Syzygium †See person from malaccensis) N See also (1) old man; (2) nakavika woman Kwamera: nəvə Lenakel: nəkəuk man (2); husband N N Tanna: nɨgavɨg man

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Kwamera: yərman married, be (2) (female) V/A Lenakel: yerman (INTR) N Tanna: yərman i mared finis SW Tanna: yerman Kwamera: əkurei raka Vaha: yetman Lenakel: — Whitesands: yerman N Tanna: — See men SW Tanna: əkwətə ta Vaha: əkwətə takə man’s brother N Whitesands: aharəg rəkɨs See (1) same-gender sibling; Col. (2) same-gender younger Lit. sit + already sibling married, be (3) (male) V/A man’s female parallel cousin N (INTR) See (1) parallel cousin, cross- mared (boe) gender; (2) sister of a man Kwamera: ərer karen (1) Lenakel: — N Tanna: — man’s male parallel cousin N SW Tanna: ərer karɨn See parallel cousin, same- Vaha: — gender Whitesands: ətul kalɨn

Col. man’s sister N Lit. stand + side See parallel cousin, cross-

gender marry V many, be V/A mared long i fulap Kwamera: era Kwamera: pɨk Lenakel: aviyu Lenakel: p̃arh N Tanna: — N Tanna: ep̃ət SW Tanna: əviyu SW Tanna: psaah Vaha: əviyu Vaha: psaah Whitesands: ariuv Whitesands: epət See also great, be mash s.th. (1) (between fingernails) V/TR marriageable young man N smasem wetem sel fingga See young man Kwamera: ətmi əteisi (marriageable) Lenakel: kənmasɨsɨn N Tanna: əru married, be (1) V/A (INTR) SW Tanna: ətməsɨs mared Vaha: anməsɨs Kwamera: erə Whitesands: anmarɨs Lenakel: əroei N Tanna: ətɨg, ol marit† mash s.th. (2) (between the hands); SW Tanna: arkurək roll s.th. up between the hands Vaha: atkulək V/TR Whitesands: əlis brekem lif taem yu rabem tufala han †fr. Bis. do + married Kwamera: əkwai-əkwai

145

Lenakel: əwai-əwai meaning N N Tanna: aiyu-aiyu See body SW Tanna: əkwai-əkwai Vaha: əkwai-əkwai means; opportunity N Whitesands: owai-owai rod Kwamera: swatuk masticate sugar cane V Lenakel: suatu dring suga ken N Tanna: swatɨp Kwamera: əvrisi SW Tanna: swatuk Lenakel: vɨl Vaha: swatuk N Tanna: əlu Whitesands: swaru SW Tanna: uvreih Vaha: uvleih medicine N Whitesands: viəlu See herbal medicine See also sugar cane meeting N mat (1) N wan miting mat Kwamera: nəkureiyen Kwamera: nɨməhan Lenakel: nawəteian Lenakel: nɨmhawə N Tanna: nəp̃ələhən N Tanna: nɨmətivən SW Tanna: nəkwətəyen SW Tanna: nɨmhakuə Vaha: nəkwətəyen Vaha: nɨmhakuə Whitesands: naharəgien Whitesands: nɨməhan See (1) sit; (2) have a See also roll up s.th. (1) meeting mat (2) (made of coconut leaf) N meeting, have a V/INTR See coconut leaf mat See have a meeting mat (3) (made of pandanus leaf) Megascolecidae N N See earthworm See pandanus leaf mat Melanesian flycatcher (Myiagra maul V/TR caledonica) N kakae mo kilim i ded wan kaen pijin Kwamera: ahi əpnei Kwamera: kwətgavit Lenakel: əwəpnin Lenakel: rusrus N Tanna: əwiəmɨs N Tanna: kɨrusrus SW Tanna: əkwhopni SW Tanna: gaitgait Vaha: əkwhopni Vaha: rusrus Whitesands: owhamu Whitesands: sat See also Appendix B me PRO See I membrane N See (1) internal membrane; meal eaten in the evening N (2) pulp of a fruit See evening meal for men

146 memorial; inheritance N Vaha: yəgkiat memorial Whitesands: yəghaji Kwamera: nəsuər† See speak Lenakel: namsu N Tanna: namsu Metroxylon wurburgii N SW Tanna: namsu See palm, k.o. (2) Vaha: namsu Whitesands: namsu midday ADV †See inheritance nun Kwamera: yerukwəsikər men N Lenakel: ləmənkat ol man N Tanna: nərauiəgən Kwamera: nərman SW Tanna: yerkweiha Lenakel: nəman Vaha: yelkweiha N Tanna: nəman Whitesands: enərawiə SW Tanna: narman See noon, be Vaha: nətman Whitesands: nəman middle finger N See man (2); See also women medel fingga Kwamera: pɨsaiyəv meniscus N Lenakel: pɨsəsivə smol wota we i no kamaot long kap N Tanna: pɨsaiyəv Kwamera: nukunhi* SW Tanna: pɨsaiyəv Lenakel: nəwu* Vaha: pɨsikəlu N Tanna: nowhi* Whitesands: yerunamu SW Tanna: nukris* See also (1) finger; (2) index Vaha: nheku*† finger; (3) little finger; (4) Whitesands: nupri* ring finger; (5) thumb †See bottom or outside of s.th. middle of the night ADV medel naet menstruate V/INTR Kwamera: yanpaha See bleed Lenakel: lapɨn lalukɨn N Tanna: tɨnəlis kɨnkɨn menstruation N lapɨn See rust SW Tanna: yenpɨg əru Vaha: yenpɨg əlu menstruation ceremony, perform Whitesands: lapɨn lalugɨn CL See also night, at See perform first menstruation ceremony middle of the sea or a ship N long medel blong messenger N Kwamera: təm̃ ei* man blong karem toktok Lenakel: təm̃ i* Kwamera: yəgkiari N Tanna: narpɨ* Lenakel: yəkhar SW Tanna: tam̃ ei* N Tanna: yalhəpis Vaha: tam̃ ei* SW Tanna: yəgkiar Whitesands: nəm̃ ei*

147 midget; mythical dwarf N miss when throwing s.th. round sotfala man V/TR Kwamera: yəp̃ər See throw s.th. round and Lenakel: yəp̃ər miss N Tanna: yəp̃ət SW Tanna: yap̃ər mistake V Vaha: yap̃ər mestem Whitesands: yəp̃ər Kwamera: arip̃ɨn Lenakel: eukakiə mid-rib of coconut leaf N N Tanna: akiah See coconut leaf mid-rib SW Tanna: akiah Vaha: akiah milk N Whitesands: akiəh See breastmilk See also speak mistakenly millipede N mixed, be; colorful, be V/A See caterpillar i miks miks Kwamera: pɨri-pɨri miracle N Lenakel: pɨlh-pɨlh See sign N Tanna: pɨlh-pɨlh SW Tanna: pirh-pirh miss s.th. round that was thrown Vaha: piləh-piləh V Whitesands: pil-pil sakem, be mestem Kwamera: arkwai mix things together (1) V/TR Lenakel: əpkatəvh miksem N Tanna: atego, Kwamera: aspen əmkarəp Lenakel: asɨpien SW Tanna: əpkərhav N Tanna: eapətɨp Vaha: əpkai SW Tanna: asɨpien Whitesands: əmkarəpə Vaha: asɨpien See also (1) throw s.th. round Whitesands: asɨpien and miss; (2) shoot an arrow See also together and miss mix things together (2); carry miss the road V things together (1) V mestem rod miksem Kwamera: əvi oweni Kwamera: miksem†, Lenakel: əlwei† joenem† N Tanna: osarəpən Lenakel: os ətin SW Tanna: arhokɨn N Tanna: ətipin Vaha: alhokɨn SW Tanna: vəh [OBJ] Whitesands: əmkarəpə məuəji †See lost, be Vaha: vah əuji Whitesands: oriarun‡ miss when shooting an arrow †fr. Bis. V/TR ‡See cracked, be (1) See shoot an arrow and miss

148 mix things together (3); carry month N things together (2) V/TR See moon miksem Kwamera: pisɨmɨn moon; month N Lenakel: əutəfugɨn mun, manis N Tanna: arɨgəfum̃ ɨn Kwamera: məkwə SW Tanna: əutəfugɨn Lenakel: məuk Vaha: outəfeim̃ ɨn N Tanna: məwəg Whitesands: əpughɨn SW Tanna: makuə Vaha: makuə moist, be V/A Whitesands: məwəg i wetwet lelebet See also (1) horn-shaped Kwamera: əmtəmɨt thing; (2) sun Lenakel: autɨgautɨg N Tanna: əpɨlɨt more than, be; better than, be; win SW Tanna: əmtəmɨt V/A, V Vaha: əmtəmɨt i bitim Whitesands: məlɨt-məlɨt Kwamera: əsəri See also (1) dry, be; (2) wet, Lenakel: apita be N Tanna: aprəkɨs SW Tanna: apita moisture; greed N Vaha: apitakə wetwet blong Whitesands: apirəkɨs See also win first place Kwamera: nəptɨg Lenakel: nəptɨgan Morinda citrifolia N N Tanna: nɨm̃ ətən See Indian mulberry tree SW Tanna: nəptɨgien Vaha: nəptɨgien morning, be V/A Whitesands: nəprɨgien moning Kwamera: pənəpɨn molar N Lenakel: lapnɨpɨn bigfala tut N Tanna: owlaugɨn Kwamera: ruapə SW Tanna: pɨgpɨg Lenakel: luapə Vaha: pɨgpɨg N Tanna: wilapəg Whitesands: laplapɨn SW Tanna: kweruapə See also afternoon/evening, Vaha: kweluapə be Whitesands: ulapə See also tooth morning, in the ADV moning moldy, be V/A Kwamera: nəpnəpɨn i roten Lenakel: lakapnəpɨn Kwamera: kuregar N Tanna: loulaugɨn Lenakel: lugən SW Tanna: yenpɨgenpɨg N Tanna: ahlepəg-epəg Vaha: yenpɨgenpɨg SW Tanna: əkurɨgar Whitesands: laplapɨn Vaha: əkwilɨgɨl See also (1) afternoon/ Whitesands: aulɨgəl evening, in the; (2) night, at

149 morning star N motion to stop V moning sta muvum han blong stopem Kwamera: kofətəteiə Kwamera: rɨp̃iteitei Lenakel: yetukai Lenakel: eptutu N Tanna: fetukai N Tanna: əfətutu SW Tanna: fetukai SW Tanna: rɨpətut̃ Vaha: fetukai Vaha: — Whitesands: fetukai Whitesands: — See also star See also stand mosquito (Fam. Culicidae) N mound (esp. of yams) N mostik hip blong graon (blong planem yam) Kwamera: m̃ i Kwamera: təkwu Lenakel: m̃ ɨmɨk Lenakel: təu N Tanna: kɨmag N Tanna: suwɨt SW Tanna: m̃ ɨmɨk SW Tanna: təkw Vaha: m̃ ɨk Vaha: təkw Whitesands: kɨməg Whitesands: nɨtəu See (1) grave; (2) mountain; moss; lichen N See also make a yam mound nalumlum Kwamera: kərərɨg mound for planting; hole in a tree Lenakel: niyəgyəgɨn (created by rot) N N Tanna: kərəgrəg hip blong planem samting SW Tanna: kərərəg Kwamera: təp̃e* Vaha: kətəlɨg Lenakel: təm̃ i* Whitesands: nɨkɨlkɨlin N Tanna: təmtəmi* SW Tanna: təp̃e* moth N Vaha: təp̃e* See butterfly Whitesands: nəmei* See also rotten, be mother of s.o. N mama blong mountain N Kwamera: rɨnhi* maonten Lenakel: inə* Kwamera: təkwər N Tanna: itə* Lenakel: towar SW Tanna: nɨsɨn* N Tanna: nɨtot Vaha: nɨsɨn* SW Tanna: tukwəs, Whitesands: itɨ* təkwər See also father of s.o. Vaha: tukwəs Whitesands: nɨtowɨt mother’s brother’s child N See (1) grave (1); (2) mound See cross-cousin (1) (esp. of yams); (3) wind (2); See also (1) hill; (2) valley mother’s sister’s child N See parallel cousin mountain road on Tanna N See traditional circular road on Tanna (2)

150

Mount Tukwosmera demigod N Kwamera: anan, əpune See demigod Lenakel: akɨn N Tanna: agɨn mourn; make a lot of noise SW Tanna: əgkap V/INTR Vaha: agɨn krae Whitesands: agɨn Kwamera: uvrug-uvrug Lenakel: wilɨg-wilɨg† mucus N N Tanna: agət mekem noes long nus SW Tanna: uvrɨg-uvrɨg Kwamera: nihi pɨseigɨ* Vaha: uvlɨg-uvlɨg Lenakel: nɨsigɨgɨ* Whitesands: uvlɨg-uvlɨg N Tanna: nounəhngɨ* †See noise SW Tanna: nɨsɨgig* Vaha: nɨsɨgeg* mourning, be in V/INTR Whitesands: nəunəgɨ* See have a meeting See also (1) nose; (2) phlegm mouth N mud N See inside of s.th. sofmad

Kwamera: nɨmtəgei mouth, close the V Lenakel: nəmɨt See close the mouth N Tanna: nəmɨt move slowly (for liquid) V SW Tanna: nəmtɨgei See slide Vaha: nəmtɨgei Whitesands: nəmɨt move violently V/INTR muv muv mudslide V/INTR Kwamera: əsəsao madslaed Lenakel: əsəsao Kwamera: əsein N Tanna: əsəsao Lenakel: əsein SW Tanna: əsəsao N Tanna: əsen Vaha: əsəsao SW Tanna: əsein Whitesands: əsəsao, əliu Vaha: əsein Whitesands: əsein much ADV See also slide tumas Kwamera: pɨk mulberry tree N Lenakel: pɨk See Indian mulberry tree N Tanna: pɨk SW Tanna: pɨk murder V/TR Vaha: pɨk kilim i ded Whitesands: pɨk Kwamera: osi əpnei Lenakel: huapnin much, be V/A N Tanna: ohamnu See great, be SW Tanna: hopni Vaha: əwhapni much more ADV Whitesands: ohamnu tumas

151 murmur V/INTR myth; story N See hum kastom stori Kwamera: kwənagei muscle along the spine N Lenakel: noanagei mit long baksaed N Tanna: namsu, Kwamera: kapipi noanagei Lenakel: nulaigəl ila* SW Tanna: kwənagei N Tanna: nolagəhli* Vaha: kwənagei SW Tanna: kapip ira* Whitesands: noanagei Vaha: kapip ila* See also parable Whitesands: kasəsi mythical dwarf N muscle knot N See midget See testicle (2) mythical time period N mushroom, k.o. (2); lichen; firefly See Golden Ages N wan kaen nalumlum we i laet smol mythology about ancestors N long naet storian Kwamera: serser Kwamera: ris Lenakel: selsel Lenakel: lis N Tanna: uupuup N Tanna: namsu SW Tanna: serser SW Tanna: ris Vaha: selsel Vaha: lis Whitesands: sɨrə-sɨrə Whitesands: lus See ancestors my PRO blong mi Myzomela cardinalis N Kwamera: səio See cardinal honeyeater Lenakel: tahak N Tanna: rahak nail (for hammering) N SW Tanna: kafak nil Vaha: kafak Kwamera: kwənir Whitesands: rahak Lenakel: noanil See belonging to (2); See also N Tanna: noanil (1) your; (2) his; (3) our; (4) SW Tanna: kwenir their Vaha: kwenil Whitesands: noanil Myiagra caledonica N See also hammer a nail See Melanesian flycatcher nail (on finger) N myna N See fingernail See common myna naked (with walk or run) ADV Myristica fatua N neked See wild nutmeg Kwamera: kopiə-kopiə Lenakel: piə-piə N Tanna: aipi-əpiə

152

SW Tanna: kopiə-kopiə nauseated, be V/A Vaha: kopiə-kopiə See disgust (2) Whitesands: aiyu piəpiə navel; umbilical cord N name V navel See give a name Kwamera: nɨp̃regi* Lenakel: nəp̃rɨg* name (1) N N Tanna: nɨp̃ɨtɨ* nem SW Tanna: nəp̃ɨrg* Kwamera: naghi* Vaha: nəp̃ɨtg* Lenakel: nətɨg* Whitesands: nɨptɨ* N Tanna: nərg* SW Tanna: nhag* nearby (1) ADV Vaha: nəg* klosap Whitesands: nərg* Kwamera: ipakə, kwərha See also give a name Lenakel: iwəkɨt N Tanna: əpə, iuəhkɨr name (2) (common) N SW Tanna: ipakə Kristen nem Vaha: ipakə Kwamera: nhag əvər Whitesands: iuəkɨr əvər See also far Lenakel: nətɨg le naoa N Tanna: — nearby (2) ADV SW Tanna: nhag əruəruə klosap i hitim yu Vaha: — Kwamera: — Whitesands: — Lenakel: at iwəkɨt N Tanna: — namesake (1) N SW Tanna: təpɨs nem sek Vaha: — Kwamera: nəpji Whitesands: təpis Lenakel: niəm N Tanna: niəm nearby (3) ADV SW Tanna: puji See recent Vaha: puji Whitesands: niəm neck; nape N nek namesake (2) N Kwamera: nəp̃əkək la* nem sek Lenakel: nua* Kwamera: nəp̃ɨnhi* N Tanna: nounɨkɨ* Lenakel: yahinə* SW Tanna: nɨp̃ətək nua* N Tanna: yahuni* Vaha: nɨp̃ətək nua* SW Tanna: nɨfnhag* Whitesands: nɨp̃ətaki nua* Vaha: yemnhag* See also hang or wear s.th. Whitesands: yahuniə* around the neck nape N necklace N See neck See shell necklace

153 need V nettles N See love V See stinging nettles needy, be V/A new ADJ See thirsty, be niufala Kwamera: wi negate; let V Lenakel: wi no, letem N Tanna: wi Kwamera: əp̃əh SW Tanna: wi Lenakel: p̃əh Vaha: wi N Tanna: p̃as Whitesands: wi SW Tanna: p̃əh Vaha: p̃əh newly born, be V/A Whitesands: p̃əh i jas bon Kwamera: əmtəmeitə neigh V/INTR Lenakel: mərɨk-mɨrɨk See cry N Tanna: mətmətɨg SW Tanna: əmtəmtə nest (1) (of big birds, hens); twigs Vaha: əmtəmtə N Whitesands: amrəmrə hom blong pijin See (1) house for newborns; Kwamera: kwərɨgerɨg (2) soft, be Lenakel: niyəgyəgɨn N Tanna: niagiagɨ news N SW Tanna: kwərəgrəg nius Vaha: kwələgləg† Kwamera: nəfukuyen Whitesands: niəgiəgi Lenakel: naustioan †See rocks for making an N Tanna: namnusən earthen oven SW Tanna: nəvsaoyen Vaha: nəvsaiyen nest (2) (of small birds) N Whitesands: nanusien hom blong pijin See tell a story Kwamera: kwətmag*, kwətəpage* next ADV Lenakel: niman See later N Tanna: nima* SW Tanna: kwətmag* night, at ADV Vaha: kwətmag* naet Whitesands: nima* Kwamera: ye nəpɨn Lenakel: lapɨn net; enclosed area N N Tanna: lapɨn net SW Tanna: yenpɨg Kwamera: nɨsɨkɨr Vaha: yenpɨg Lenakel: nəsɨkɨl Whitesands: lapɨn N Tanna: nasɨkɨl See also (1) middle of the SW Tanna: nɨskɨr night; (2) morning, in the; Vaha: nɨskɨl (3) afternoon/evening, in Whitesands: nəskɨl the

154 night; one 24-hour period N Kwamera: nɨpəsegi, naet, dei tərhugaru Kwamera: nəpɨn Lenakel: nuvlɨg- Lenakel: nian uvlɨgan† N Tanna: nian N Tanna: nagətɨn SW Tanna: nɨpɨg SW Tanna: tərɨgaru Vaha: nɨpɨg Vaha: təlɨgalu Whitesands: nian Whitesands: emkaru †See mourn ninety degrees clockwise from the See also (1) make noise; (2) coast (north/south) DIR rattle not/saot Kwamera: pesu noise, make V/INTR Lenakel: pis See make noise N Tanna: pis SW Tanna: pihiu nominalizer-1 (agent, instrument) Vaha: pɨlɨs G Whitesands: peisi i makem wan man i mekem samting See also wind (7) ya Kwamera: y- ninety degrees counterclockwise Lenakel: y- from the coast (north/south) DIR N Tanna: y- not/saot SW Tanna: y- Kwamera: prehi Vaha: y- Lenakel: hiu Whitesands: y- N Tanna: pahap SW Tanna: prah nominalizer-2 (abstracts, gerunds) Vaha: feow G Whitesands: pahau mekam wan samting See also wind (8) Kwamera: n-…-ien Lenakel: n-…-an nipple N N Tanna: n-…-ən See breast SW Tanna: n-…-ien Vaha: n-…-ien no INTJ Whitesands: n-…-ien no Kwamera: rekəm non-existent, be; gone, be V/A Lenakel: kəp̃ no gat N Tanna: kəp̃a Kwamera: iwən SW Tanna: nɨkam Lenakel: kə Vaha: nɨkam N Tanna: ɨkə, amɨr Whitesands: kəp̃ə SW Tanna: rkək Vaha: kə nod off V, V/INTR Whitesands: ɨkə See jolt noon, be; sunbathe V/A (INTR), noise N V/INTR noes

155 nundei, sidaon long ples we san i Lenakel: ətɨktɨk saen N Tanna: əruru Kwamera: ərkwəsikər, SW Tanna: einein kwəsikər Vaha: einein Lenakel: ləmənkat Whitesands: əroro N Tanna: əhtəraoiə See also able, be SW Tanna: erkweiha Vaha: elkweiha not leaking, be V/A Whitesands: enraowiə See clogged, be See midday not raining, be V/A normal ADJ See dry, be (2) See random not-yet-castrated one N north DIR i no katemaot bol yet See (1) ninety degrees Kwamera: yoyerɨn clockwise from the coast; (2) Lenakel: yoyerɨn ninety degrees counterclock- N Tanna: yeviir wise from the coast SW Tanna: yoyerɨn Vaha: yoyerɨn nose, blow one's V/INTR Whitesands: yovier See blow one's nose See also castrated one nose; nostrils N now ADV nus, hol blong nus See today Kwamera: pəseigɨ* Lenakel: nɨpəgaghɨ* nudge (1) V/TR N Tanna: nɨpəgnəgh* pusum SW Tanna: nəpəghig* Kwamera: əkoui Vaha: nəpɨghegh* Lenakel: ko Whitesands: nɨpəgnəgh* N Tanna: eko See blow one's nose; See also SW Tanna: əko (1) mucus; (2) sneeze; (3) Vaha: əko sniff Whitesands: əgo nostrils N nudge (2); expand V/TR See nose mekem i big moa Kwamera: ieki not allow any liquid to spill out of Lenakel: vi iek-iek the mouth V/TR N Tanna: ətɨg mətmətɨg See dam (2) SW Tanna: vi iək-iək Vaha: vi iək-iək not be able V Whitesands: iui pɨnə See not know nudge (3) V/TR not know; not be able V See shoo no save Kwamera: əreirei

156 numb, be (pins and needles) V/A SW Tanna: or nəkwa* harem se haf bodi i ded Vaha: ol nəkwa* Kwamera: irɨn Whitesands: ol nowa* Lenakel: ilɨn Lit. do + inside of s.th. N Tanna: awig-awig See also disobey SW Tanna: irɨn Vaha: ilɨn obliged, be V Whitesands: ilɨn i mas Kwamera: əkeikei number marker NUM MOD Lenakel: əkeikei See (1) dual number marker; N Tanna: əkeikei (2) trial number marker SW Tanna: əkeikei Vaha: əkeikei nurse V/TR Whitesands: əkeikei† See breastfeed †See force oneself to do s.th. nut, k.o. (1) N observe V/TR See anklets wajem Kwamera: əspao nut, k.o. (2) N Lenakel: arɨp See buff-banded rail N Tanna: arɨp SW Tanna: ətamə nut, k.o. (3); almond N Vaha: ətamə navel Whitesands: arfu Kwamera: nagei Lenakel: nagei obtain s.th. privately V N Tanna: nəg pem blong yu nomo SW Tanna: kwənurgəh Kwamera: vəhi karen Vaha: kwənulgəh Lenakel: os kalɨn Whitesands: nəvegən N Tanna: os kalɨn SW Tanna: vəh karɨn nutmeg N Vaha: vah kalɨn See wild nutmeg Whitesands: os kalɨn Lit. carry + side oath N promes ocean N Kwamera: kwəsuahi solwota Lenakel: noanawɨl akɨn Kwamera: təsi N Tanna: noanawɨl agɨn Lenakel: teihei SW Tanna: kwəsu əgkap N Tanna: nɨtəhəi Vaha: kwənawɨl SW Tanna: tahik Whitesands: noanawɨl agɨn Vaha: tahik Whitesands: nɨtəhi obey V See also (1) jellyfish; (2) sea obei life Kwamera: o nəkwa* Lenakel: ol nowa* ocean current N N Tanna: ol noa* paoa blong wota

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Kwamera: narɨs Kwamera: nɨpnəti* Lenakel: noaneai Lenakel: nɨrərɨg* N Tanna: naiyəh N Tanna: neinətɨ* SW Tanna: narh SW Tanna: nɨpnət* Vaha: naləh Vaha: nɨpnət* Whitesands: naiyəh Whitesands: neinətɨ* See also give birth to (1) oceanwards ADV is/wes, long solwara oh no INTJ Kwamera: peraha aweh Lenakel: fa Kwamera: aweh N Tanna: pah Lenakel: aweh SW Tanna: pirə N Tanna: aweh Vaha: pitə SW Tanna: aweh Whitesands: pah Vaha: aweh Whitesands: aweh octopus (generic) N nowika oil N Kwamera: yis See coconut oil Lenakel: hi

N Tanna: iɨh okay INTJ SW Tanna: ihi ale Vaha: iəh Kwamera: ɨntə Whitesands: iəh Lenakel: intə odor, have an V N Tanna: ɨnta, ita See have an odor SW Tanna: ɨntə Vaha: intə off-limits (place) ADJ Whitesands: intə tabu ples Kwamera: ik inan old man N Lenakel: i ausim olfala man N Tanna: i asim Kwamera: ərghara SW Tanna: imərhakə Lenakel: yahigəlh Vaha: iməthakə N Tanna: yaguəlh Whitesands: ekasim SW Tanna: huaru Vaha: yehualu off-limits; genitals N Whitesands: yawəlhi tabu See grow old (males); See also Kwamera: nari ikinan (1) man; (2) old woman Lenakel: nat ausim N Tanna: nat asim old person, be an V/A SW Tanna: nar rhakə olfala Vaha: nat thakə Kwamera: ərgharə Whitesands: naji asim Lenakel: əhigɨlh Lit. thing + taboo N Tanna: aguɨlh SW Tanna: əwharu offspring (animals) N Vaha: əwhalu pikinini blong anamol Whitesands: əwəlhi

158 old woman N open (1) (by swinging) V/TR olfala woman openem Kwamera: pranemə Kwamera: əsəvər Lenakel: prahiəgəlh Lenakel: heitə N Tanna: pətagwɨhl N Tanna: erəh SW Tanna: piəwharu SW Tanna: əhitə Vaha: pɨtəwhalu Vaha: eitəh Whitesands: pɨtawəlhi Whitesands: erəh See (1) grow old (females); (2) caterpillar; See also (1) open (2) (with a flick or twist of woman; (2) old man the hand); dedicate a church building V/TR omen N openem See sign Kwamera: ərui raka Lenakel: ətitə one NUM N Tanna: əhtərəkɨs wan SW Tanna: əsɨkta Kwamera: kwajiə Vaha: asɨktakə Lenakel: kəreinə Whitesands: əji rəkɨs N Tanna: kitiah SW Tanna: kɨrikianə open, be V/A Vaha: kəjikenə i open Whitesands: kwajiə Kwamera: əkwaag See (1) a; (2) individually Lenakel: owag N Tanna: owag only ADJ SW Tanna: əkwaag See alone Vaha: əkwaag Whitesands: owaag only ADV defren, hem wan opportunity N Kwamera: əpə See means Lenakel: p̃ɨsɨn N Tanna: p̃ɨsɨn opposite-gender parallel cousin SW Tanna: p̃ɨsɨn əmə N Vaha: p̃ɨsɨn əmə See parallel cousin (1) Whitesands: p̃ɨsɨn See alone opposite-gender sibling N See cross-gender sibling on top of PREP antap long orange ADJ Kwamera: takure* See brown Lenakel: tuwi N Tanna: nətuei* orchard, plant an V/INTR SW Tanna: tokrei See plant an orchard of Vaha: tukul various trees Whitesands: nowhe* or else CONJ See lest

159 orgasm, have an V our (4) (TRI EXC) PRO See have sexual intercourse blong mitrifala (1) Kwamera: səkɨmrahar Lenakel: təhmɨlh Orthoptera N N Tanna: rəhatɨməhal See cricket SW Tanna: kapəmasɨr Vaha: kap̃əmesɨl other half N Whitesands: rəhtəmɨhal nara haf Kwamera: nɨkəvhai* our (5) (PL INC) PRO Lenakel: nəvtai* blong yumi N Tanna: nəvtai* Kwamera: səkɨtaha SW Tanna: nɨkəva* Lenakel: təhtar Vaha: nɨkəva*† N Tanna: rəhatat Whitesands: — SW Tanna: kapətawə †See flat piece of wood Vaha: kap̃əsə Whitesands: rahtah our (1) (DU INC) PRO blong yumitufala our (6) (PL EXC) PRO Kwamera: səkərao blong mifala Lenakel: kapənilau Kwamera: səkɨməha N Tanna: kapəlau Lenakel: təmar SW Tanna: kapərau N Tanna: rəhatɨmahal Vaha: kap̃əlau SW Tanna: kapəmawə Whitesands: rahalao Vaha: kap̃əmhə See belonging to (2); See also Whitesands: rahtəmah (1) my; (2) your; (3) his; (4) their outrigger N pikinini blong kenu our (2) (DU EXC) PRO Kwamera: teimən blong mitufala Lenakel: rɨməl Kwamera: səkɨmrao N Tanna: rɨməl Lenakel: təmlao SW Tanna: teimən N Tanna: rəhatɨmlau Vaha: teimən SW Tanna: kapəmru Whitesands: rɨməl Vaha: kap̃əmlu Whitesands: rəhtəmlhao outside ADJ, ADV afsaed our (3) (TRI INC) PRO Kwamera: iruə blong yumitri Lenakel: iluə Kwamera: səkɨtahar N Tanna: ilhuə Lenakel: tətəlh SW Tanna: iruə N Tanna: rəhatəhal Vaha: iluə SW Tanna: kapətasɨr Whitesands: ilhuə Vaha: kap̃əteisɨl Whitesands: rahtahal outside of s.th. N See bottom or outside of s.th.; See also inside of s.th.

160 oven N Lenakel: asuə See earthen oven N Tanna: asuə SW Tanna: əsuə overflowing, be V/A Vaha: əsuə draonem Whitesands: asuə Kwamera: akitənɨm̃ i Lenakel: autənɨm paint N N Tanna: ərmərioah See facepaint SW Tanna: akətənɨm Vaha: akətənɨm palate N Whitesands: əwitarɨm ruf blong maot Kwamera: negha* Pacific pigeon (Ducula pacifica) Lenakel: nigh* N N Tanna: nigha* waet nowinba SW Tanna: nigha* Kwamera: kieri Vaha: nigha* Lenakel: yəwinətuən Whitesands: nigha* N Tanna: yoinruən See also inside of s.th. SW Tanna: yekwinətuən Vaha: yekwinəluən palm, black N Whitesands: yowein See black palm See also Appendix B palm, k.o. (1); small fruits N Pacific reef heron (Egretta sacra) pam tri N Kwamera: napugo longnek, naova Lenakel: — Kwamera: pan N Tanna: kɨparkə Lenakel: pan SW Tanna: kwənhap̃ək N Tanna: pan Vaha: kwənhapgəm SW Tanna: pan Whitesands: noanap̃ək Vaha: pan Whitesands: pan palm, k.o. (2) (Metroxylon See also Appendix B wurburgii) N natangurra paddle N Kwamera: niepi padal Lenakel: nip Kwamera: niveiyə N Tanna: nip Lenakel: niuveiyə SW Tanna: nip N Tanna: nuveiyə Vaha: nip SW Tanna: niuweiyə Whitesands: niwei Vaha: niuweiyə See also Appendix C Whitesands: nuveiyə See also canoe palm branch, black (for grating) N paddle; push over; ride on an See black palm branch animal V/TR padel kenu palm of hand; sole of foot N Kwamera: əsuə skin blong ananit long han

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Kwamera: təpag* Kwamera: nusipeikɨnien Lenakel: təpaag* Lenakel: honakaran N Tanna: nərpə (bel) N Tanna: niman SW Tanna: təpaag* nəghatən Vaha: təpaag* SW Tanna: nuhpɨkɨnien Whitesands: təpaag* Vaha: nhuəpɨkɨnien See also (1) arm; (2) leg Whitesands: aiyu isou† †Lit. run + far Pandanus N See also myth See banyan (2) parallel cousin, cross-gender (child pandanus leaf mat N of mother’s sister or father’s pandanas lif mat brother); brother of a female; Kwamera: kafete sister of a male Lenakel: nɨmatavheta, tawi təlipapə Kwamera: kaka N Tanna: nɨmɨtiwɨn Lenakel: kaka SW Tanna: təvhetə N Tanna: kaka Vaha: nɨm̃ eisero SW Tanna: kaka Whitesands: tafeitə Vaha: kaka See also (1) coconut leaf mat; Whitesands: kaka (2) mat (1); (3) shave off See cross-gender sibling; See extraneous strands from a also sister of a man (1) pandanus mat parallel cousin, same-gender (child pannikin N of mother’s sister or father’s See cup brother) N angkel panting N Kwamera: p̃ia* karen See life (2) Lenakel: pia* kalɨn N Tanna: p̃ia* kalɨn papa N SW Tanna: p̃ia* karɨn See dad Vaha: p̃ia* kalɨn Whitesands: p̃ia* kalɨn papaya N Lit. same-gender sibling+ popo side Kwamera: keisi See also cross-cousin Lenakel: keisi N Tanna: noaresi paralyzed ADJ CL SW Tanna: keisi haf bodi i ded Vaha: keisi Kwamera: nɨrare* Whitesands: kesi reimhə Lenakel: — paper N N Tanna: — See pattern SW Tanna: nɨkarɨ* rɨmamhə parable N Vaha: nɨkalɨn tokpiksa tɨmamhiə

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Whitesands: nɨkalɨ* payment N təməmɨs peimen Lit. his half + dead Kwamera: nərəku See quadriplegic Lenakel: nəroan N Tanna: nətowən Parastichopus californicus N SW Tanna: nərok, See sea cucumber nərokien Vaha: nətok, parrot finch (Erythrura trichroa) N nərokien wan smol pijin Whitesands: nətowien Kwamera: kutkut Lenakel: wunwun pay s.o. for s.th. V N Tanna: wɨnwɨn pem samting SW Tanna: kutkut Kwamera: ərəku Vaha: kutkut Lenakel: ərou Whitesands: kutkut N Tanna: ətou See also Appendix B SW Tanna: ərok Vaha: ətok partially cover; partially covered, Whitesands: ətou be V/TR, V/A See also buy s.th. kavremap Kwamera: arhavən peace N Lenakel: asuun pis N Tanna: əsɨn Kwamera: nəmərinuyen SW Tanna: suun Lenakel: nəməlinuan Vaha: suun N Tanna: nəməlinuən Whitesands: əsɨn SW Tanna: nəmərinuyen Vaha: nəməlinuyen part that is empty N Whitesands: nəməlinuyen See empty part peaceful, be; calm, be V/A pass gas V/INTR pis fat Kwamera: əmərinu Kwamera: asi Lenakel: əməlinu Lenakel: apəluə N Tanna: əməlinu N Tanna: yarerə SW Tanna: əmərinu SW Tanna: outərin Vaha: əməlinu Vaha: outəlin Whitesands: əməlinu Whitesands: awiəraoɨt Pediculidae N pattern; paper; book N See louse buk, pepe Kwamera: nəkukuə peel (1) (by scraping) V/TR Lenakel: naowə sikrasem skin blong wan frut N Tanna: naowə Kwamera: əruvai SW Tanna: nəkwəkwə Lenakel: ərapig Vaha: nəkwəkwə N Tanna: arpɨk Whitesands: naowə SW Tanna: ərvai

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Vaha: ətvai people from N Whitesands: arvei, arpɨk† manples †See scooper Kwamera: nəmə Lenakel: nərəm peel (2) (peanuts, corn) V/TR N Tanna: nətəm karemaot skin SW Tanna: nəmə Kwamera: əveri Vaha: nətmə Lenakel: avilh Whitesands: nətəm N Tanna: avil SW Tanna: avir pepper, red N Vaha: əvil See spicy food Whitesands: avil peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) peel (3) (trees) V/TR N See debark wan kaen igel Kwamera: murup pendant N Lenakel: məlɨkɨm See greenstone pendant N Tanna: malɨkəm SW Tanna: mirep penis N Vaha: məlkɨm kok Whitesands: məlɨkəm Kwamera: kwənihi* See also Appendix B Lenakel: nihi* N Tanna: nusɨ* perfective aspect infix G SW Tanna: ni *hao makem se i stap happen yet Vaha: nane* Kwamera: -n- Whitesands: — Lenakel: — See worthless person; See also N Tanna: -n- (1) forehead; (2) wrap penis SW Tanna: -n- with pandanus Vaha: -n- Whitesands: -n- penis, glans N See forehead perform exchange ritual V See grind penis wrapper N See circumcision perform first menstruation ceremony CL people N taem yangfala gel i jas stat blong sik ol man mun Kwamera: nərmama Kwamera: o nəp̃ei Lenakel: nərəmim Lenakel: — N Tanna: nətəmim N Tanna: — SW Tanna: narmamə SW Tanna: or nikein Vaha: nətmamə Vaha: ol nikien Whitesands: nətəmimi Whitesands: ol nien See (1) person; (2) pluralizer Lit. make + coconuts See also (1) coconut (tree or fruit); (2) rust; menstruation

164 perform sorcery V/TR N Tanna: etəm mekem nakaemas SW Tanna: yemə Kwamera: əmtaha Vaha: yetmə Lenakel: ol nətɨk† Whitesands: etəm N Tanna: əmtah †See man SW Tanna: əmtah See people from Vaha: əmtah Whitesands: ol nərɨk† perspiration; effort N †Lit. make + sorcery swet See also (1) sorcery; (2) erect Kwamera: nɨseseyen wild cane to ensorcel garden Lenakel: nəmnhəkwan trespassers N Tanna: namnhəkən SW Tanna: nəmnhakwien permit V/TR Vaha: nəmnhagien See agree Whitesands: nəmnəhagien persevere; stand firmly V/INTR perspire V/INTR stanap strong hadwok, swet Kwamera: ərer əkneikɨn Kwamera: sese Lenakel: ail mahma Lenakel: əmnəkw N Tanna: ətul tɨmtɨm N Tanna: amnhəkw SW Tanna: ərer tɨmtɨm SW Tanna: əmnhakw Vaha: ətel tɨmtɨm Vaha: əmnhag Whitesands: ətul məməha Whitesands: əmnəhan person N phlegm N man spet Kwamera: yərmamə Kwamera: kwənarghə Lenakel: yerəmim Lenakel: nəurək N Tanna: yetəmim N Tanna: nəmhəl SW Tanna: yermamə SW Tanna: kwənerpə Vaha: yetmamə Vaha: kwənelpə Whitesands: yetəmimi Whitesands: noanelpə See people See also mucus person, another N pick fruits V/TR See another person tekemaot plante frut long wan tri Kwamera: esi-esi person, poor N Lenakel: alhitə See poor person N Tanna: əlh-əlh SW Tanna: ərhi-ərhi person, white N Vaha: əlhei-əlhei See foreigner Whitesands: əlhi-alhi See yank; See also fruit person from N man piece of N Kwamera: yəmə† pis blong wan samting Lenakel: yerəm Kwamera: nɨpərpərɨ*

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Lenakel: noanpɨl* Vaha: əwhai kəjin N Tanna: noanpɨl* Whitesands: oriarun† SW Tanna: kwənpɨr* †See work party Vaha: kwənplɨn* Whitesands: noanpɨlɨg* pillow N pilo piece of s.th. N Kwamera: kəsawə See portion Lenakel: kəsawə N Tanna: kauloga piece of wood N SW Tanna: kəsawə See flat piece of wood Vaha: kəsawə Whitesands: kəsawə pig N See sleep on a pillow pig Kwamera: pɨkə pills N Lenakel: kupəs meresin tablet N Tanna: p̃ɨkas Kwamera: kwənaiyen SW Tanna: pukəh Lenakel: — Vaha: pukəh N Tanna: — Whitesands: pukəh SW Tanna: kwənaiyen See also (1) root in the Vaha: kwənaiyen ground; (2) summon pigs Whitesands: kwənaiyen fr. Eng. quinine pigeon N See also herbal medicine See Pacific pigeon pins and needles V/A pig exchange dance N See numb, be toka Kwamera: nəkwiari pipe N Lenakel: nəkoiar See plastic container or pipe N Tanna: nasəp̃ənən SW Tanna: nəkwiar Piper methysticum N Vaha: nəkwiat See kava (Piper methysticum) Whitesands: nɨgoiati pit (1); grave N piggy back ride, give s.o. a V/TR hol long graon See give s.o. a piggy back Kwamera: tapu ride Lenakel: kɨmɨl N Tanna: nɨmɨl pig tusk N SW Tanna: nɨmɨr See horn Vaha: nɨmɨl Whitesands: nɨmɨl pile up V/TR hivimap pit (2) N Kwamera: esije, oweije See hole Lenakel: agɨr ətin N Tanna: uərg ətain place N SW Tanna: əwhai kəji ples

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Kwamera: ikɨn plan ahead (3) V Lenakel: ikɨn tingboat fastaem N Tanna: ikɨn Kwamera: or əpnəpeinə† SW Tanna: ikɨn Lenakel: — Vaha: ikɨn N Tanna: — Whitesands: ikɨn SW Tanna: ətak Vaha: ətak placenta N Whitesands: apeinə-peinə† basket blong pikinini †See prepare Kwamera: kuriranətui- yen plans; event N Lenakel: nɨtɨp miting, kakae N Tanna: kətɨm Kwamera: nɨperɨn SW Tanna: nɨmhakuə Lenakel: noanpɨlɨg Vaha: nɨmhakuə N Tanna: noanɨpɨlɨn Whitesands: napən SW Tanna: nɨprɨn See also give birth Vaha: nɨplɨn Whitesands: nɨplɨn place s.th. V/TR putum daon plant an orchard of various trees Kwamera: fatə V/INTR Lenakel: hatɨk planem ol tri we i karem frut N Tanna: əhtu Kwamera: əmənə SW Tanna: ətu Lenakel: həmən Vaha: ətu N Tanna: əhwɨnu Whitesands: əlhɨn SW Tanna: əmənə Vaha: əmənə place that is dry N Whitesands: əmənə See dry place planting hole N plan ahead (1) V/INTR See digging stick (2) putum wan toktok Kwamera: rai sun plant that bears fruit above ground Lenakel: ərai wig N N Tanna: atia hun planem (olsem kumala) SW Tanna: rai mhun Kwamera: əp̃ei Vaha: tai hun Lenakel: suv Whitesands: autətei aruhin N Tanna: ahwɨnu SW Tanna: suv plan ahead (2) V Vaha: suv tingbaot fastaem Whitesands: suv, arfwei Kwamera: ətərɨg raka Lenakel: — plant tuber V/TR N Tanna: — planem (olsem taro) SW Tanna: ətərɨg ta Kwamera: əhavi Vaha: ətəlɨg takə Lenakel: hao Whitesands: təlɨg rəkɨs N Tanna: əfe SW Tanna: hu

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Vaha: hu Lenakel: kənɨm Whitesands: arfwəi N Tanna: əgənɨm SW Tanna: ətɨm plastic container or pipe N Vaha: anɨm plastik Whitesands: əgənɨm Kwamera: kosu Lenakel: kausu plum N N Tanna: kausu See dragon plum SW Tanna: kəusu Vaha: kəusu pluralizer for some nouns G Whitesands: kəusu makem plante fr. Fr. caoutchouc ‘rubber’ Kwamera: n- Lenakel: n- play V N Tanna: n- plei plei SW Tanna: n- Kwamera: apɨr Vaha: n- Lenakel: aukɨl Whitesands: n- N Tanna: ahkul See people SW Tanna: əukɨr Vaha: əukɨl plural marker NUM MOD Whitesands: akul olgeta See also (1) hide-and-seek Kwamera: me game; (2) trick Lenakel: min N Tanna: min please; tryingly ADV SW Tanna: mɨnə plis, traem Vaha: mɨnə Kwamera: ro Whitesands: mɨn Lenakel: ru N Tanna: tu point toward s.o. or s.th. V/TR SW Tanna: ru See teach s.o. Vaha: tu Whitesands: to poison N poisen pluck feathers V/TR Kwamera: kakonə tekemaot feta blong faol Lenakel: kakonə Kwamera: ərm̃ hi N Tanna: nakonən Lenakel: aləmus SW Tanna: kakonə N Tanna: əlhamɨsin Vaha: kakonə SW Tanna: ərm̃ ɨs Whitesands: nakonəyen Vaha: əlm̃ ɨs Whitesands: ələm̃ ɨs poison fish V/TR See also (1) headdress; (2) kilim fis wetem poisen hair on the body; (3) hair on Kwamera: ukune the head Lenakel: aun N Tanna: — pluck off; break off V/TR SW Tanna: okun brekem lif blong wan tri Vaha: oknə Kwamera: apɨrəpɨre Whitesands: ɨnp̃i

168 poke the head out of s.th. (forceful possessive marker PRO forward action) V/INTR See belonging to stikimaot hed Kwamera: əpieri utə posts, erect V Lenakel: ətkətei See erect posts N Tanna: əg erəh SW Tanna: atei haktə potato N Vaha: altei pəktə See sweet potato Whitesands: eviəpəri pound s.th. (1); smash s.th.; crush pole for fishing N s.th. V/TR See fishing pole kil-kilim wan samting Kwamera: osiəpahar poor person N Lenakel: hapsɨl man we i no gat mane N Tanna: aruru Kwamera: yavən SW Tanna: hopsɨr Lenakel: yavən tat Vaha: əwhapsɨl N Tanna: yan rat Whitesands: owhaləkɨt SW Tanna: yavən hah Vaha: yavən hah pound s.th. (2) (by hammering) Whitesands: etəmi rah V/TR Lit. go around + badly kil-kilim samting portion; piece of s.th. (1) N Kwamera: arui tərini pis blong samting Lenakel: huatətin Kwamera: kwəm̃ əp* N Tanna: əht ətain Lenakel: təkrɨ* SW Tanna: arkwətərəkɨn N Tanna: məsɨn Vaha: ətkwətələkɨn SW Tanna: kwənməp* Whitesands: əhorain Vaha: kwənməp* Whitesands: nɨpɨlɨga nəvɨn pour liquid into s.th. (1) V/TR kapsaetem portion; piece of s.th. (2) N Kwamera: ərəmɨn pis blong samting Lenakel: ətəlɨmɨn Kwamera: nɨpəri* N Tanna: ɨrəfin Lenakel: noantəkrɨ* SW Tanna: ətəmrɨn N Tanna: nɨpɨlgə* Vaha: ətəlmɨn SW Tanna: nɨpar* Whitesands: ətəlmɨn Vaha: nɨpalɨga* See also liquid of s.th. Whitesands: nɨpəlɨga* pour liquid into s.th. (2) V portion; piece of s.th. (3) N kapsaetem wota long wan samting ol pis blong samting Kwamera: vi pən Kwamera: nɨm̃ ɨtm̃ ɨt Lenakel: — Lenakel: noantəkɨr N Tanna: — N Tanna: — SW Tanna: vi pən SW Tanna: kwənm̃ ɨtm̃ ɨt Vaha: vi pən Vaha: kwənm̃ ɨtm̃ ɨt Whitesands: ivi pən Whitesands: —

169 pour liquid out of s.th. V/TR praying mantis, k.o. N kapsaetem i go aot stik insek Kwamera: ətəgi Kwamera: kənhui Lenakel: ətəgita Lenakel: yəmimər N Tanna: ətəg rəkɨs N Tanna: yəmhimət SW Tanna: ətəgta SW Tanna: kəmimər Vaha: ətəgtakə Vaha: kəmimət Whitesands: ərəgə rəkɨs Whitesands: kəmimɨt See also grasshopper power; authority (1) N paoa precede (1) V Kwamera: nəgse* fastaem Lenakel: naghi* Kwamera: akup̃ən N Tanna: naghi* Lenakel: aup̃ən SW Tanna: naghe* N Tanna: aup̃ən Vaha: naghe* SW Tanna: əkup̃ən Whitesands: naghi* Vaha: əpukən Whitesands: aup̃ən power; authority (2) N paoa precede (2) V/INTR Kwamera: nərmənuyen See grow Lenakel: nərəmərean N Tanna: nərəmərəən predict or foreshadow death SW Tanna: narmaruyen V/TR Vaha: nəlmaluyen save se samting bae i ded bifo yu Whitesands: narmənəgien lukum See rule Kwamera: əsakən Lenakel: əsiakən powerless, render V/TR N Tanna: asəkin See disregard SW Tanna: əsiakɨn Vaha: əsakən praise V Whitesands: ətoyakɨn leftemap nem Kwamera: əgnəgni pregnant, be (1) V Lenakel: əgnəgɨn i gat bel N Tanna: ən vivi Kwamera: siai nari SW Tanna: əgnəgɨn Lenakel: siai nar Vaha: əgnəgɨn N Tanna: siai nat Whitesands: əni vivi SW Tanna: siai nar See also give sarcastic praise Vaha: siai nat Whitesands: əfɨgəm† praise sarcastically V †See heavy See give sarcastic praise Lit. avoid + things Col. pray V See worship V pregnant, be (2) (of animals) V/INTR i gat bel (anamol nomo)

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Kwamera: pam Kwamera: əpeinə Lenakel: sinən Lenakel: eipinə N Tanna: asinɨn N Tanna: apeinə SW Tanna: sinən SW Tanna: apeinə Vaha: sinən Vaha: apeinə Whitesands: əfɨgəm Whitesands: apeinə pregnant, be (3) (of people) CL press (1) V/TR i gat bel pusum daon Kwamera: o tɨpɨ* Kwamera: ərki Lenakel: ol nətɨp* Lenakel: arkətin N Tanna: ol nərpɨ* N Tanna: ətgi SW Tanna: or tɨp* SW Tanna: arki Vaha: ol nɨkwətp* Vaha: aki Whitesands: ol nərfɨ* Whitesands: ətgi Lit. make + belly press (2) V/TR pregnant, be (4) (early stage) pusum V/TR Kwamera: əki mestem manis Lenakel: ərɨk Kwamera: əp̃əh məkuə N Tanna: ətɨg Lenakel: ap̃əs mouk SW Tanna: ərɨk N Tanna: ap̃əh məwɨg Vaha: akətələkɨn SW Tanna: əp̃əh makuə Whitesands: ətɨg Vaha: əp̃əh makuə Whitesands: ap̃əh məwɨg press (3) V/TR Lit. miss + month prestem Kwamera: əpiətərini pregnant, be (5) (late stage) V/A Lenakel: ətkətin See heavy, be N Tanna: əgətain SW Tanna: hatərəkɨn pregnant, be (6) (late stage) V/A Vaha: hatələkɨn See (1) drop s.th. that is too Whitesands: əskəlɨm† heavy; (2) heavy, be †See hold on to s.o. or s.th. prepare (1) V/TR press down V/TR mekemrere prestem daon, draonem Kwamera: əpnəpeinə† Kwamera: inhi Lenakel: eipnə-eipinə Lenakel: ələkhiato in N Tanna: əpen-əpenə N Tanna: ahlmin SW Tanna: apnəpeinə SW Tanna: arkəhu Vaha: apnəpeinə Vaha: əlkəhu Whitesands: apeinə-peinə† Whitesands: alkəhu †See plan ahead (3) prestation (esp. of food) N prepare (2); make nice; straighten kakae we yu givim up V/TR Kwamera: nawau mekemrere Lenakel: nowia

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N Tanna: nowiə prohibit (1); impede V SW Tanna: nowhia blokem Vaha: nowhia Kwamera: akise, nise Whitesands: nuwhiar Lenakel: əni hao N Tanna: əni əhau pretend to hit V SW Tanna: ni əhu giaman blong kilim Vaha: ni əhu Kwamera: eim̃ han Whitesands: əni əhu† Lenakel: əvianɨm̃ ɨn †See motion to stop N Tanna: eialm̃ in SW Tanna: eim̃ han prohibit (2); fast from s.th. Vaha: eim̃ han V/INTR Whitesands: eiarm̃ ɨn no mekem wan samting See also hit s.th. or s.o. Kwamera: atuakəm Lenakel: atuakəm prey on; bite V/TR N Tanna: ətuakəm kakae man SW Tanna: atuakəm Kwamera: — Vaha: atuakəm Lenakel: kɨs Whitesands: atuakəm N Tanna: us

SW Tanna: əkwəpah property N Vaha: əkwəpah kago Whitesands: oəpas Kwamera: nautə price N Lenakel: nautə See eye N Tanna: nautə SW Tanna: nautə print N Vaha: nautə See footprint Whitesands: nautə See supply s.th. proclaim (1) V talemaot prostitute N Kwamera: ni irap See pubescent girl Lenakel: əni atou N Tanna: ən iarəp proud, be; proudly V/A, ADV SW Tanna: ni ərhav i flas Vaha: nitam Kwamera: ərpĩ Whitesands: əni pətgɨm Lenakel: ausit Lit. tell + out N Tanna: ausit SW Tanna: ausit proclaim (2) V Vaha: ausit talemaot Whitesands: əfəri† Kwamera: ərer irap †See lift up Lenakel: ail iato See also humble, be N Tanna: ətul arəp SW Tanna: ərer ərhav proudly ADV Vaha: ətel itam See proud, be Whitesands: ətul pətgəm Lit. stand + out

172 provide shelter for s.o. or s.th. pull (1) V/TR V/TR pulum, kapsaetem haed ananit long wan tri Kwamera: vi Kwamera: hotkəmkəmɨn Lenakel: vi Lenakel: huakɨmkɨmɨn N Tanna: ev, iu, iuw N Tanna: uakəmkəmɨn SW Tanna: vi SW Tanna: hotkɨmkɨmɨn Vaha: vi Vaha: əwhamkəmɨn Whitesands: ivi Whitesands: kəmkəmɨn See also push See sheltered area pull (2); pull up; stretch; turn s.th. prune a tree V (over); turn a page V/TR See trim a mustache or beard tanem, pulum (2) Kwamera: əvi, ərp̃egi Lenakel: eg Pteropus tonganus N N Tanna: eg See fruit bat SW Tanna: əvi Vaha: evi Ptilinopus N Whitesands: eivi See red-bellied fruit-dove pull s.th. free V/INTR puberty, go through V See wiggle or pull s.th. free See go through puberty (for a man) pull s.th. out of s.th. V/TR tekem pubescent girl; prostitute N Kwamera: vi raka gel Lenakel: vi ta Kwamera: prən vi† N Tanna: os irəkɨs Lenakel: pɨra yohanən SW Tanna: vi ta N Tanna: pətan Vaha: vi takə yonəhan Whitesands: vi rəkɨs SW Tanna: piakwənahin See wiggle Vaha: pɨtan kwənahin pull up V/TR Whitesands: pɨta yoənəhan See pull (2) †Lit. woman + new Lit. woman + fruit of breast pulp (esp. kava) N See also go through puberty makas (for a man) Kwamera: nɨp̃ar Lenakel: nɨp̃at† pudding N N Tanna: nɨp̃at See (1) small tuber pudding; SW Tanna: nɨp̃ar (2) tuber pudding; (3) tuber Vaha: nɨp̃at pudding with meat Whitesands: nɨp̃at †See pulp of a fruit puddle N See water hole pulp, dirty; s.th. rotten N samting we i doti o roten

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Kwamera: nəmtɨmɨt Lenakel: noanətan Lenakel: nɨmtɨmɨt N Tanna: — N Tanna: nɨpatin SW Tanna: kwənai SW Tanna: nɨmtɨmɨt Vaha: kwənai Vaha: nɨmtɨmɨt Whitesands: noanətan Whitesands: nɨpɨlpɨlɨn pursue V/TR pulp of a fruit; membrane; corncob See chase N makas blong frut pus N Kwamera: tərpi doti blong so Lenakel: nɨpat† Kwamera: nukwesə N Tanna: — Lenakel: nasəp̃ir SW Tanna: tərɨp N Tanna: nəfa Vaha: tərɨp SW Tanna: nɨkwhə Whitesands: təlpu Vaha: nɨkwhə †See pulp (esp. kava) Whitesands: nəfwə punishment N push V/TR panis pusum Kwamera: narp̃ɨnien Kwamera: arhɨr Lenakel: nalɨp̃ɨnan Lenakel: ərɨk N Tanna: nalp̃ɨnɨn N Tanna: ətgi pən SW Tanna: narp̃ɨnien SW Tanna: ahir kɨn Vaha: nalp̃ɨnien Vaha: ahil kɨn Whitesands: nalp̃ɨnien Whitesands: arɨg lan See also push pupil (part of eye) N blak haf blong ae push aside; divert V/TR Kwamera: kəməhau ye pusum long wan saet nənime* Kwamera: əkəu ikarɨn Lenakel: noan nɨmrɨ* Lenakel: arki kalɨn N Tanna: mur mur apɨn N Tanna: ago kalɨn SW Tanna: kwənmap ye SW Tanna: ako karɨn nɨmrɨ* Vaha: əko kalɨn Vaha: kwənmɨmakw Whitesands: ago kalɨn ye nɨmt* Lit. push + side Whitesands: kapuə ye nɨmtɨ* push over V/TR See also (1) eye; (2) star See paddle V/TR purchase s.th. V/TR put down many things V/TR See buy s.th. See set down many things purlin (for thatch) N put down one thing V/TR wud we oli nilim lif kokonas long See set down one thing hem Kwamera: kwənai put hands on hips V

174 putum han long saet question N Kwamera: əpiəmesi* kwestin Lenakel: arkətai Kwamera: nəresien N Tanna: iapəhl Lenakel: nərapəkan nəlugɨn N Tanna: nətap̃əhən SW Tanna: arapəpɨr SW Tanna: naiyohyen Vaha: alapətu Vaha: nəlɨgəpəhyen Whitesands: əmkəlhi Whitesands: nətap̃əhien nəkao lan question marker CONJ put s.th. V/TR or See place s.th. Kwamera: wə Lenakel: o put s.th. in a basket or bucket N Tanna: o V/TR SW Tanna: uə putum insaed long basket Vaha: uə Kwamera: vai Whitesands: uə Lenakel: vai N Tanna: eipɨn quickly (1) ADV SW Tanna: vai kwiktaem Vaha: vai Kwamera: əkwauəkw Whitesands: vei Lenakel: waihuei See also basket N Tanna: weiuɨhai SW Tanna: aiwhaa put s.th. on s.th. else V/TR Vaha: əwhai See set s.th. on s.th. else Whitesands: wəhai See also slowly put s.th. on top of s.th. else V/TR quickly (2) ADV See set s.th. on top of s.th. kwiktaem else Kwamera: təktəkuni- təktəkuni put s.th. upright V/TR Lenakel: toek-toek See set s.th. upright N Tanna: roiyu-roiyu SW Tanna: taktakun- quadriplegic ADJ CL taktakun bodi i ded Vaha: taktakun- Kwamera: nɨp̃ra* reimhə taktakun Lenakel: — Whitesands: roiyu roiyu N Tanna: — Lit. now + now SW Tanna: nɨp̃ra* rɨmamhə quickly (3) (verbal suffix) ADV Vaha: nɨp̃la* hareap tɨmamhiə Kwamera: -ra Whitesands: nɨpətɨ* Lenakel: -ra təməmɨs N Tanna: -ta Lit. body + dead SW Tanna: -ra See paralyzed; See also lame Vaha: -tə person or animal Whitesands: -tə

175 quiet, be V/INTR rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus See stop crying haematodus) N nasiviru quietly ADV Kwamera: sivɨr kwaet Lenakel: suvl Kwamera: əfafə N Tanna: koki Lenakel: auniwən SW Tanna: suvr N Tanna: anəniwən Vaha: suvl SW Tanna: əneiwən Whitesands: suvl Vaha: əneiwən See also Appendix B Whitesands: aneiwən See secretly raincloud N reinklaod quote marker G Kwamera: nəpuə rɨman See in order that Lenakel: — N Tanna: — rail N SW Tanna: napuə arman See buff-banded rail Vaha: napuə yetman Whitesands: napuə yerman rain N ren raining, be not V/A Kwamera: nesən See dry (2) Lenakel: nəhin N Tanna: nuhuən rake V/TR SW Tanna: nəhig tekemaot ston blong laplap Vaha: nəhig Kwamera: eikwi rakə Whitesands: nuhən Lenakel: eiku ita N Tanna: eipɨk rain V/INTR SW Tanna: eiku ta ren i foldaon Vaha: eiəkw takə Kwamera: awər Whitesands: akəl† Lenakel: əp †See dig with the foot N Tanna: əfɨk SW Tanna: ɨp random; commonplace; Vaha: ɨp insignificant; normal ADJ Whitesands: əfu olbaot See also dry, be (2) Kwamera: apnapen Lenakel: apnapɨn rainbow N N Tanna: apnapɨn renbo SW Tanna: apnapɨg Kwamera: mərarɨn Vaha: apnapɨg Lenakel: mərai-mərai Whitesands: apnapɨn N Tanna: mɨrai-mɨrai SW Tanna: mərai-mərai raspberry N Vaha: mərai-mərai See wild raspberry Whitesands: mərai-mərai rat N rat

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Kwamera: yesukw read V/TR Lenakel: kahau See count N Tanna: kahap SW Tanna: yahuk ready for harvesting, be V/A Vaha: yahuk (INTR) Whitesands: kahau See ripe, be rattle (1) (as of an engine running) rebuke V V/INTR toktok strong long mekem noes Kwamera: əgkiari skai Kwamera: ərkərɨk Lenakel: əkar ausk- Lenakel: ərkərɨk ausɨk N Tanna: ilɨk-ilɨk, N Tanna: agət skasɨk ərkərɨk SW Tanna: əgkiar skai SW Tanna: ərkərɨk Vaha: əgkiat skai Vaha: ərkərɨk Whitesands: əghaji əskasɨk Whitesands: əgarkərək Lit. talk + strong See also make noise recent; nearby ADV rattle (2) V/INTR naoia nomo mekem noes Kwamera: pɨpehe Kwamera: əpərək-əpərək Lenakel: pe am huə Lenakel: əpələk-əpələk N Tanna: əh huə N Tanna: alpətəg SW Tanna: pəpə SW Tanna: əpɨrɨk-əpɨrɨk Vaha: hiə-hiə Vaha: əpəlɨk-əpəlɨk Whitesands: papa Whitesands: əpələk-əpələk reciprocation; revenge N rattle (3) (loudly) V/INTR samting we yu swapem mekem noes Kwamera: tai* Kwamera: əvirəgrəg Lenakel: tai* Lenakel: aviləgələg N Tanna: nɨtai* N Tanna: aviləgləg SW Tanna: tai* SW Tanna: ahirəgrəg Vaha: nɨtai* Vaha: ol təlɨgalu† Whitesands: nɨtai* Whitesands: afiləgləg See also unequal †Lit. make + noise reciprocation of gifts raw ADJ reciprocation of gifts N oli no kukum yet See unequal reciprocation of Kwamera: mera, fɨtə, gifts ərp̃ə Lenakel: mɨrə red, be V/A N Tanna: mɨtə red SW Tanna: mɨrə Kwamera: — Vaha: mɨtə Lenakel: ləuləu Whitesands: mɨtə N Tanna: asia See also finished cooking, be SW Tanna: əwhao

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Vaha: ətəuatəu Vaha: ol ətkin† Whitesands: əraro Whitesands: əgargin †Lit. make + re-injured red-bellied fruit-dove (Ptilinopus sp.) N relationship, have a V/INTR grin pijin See have a relationship Kwamera: pɨnwar Lenakel: pɨnhuə release; untie; unroll V N Tanna: p̃ɨnuə slakem SW Tanna: pɨnhuə Kwamera: oseri Vaha: pɨnuəh Lenakel: rɨsɨn Whitesands: pɨnuəh N Tanna: ɨkɨs See also (1) black dove; (2) SW Tanna: rɨsɨn dove (1); (3) Appendix B Vaha: tɨsɨn Whitesands: tɨs red pepper N See spicy food remember (1) CL rimemba reef N Kwamera: rerɨ* ramrhi See coral reef Lenakel: nɨki* rəkamho reenact V/TR N Tanna: nɨki* təht See imitate SW Tanna: rɨki* raməsɨk Vaha: li* taməsɨk reflection of s.th. N Whitesands: nɨki* tatəji See spirit of s.th. Lit. insides belonging to [s.o.] + strike reflexive marker PRO yu/mi/hem/olgeta wan remember (2) CL Kwamera: atukw rimemba Lenakel: atu Kwamera: — N Tanna: atɨp Lenakel: nɨki* ramho SW Tanna: atukw N Tanna: nɨki* tuəh Vaha: atukw SW Tanna: rɨki* ramuh Whitesands: aru Vaha: li* tahuə Whitesands: nɨki* tatuh refreshed, be V Lit. insides belonging to [s.o.] See calm, be + hit See also (1) hit s.th. or s.o. (2); refuse V (2) voice (2) See cease remind; urge V/TR re-injure one’s body part V/TR askem, rimaendem kilim wan kil bakegen Kwamera: wəsi rerɨ* Kwamera: o ətkini† Lenakel: ho nɨki* Lenakel: ol ətkin† N Tanna: uəh nɨki* N Tanna: əgargin SW Tanna: uh rɨki* SW Tanna: or ətkin† Vaha: huə li*

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Whitesands: uh nɨki* N Tanna: əm̃ hen e Lit. strike + insides SW Tanna: əm̃ hen kɨn See also (1) hit s.th. or s.o. (2); Vaha: əm̃ hen kɨn (2) voice (2) Whitesands: əm̃ hen e, la* remove bark V/TR respect; let alone; avoid V/TR See debark a tree respektem Kwamera: siai render powerless V/TR Lenakel: siai See disregard N Tanna: ɨsiai SW Tanna: siai repair V/TR Vaha: siai See heal Whitesands: siai repeat V respect, without ADV ripitim See in vain Kwamera: əsmatukw Lenakel: sɨm atu responsibility of s.o., under the N Tanna: sɨm atɨp CL SW Tanna: sɨm atukw See under the responsibility Vaha: sɨm atukw of s.o.

Whitesands: sɨm aru rest V

spel requiem shark (Fam. Kwamera: apɨs Carcharhinidae) N Lenakel: amig sak N Tanna: ameg Kwamera: pəvegɨn SW Tanna: ap̃ɨs Lenakel: kəlihavən Vaha: ap̃ɨs N Tanna: paguən Whitesands: ap̃ɨs SW Tanna: kərihavən Vaha: kəlihavən return (1) V/INTR Whitesands: pawən kam bak bakegen See also beaked whale Kwamera: rerɨg Lenakel: lelɨg resemble s.th. else (1) V/TR N Tanna: ɨtelɨg olsem SW Tanna: rerɨg Kwamera: əm̃ hen ye Vaha: telɨg Lenakel: aukɨr in Whitesands: təlɨg N Tanna: əm̃ hen in SW Tanna: əm̃ hen kɨn return (2); avenge s.o. or s.th.; Vaha: əm̃ hen kɨn exchange s.o. or s.th. V Whitesands: əm̃ hen lan swapem, givim bak See similar to each other, be Kwamera: ərpɨñ Lenakel: alɨp̃ɨn resemble s.th. else (2) V/TR N Tanna: alp̃ɨn olsem SW Tanna: arp̃ɨn Kwamera: əm̃ hen irə* Vaha: alp̃ɨn Lenakel: aukɨrin Whitesands: alp̃ɨn

179 reveal V right; right-handed ADJ talemaot bakgraon raet saed Kwamera: etafarak Kwamera: m̃ atuk Lenakel: — Lenakel: matu N Tanna: ol əp N Tanna: m̃ atɨp SW Tanna: or əpu SW Tanna: m̃ atuk Vaha: ol əpu Vaha: m̃ atuk Whitesands: ol əpu‡ Whitesands: m̃ aru ‡See sign See ambidextrous; See also See also inform left revenge N right-handed ADJ See reciprocation See right

Rhipidura fuliginosa N ring V/INTR See collared gray fantail See cry rib belonging to N ring finger N rif blong fingga long medel blong smol fingga Kwamera: kwənəkau, mo medel fingg nəkaw Kwamera: pɨsetum Lenakel: nəkaw Lenakel: sasilmagə N Tanna: makɨtakɨtahi* N Tanna: piskeiyu SW Tanna: nəkaw-əkaw SW Tanna: pɨsatom Vaha: nəkaw-əkaw Vaha: — Whitesands: nəkaw-əkaw Whitesands: yətopən See also (1) finger; (2) index ride on an animal V/TR finger; (3) little finger; (4) See paddle V/TR middle finger; (5) thumb ridge N rinse mouth; gargle V/INTR kil blong hil pupu Kwamera: rɨgi tənə Kwamera: əpupu Lenakel: nəlhmɨ tan Lenakel: əpupu N Tanna: nəlmɨ tən N Tanna: əpupu SW Tanna: kwermɨ tanə SW Tanna: əpupu Vaha: lɨmɨ tanə Vaha: əpupu Whitesands: nəlhmɨ nɨtəni Whitesands: apupu fr. Bis. pupu ridge beam N rij long ruf blong haos ripe ADJ Kwamera: kwərukwau i raef Lenakel: tuhu Kwamera: əm̃ əsi, marei N Tanna: kaluau Lenakel: matəkw SW Tanna: karkwao N Tanna: marəg Vaha: lɨkwao SW Tanna: mihakw Whitesands: kləfəri Vaha: mihakw See go around (3) Whitesands: marəg

180 ripe, be (ready for harvesting) pən V/A (INTR) N Tanna: ahlək i raef SW Tanna: vi kɨn Kwamera: mruə Vaha: vi kɨn Lenakel: — Whitesands: avhin N Tanna: — See also earthen oven SW Tanna: mruə Vaha: mtuə roast in an earthen oven or pot (2) Whitesands: mətə V/TR See unripe, be (1); See also kuk long oven blong laplap unripe, be (2) Kwamera: əktən Lenakel: əktən riverbed N N Tanna: ətəkən See gorge SW Tanna: əktən Vaha: əktən river sand N Whitesands: vinpɨkɨn See sand (4) rock from volcano N road N See volcanic red rock See trail rocks for making an earthen oven road on Tanna N N See traditional circular road ston blong laplap on Tanna Kwamera: kwərerɨn Lenakel: lulu roar V/INTR N Tanna: kamən mekem noes (olsem wota) SW Tanna: kwərukruk Kwamera: ierəg Vaha: kwələgləg† Lenakel: eləg Whitesands: noalulu N Tanna: ivəg †See nest (1) SW Tanna: ierəg See also earthen oven Vaha: ieləg Whitesands: eləg roll s.th. (as in stones); tumble oneself/itself V/TR roasted vegetables N rolem kakae oli rusum long oven o hol Kwamera: əsəku-əsəku Kwamera: kəktən Lenakel: aso-aso Lenakel: kəktən N Tanna: əsoupəlpəl N Tanna: kəktən SW Tanna: asokw-asokw SW Tanna: kəktən Vaha: asokw-asokw Vaha: kəktən Whitesands: əsou-əsou Whitesands: kəktən See also stone roast in an earthen oven or pot (1) roll s.th. up between the hands V/TR V/TR kuk long oven blong laplap See mash s.th. (2) Kwamera: ourɨm̃ ɨn Lenakel: arvhin, vhin

181 roll up s.th. (1), such as a mat Vaha: nua* V/TR Whitesands: nokɨ* rolem Kwamera: əp̃əkər root in the ground (by pigs and Lenakel: p̃ig other animals) V N Tanna: aiwaiyu digim graon olsem pig SW Tanna: rpərɨg Kwamera: əruku Vaha: lpəlɨg Lenakel: alu Whitesands: apaiyu N Tanna: alu See also mat SW Tanna: əruk Vaha: ətuk roll up s.th. (2); bend s.th. V/TR Whitesands: ahlu rolem See also pig Kwamera: ərfe Lenakel: eikek rope (1) N N Tanna: əfaiyu rop SW Tanna: arpəvɨn Kwamera: nəkwus Vaha: alpəvɨn Lenakel: nul Whitesands: əpaiyu N Tanna: nol SW Tanna: nərəus roof ridge (like a timber plate) N Vaha: nələus rij blong haos Whitesands: nələus Kwamera: kwarkwao See also (1) lead by a rope; Lenakel: luao (2) tie a knot in a rope N Tanna: nəhngɨ* SW Tanna: kwarkwao rope (2) (thick) N Vaha: ləkwao strong rop Whitesands: kalwao Kwamera: kwətəvrə Lenakel: — room; space N N Tanna: — rum SW Tanna: təvrə Kwamera: kwonpun Vaha: təvlə Lenakel: noanɨman Whitesands: təvlə N Tanna: ləmənan SW Tanna: kwənmhan rope (3) (very thick) N Vaha: kwənmhan strong rop Whitesands: — Kwamera: rɨkɨn Lenakel: — rooster’s wattle and comb N N Tanna: — See wattle and comb of a SW Tanna: rɨkɨn rooster Vaha: rɨkɨn Whitesands: rɨkɨn root N rus blong rotten, be (1) V/A Kwamera: nuai* i roten Lenakel: nuk* Kwamera: uwiri N Tanna: nokɨ* Lenakel: ulɨk SW Tanna: nua* N Tanna: alkolɨk

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SW Tanna: əurɨk N Tanna: atip̃ Vaha: əulɨk SW Tanna: hakw Whitesands: oli Vaha: hakw Whitesands: arəp̃ei rotten, be (2) (of wood) V/A i roten rub one's eyes V Kwamera: mərɨr ravem ae Lenakel: mɨr, əmrəmɨr Kwamera: — N Tanna: mətu, fɨrəl Lenakel: rin-rin SW Tanna: mətɨt N Tanna: ɨtin-ɨtin Vaha: əmnəmɨt SW Tanna: rin-rin Whitesands: əmnəmɨt Vaha: jin-jin See also mound for planting Whitesands: tin-tin See also eye rotten, be (3) (of wood) V/A i no gud Rubus moluccanus N Kwamera: məru-məru See wild raspberry Lenakel: magɨt N Tanna: mət-mət, ruin; destroy V/TR mətu spolem SW Tanna: marɨmar Kwamera: oraha Vaha: matə-matə Lenakel: oltat Whitesands: mətɨg N Tanna: ərəkɨn See soft, be; See also tree; SW Tanna: oriah wood Vaha: oliah Whitesands: ərəkɨn rotten, s.th. N See pulp, dirty ruin s.th. by adding too much coconut to it V/TR round, be V/A See smash s.th. (2) raon wan Kwamera: əpɨrpru rule V Lenakel: əwətə-wətə rulum N Tanna: otota Kwamera: ərɨmənu SW Tanna: əkwətə-kwətə Lenakel: arəmərə Vaha: əkwətə-kwətə N Tanna: ərəmərə Whitesands: əharəg-əharəg SW Tanna: armaru Vaha: ətɨmnə round house N Whitesands: armənɨg See house, k.o., that is round See power; authority (2) row N ruler N See line (2) big man Kwamera: yermənu rub V Lenakel: yerəmərə ravem N Tanna: yərəmərə Kwamera: əhakwi SW Tanna: yermaru Lenakel: təp̃i Vaha: yatɨmnə

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Whitesands: yermənɨg sacred dancing place N See also chief nakamal Kwamera: im̃ ərəm̃ run; have diarrhea; vouch for V Lenakel: im̃ eim̃ ron N Tanna: im̃ aim̃ Kwamera: aiyu SW Tanna: im̃ ərəm̃ Lenakel: ail Vaha: im̃ ətəm̃ N Tanna: aiyu Whitesands: im̃ eim̃ SW Tanna: aiyu See also detour around Vaha: aiyu sacred dancing place Whitesands: aiyu sadness N run for shelter V See weight haed aninit long wan samting Kwamera: suər salt N Lenakel: ail atgɨn sol N Tanna: aiyu ərgin Kwamera: nɨgər SW Tanna: aiyu ətgɨn Lenakel: nɨgəl Vaha: aiyu ətgɨn N Tanna: nɨgal Whitesands: aiyu ərgin SW Tanna: nɨgər See also (1) shelter; (2) stand Vaha: nɨgəl under the shelter of s.th. Whitesands: nɨgər run into s.th. V/TR same-gender parallel cousin N akseden See parallel cousin, same- Kwamera: vəhi peikɨn gender Lenakel: ləspɨkɨn, yapɨkɨn same-gender sibling N N Tanna: ɨləspɨkən brata, sista SW Tanna: rəh pɨkɨn Kwamera: p̃ia* Vaha: ləh pɨkɨn Lenakel: p̃ia* Whitesands: ləhspɨkɨn N Tanna: tu* p̃ia* SW Tanna: p̃ia* rust; menstruation N Vaha: p̃ia* rosta Whitesands: p̃ia* Kwamera: nop̃eyen See also (1) parallel cousin, Lenakel: namɨteiyan same-gender; (2) cross- N Tanna: namtəən gender sibling SW Tanna: nəmtəyen Vaha: nəmtəmtəyen same-gender younger sibling N Whitesands: namrəyen smol brata/sista See brown; See also perform Kwamera: prəsɨ* first menstruation ceremony Lenakel: nor* N Tanna: notah* Saccharum maximum N SW Tanna: nəurahi* See wild cane (1) Vaha: nəutahi* Whitesands: notah*

184 same-subject marker G ye kapier makem sem man i mekem Vaha: kwənpɨlpɨl ye Kwamera: m- kapier Lenakel: m- Whitesands: nɨkɨlkɨli N Tanna: m- kapiel SW Tanna: m- Vaha: m- sand (4) (from river) N Whitesands: m- sanbij long reva Kwamera: kɨrik-riki sanctify oneself for magical Lenakel: kɨlu kɨlu purposes V/INTR N Tanna: kɨlɨp kɨlɨp mekem wan man i tabu, blong SW Tanna: kɨru-kɨru wokem ston Vaha: kɨlu-kɨlu Kwamera: rəi nətəun Whitesands: — Lenakel: ətuah N Tanna: aru ətuəh sandpiper, k.o. N SW Tanna: hai natuən wan kaen pijin Vaha: hai natuən Kwamera: fitukwə Whitesands: aht whowei Lenakel: pitowər See also worship V N Tanna: pɨtowar SW Tanna: pitakwar sand (1) N Vaha: pitakwar sanbij Whitesands: pitəwər Kwamera: nɨməkɨrməkɨr Lenakel: nɨməkləkɨl Sanford's emo skink (Emoia N Tanna: nɨməkləkɨl sanfordi) N SW Tanna: nɨməkrəkɨr grinlised Vaha: nɨməkləkɨl Kwamera: m̃ uriəki Whitesands: nɨməkləkɨl Lenakel: məliək-məliək N Tanna: m̃ ulek-m̃ ulek sand (2) N SW Tanna: m̃ eriək- sanbij m̃ eriək Kwamera: nɨpəkɨr Vaha: m̃ əlik-m̃ əliək Lenakel: nɨpakɨl Whitesands: m̃ əliki- N Tanna: — m̃ əliəki SW Tanna: nɨpakɨr Vaha: — sarcastic praise, give V Whitesands: nɨpəkɨl See give sarcastic praise sand (3) (coarse) N satisfactory, be V/A sanbij we i raf See enough, be Kwamera: nɨpɨrpɨri kapier saw off V/TR Lenakel: nɨpɨlpɨlɨ katemaot kapiel Kwamera: kihi əm̃ eisi N Tanna: nɨpɨlpɨlɨ Lenakel: kɨsakru kapiel N Tanna: us ətɨp SW Tanna: kwənpərpər SW Tanna: kɨsəru

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Vaha: kɨsətu scale of a fish N Whitesands: əhtatu See fish scale say; tell V scar N talem mak blong soa Kwamera: ni Kwamera: rənen Lenakel: əni Lenakel: əkənan N Tanna: ən N Tanna: tafil SW Tanna: ni SW Tanna: nənuən, Vaha: ni rənuən Whitesands: əni Vaha: tənuən See sing; See also (1) dare; (2) Whitesands: təməgə nien exaggerate; (3) gossip; (4) Lit. become + healthy guess; (5) inform; (6) proclaim (1); (7) prohibit scatter (1) V/TR (1); (8) scold (2); (9) scold sakem ol samting olbaot (3); (10) slander (1); (11) Kwamera: əpirɨs speak mistakenly; (12) Lenakel: ekliu welcome s.o. N Tanna: ɨkɨl-ɨkɨl SW Tanna: eipares scab N Vaha: eipares soa Whitesands: owhatiti Kwamera: kəmeisɨk- kəmeisɨk scatter (2) (rocks) V/TR Lenakel: — rakem ol ston N Tanna: — Kwamera: əsur SW Tanna: kəmhir-əmhir Lenakel: asul Vaha: kəmhel-əmhel N Tanna: asul Whitesands: kəmhali- SW Tanna: əsur əmhali Vaha: əsul Whitesands: akəl† scabies N †See dig with the foot skavis Kwamera: kəfi-əfiə scatter (3) (seeds); sow V Lenakel: kawir-awir rakem, sakem wan wan N Tanna: kərparɨp Kwamera: vi rərəgi SW Tanna: kəukɨs-əukɨs Lenakel: — Vaha: kəukɨs-əukɨs N Tanna: — Whitesands: karfarfu SW Tanna: vi təgətəg Vaha: vi təgətəg scabies, have; itch V/INTR Whitesands: ərəgɨn-ərəgɨn skras Kwamera: ərkwərkwə scavenge V Lenakel: awier-awier lukaotem kakae N Tanna: ərpərɨp Kwamera: skirɨn SW Tanna: əukɨs-əukɨs Lenakel: səkilɨn Vaha: əukɨs-əukɨs N Tanna: awle, ɨsɨkilɨn Whitesands: arfu-arfu SW Tanna: səkirɨn

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Vaha: skilɨn scold s.o. (3) V Whitesands: sɨkilɨn toktok strong long See also trick Kwamera: — Lenakel: əni əkɨs scavenge for fruit V/TR N Tanna: ən əskasɨk See shake a tree SW Tanna: ni əutən Vaha: ni eikɨsien scavenger hunt game N Whitesands: əni əskasɨk† See trick †See scold (2) Lit. tell + strongly scent N smel blong wan samting scooper; spoon N Kwamera: nɨpeki* spun Lenakel: nəmiəv* Kwamera: kəkeki N Tanna: nəmiəv* Lenakel: kakɨk SW Tanna: nəmiəv* N Tanna: kakɨl Vaha: nəmiəv* SW Tanna: kəkɨk Whitesands: nəmiəv* Vaha: kəkɨk Whitesands: arpɨk† scoff V †See peel (1) laf nogud See scoop s.th. out (2) Kwamera: arɨs akei Lenakel: asɨmləh scoop s.th. out (1); fetch s.th. N Tanna: alah əusan V/TR SW Tanna: arh iakei kasem Vaha: aləh ausit Kwamera: kwəhi Whitesands: aləh əusaan Lenakel: əru N Tanna: ətu scold s.o. (1) V/TR SW Tanna: ruk toktok strong long Vaha: tuk Kwamera: əski Whitesands: ətu Lenakel: ətat N Tanna: əhai scoop s.th. out (2) (with a spoon) SW Tanna: hek V Vaha: hek spunumaot Whitesands: ahi Kwamera: əkeki Lenakel: akɨk scold s.o. (2) V N Tanna: əru toktok strong SW Tanna: əkɨk Kwamera: ni skai Vaha: əkɨk Lenakel: əni əkɨs Whitesands: əlis N Tanna: əni əkɨs See scooper SW Tanna: ni skai Vaha: ni skai scoop s.th. out (3) (with a knife Whitesands: əni əskasɨk† blade) V/TR †See scold (3) katemaot ol pis kokonas wetem wan Lit. tell + strongly naef Kwamera: əregi

187

Lenakel: ətɨk nɨtəhi N Tanna: əru †See seaweed SW Tanna: harɨg Lit. house + BEN + ocean Vaha: halɨg Whitesands: əu search for (1) V/TR lukaotem scrape V/TR Kwamera: ətui, egəs See peel (1) Lenakel: hegəsin N Tanna: eam in scrape coconut with the teeth SW Tanna: arha kɨn V/TR Vaha: alha kɨn spunum wetem tut Whitesands: əsa lan Kwamera: əghi Lenakel: əgəlh search for (2) birds, nests, eggs N Tanna: əgɨlh V/TR SW Tanna: əgər lukaotem pijin o eg long bus Vaha: əgəl Kwamera: əmtəpu Whitesands: əgɨlh Lenakel: amrəp N Tanna: amɨrɨp scratch s.th. V SW Tanna: amrəp See shave s.th. off Vaha: amtəp Whitesands: amtɨpi scrotum N See testicles seaweed N gras blong solwota scrub s.th. V/TR Kwamera: yeimhə See wring s.th. Lenakel: lɨm̃ ɨs N Tanna: lɨm̃ ɨs† sea cucumber (Parastichopus SW Tanna: rɨm̃ ɨs californicus) N Vaha: lɨm̃ ɨs si kukomba Whitesands: lɨm̃ ɨs Kwamera: kipori †See sea life Lenakel: sɨko N Tanna: sɨkəu second person dual object pronoun SW Tanna: sɨkək PRO Vaha: kipor See you (6) Whitesands: kipori second person dual possessive sea life N pronoun PRO gras blong solwota See your (2) Kwamera: ur sei təsi Lenakel: noanu tehei second person dual subject pronoun N Tanna: lɨm̃ ɨs† PRO SW Tanna: kapa* ker See you (2) tahik Vaha: kapa* ket second person plural object pronoun tahik PRO Whitesands: kɨgɨt raha See you (8)

188 second person plural possessive Vaha: aneiwən pronoun PRO Whitesands: əneiwən See your (4) See quietly; See also whisper second person plural subject see V/TR pronoun PRO luk See you (4) Kwamera: ətə Lenakel: aamh second person singular object N Tanna: ehm, əplan pronoun PRO SW Tanna: əm See you (5) Vaha: əm Whitesands: eru second person singular possessive See also face toward s.o., a pronoun PRO direction (1) See your (1) seed (large) belonging to a fruit second person singular subject N pronoun PRO sid blong See you (1) Kwamera: kwənuni* Lenakel: wikari* second person trial object pronoun N Tanna: nɨkuti* PRO SW Tanna: kwənunu* See you (7) Vaha: kwənunu* Whitesands: nəlhuɨ* second person trial possessive pronoun PRO see for real (not in a vision) See your (3) V/TR luk long ples ya second person trial subject pronoun Kwamera: ətə pərhien PRO Lenakel: ap pa See you (3) N Tanna: asɨpa SW Tanna: əm p̃ə secret; unknown N Vaha: əm hia i haed Whitesands: eru pa Kwamera: nari ərkwafə Lenakel: — selfish, be V/A N Tanna: — tingbaot hem wan nomo SW Tanna: nar erkwaig Kwamera: regi atuk Vaha: nat elkwaig Lenakel: — Whitesands: nati telwaig N Tanna: — Lit. thing + hidden SW Tanna: ərɨg atuk Vaha: əlɨg atuk secretly; hidden ADV Whitesands: ətou aru kwaet, sikret Lit. think + REFL Kwamera: əfafa Lenakel: aiauniwən sell s.th.; exchange s.o. or s.th. N Tanna: pɨspɨs, anion V/TR SW Tanna: apɨs-apɨs mekem maket

189

Kwamera: əvriwe Vaha: əhi əhu Lenakel: əvrai Whitesands: aiəh pətɨgəm N Tanna: ol salɨm in† SW Tanna: əvrai set down one thing (1) V/TR Vaha: əvtai putumdaon wan samting Whitesands: atuati Kwamera: əmri †fr. Bis. Lenakel: ətɨk N Tanna: ələhu send a child away for adoption; SW Tanna: ərəhu adopt a child V Vaha: ələhu adoptem Whitesands: ələhu Kwamera: esi Lenakel: əlh set down one thing (2) V/TR N Tanna: əlh putum daon SW Tanna: rhi Kwamera: kurei Vaha: lhei Lenakel: hatɨk Whitesands: əlhi N Tanna: ahlo SW Tanna: ukrai send s.o. V/TR Vaha: uktai sanem wan man i go Whitesands: aharo Kwamera: ərhi pɨn irə Lenakel: alhi pən set s.th. on s.th. else V/TR N Tanna: ahləpis putumdaon SW Tanna: her kɨn Kwamera: peki pən Vaha: hel kɨn Lenakel: əpki pən Whitesands: ahli pən N Tanna: ai pən SW Tanna: əhi pən send s.o. away V/TR Vaha: əhi pən sanemaot Whitesands: əmki pən Kwamera: ərhi irap̃ Lenakel: alh iato set s.th. on top of s.th. else V/TR N Tanna: ahl iarəp putum antap SW Tanna: her yerhav Kwamera: peki utə Vaha: hel itam Lenakel: əpkit Whitesands: ahli pətgəm N Tanna: ləhsipər SW Tanna: əhi haktə serious, be V/A Vaha: əhi pəktə See heavy, be Whitesands: aiəh pəri set (of sun) V/INTR set s.th. upright V/TR See turn around stanemap Kwamera: ərpi set down many things V/TR Lenakel: eipatkin putum daon N Tanna: em Kwamera: peki irap̃ SW Tanna: ərɨp Lenakel: əpki hao Vaha: əlɨp N Tanna: əlho Whitesands: emh SW Tanna: əhi əhu

190 sew V/TR N Tanna: lokuəkɨr somap SW Tanna: ikatəpekə Kwamera: jir Vaha: ikəpeikə Lenakel: til Whitesands: loakipari N Tanna: əhl SW Tanna: jir shame N Vaha: jil i sem Whitesands: əhli Kwamera: naurɨsien Lenakel: naulɨsan sexual intercourse, have V N Tanna: naulɨsən See have sexual intercourse SW Tanna: naurɨsien Vaha: naulɨsien shade N Whitesands: naulɨsien See hidden place See ashamed, be shadow, cast a V share; disseminate V See cast a shadow seraotem Kwamera: awai, əriari shadow of s.th. N Lenakel: otih See spirit of s.th. N Tanna: oor SW Tanna: əwhai shaft of an arrow N Vaha: əwhai See arrow shaft Whitesands: ori shake V/INTR shark N seksek See requiem shark Kwamera: ətəm̃ nɨm̃ ɨn Lenakel: ətəmnum̃ ɨn sharp, be V/A N Tanna: asiəp i sap SW Tanna: ətəmnum̃ ɨn Kwamera: əhiə Vaha: ətəmnum̃ ɨn Lenakel: asɨlə Whitesands: arəmrum̃ ɨn N Tanna: asɨlə SW Tanna: esrə shake a tree; scavenge for fruit Vaha: eslə V/TR Whitesands: aslə seksekem wan tri blong karem las See also dull, be frut blong hem Kwamera: etɨgite sharpen a knife (by striking it Lenakel: ətmətɨm against s.th.) V/TR N Tanna: atɨgtɨg mekem sap SW Tanna: atmatɨm Kwamera: owini Vaha: atmatɨm Lenakel: aotin Whitesands: owari-owari N Tanna: aohin SW Tanna: whaan shallow place N Vaha: wən wota i no dip Whitesands: orin Kwamera: əkwətə See wag; See also knife Lenakel: loakilɨs

191 sharpen s.th. V/TR shave s.th. off; scratch s.th.; comb See cut s.th. to make it sharp s.th. V skrasem sharpshooter N Kwamera: əfiə-fiə i save sutum bonara Lenakel: aki-aki Kwamera: yeruk N Tanna: ak-ak Lenakel: yaru SW Tanna: əki-əki N Tanna: yaru Vaha: əki-əki SW Tanna: yaruk Whitesands: aki-aki Vaha: yatuk Whitesands: yesas she PRO See also (1) hit the bull's-eye; See he (2) shoot an arrow shed skin V/TR shattered, be V/A jenisim skin i brokbrok Kwamera: sehu Kwamera: rheə Lenakel: owiək Lenakel: əməklin N Tanna: əwiək N Tanna: asgapɨlɨs SW Tanna: ov ta SW Tanna: əməprɨs Vaha: ov takə Vaha: əməplɨs Whitesands: owiək Whitesands: əməplɨs shell N shave off extraneous strands from a See conch shell N pandanus mat V/TR katemaot ol ekstra pis (olsem shellfish, k.o. (Trochidae sp.) N pandanus mat) troka Kwamera: əraiməru Kwamera: kafwa Lenakel: əraimətɨn Lenakel: noanienmɨr N Tanna: ətamɨtɨn N Tanna: kəlikao SW Tanna: arkomətɨm SW Tanna: kərikao Vaha: ətkomətɨm Vaha: kəlikao Whitesands: ətamətɨn Whitesands: kəlikao See also pandanus leaf mat shell for grinding coconut N shave oneself; trim a mustache or See grater beard; cut hair or trees V/TR katem top, olsem tri o hea blong man shell necklace N Kwamera: əkihi bidbid, nekles Lenakel: akɨs Kwamera: kwənkamɨn N Tanna: akɨs Lenakel: noankamɨn SW Tanna: əkɨs N Tanna: noanat Vaha: əkɨs SW Tanna: kwəkwamɨn Whitesands: akɨs Vaha: kwəkwamɨn See trim a mustache or beard Whitesands: noanati (2) shelter N haf haos

192

Kwamera: nim̃ ə kvipəhe See also bright, be Lenakel: nim̃ ə lətən N Tanna: makeen shine onto s.th. V SW Tanna: nim̃ ə kvipə saen long samting Vaha: nim̃ ə kvihiə Kwamera: əhiəp̃ɨn Whitesands: nim̃ ə entəni Lenakel: əsikəp̃ɨn See also (1) provide shelter; N Tanna: asiəp̃ən (2) run for shelter SW Tanna: əsiap̃en Vaha: əsiap̃en sheltered area N Whitesands: asegəp̃ɨn sed Kwamera: təm̃ kəm̃ ki* ship N Lenakel: tɨkɨm̃ kɨm̃ * See canoe N Tanna: tɨkəm̃ kɨm̃ ə* SW Tanna: tɨkɨm̃ kɨm̃ * shoo; nudge V/TR Vaha: təm̃ kəm̃ * sanemaot Whitesands: tɨkɨm̃ kɨm̃ * Kwamera: ərhi, əse See provide shelter Lenakel: halkəm N Tanna: iet sheltered place N SW Tanna: her ples blong haed long ren o san Vaha: hel Kwamera: kwopɨn rənfə Whitesands: ahli pən ikɨn Lenakel: ik hanp̃ɨs shoot N N Tanna: lɨghanp̃ɨs See vine SW Tanna: ik henp̃ɨs Vaha: ik henp̃ɨs† shoot a bullet V Whitesands: tənfɨs ikɨn sutum wetem masket †See hidden place Kwamera: əkwi ye kapier shin N Lenakel: — pat blong leg N Tanna: — Kwamera: nei ye nɨsu* SW Tanna: əsɨk kɨn Lenakel: nao le nəlk* kapier N Tanna: nɨg ye nəlkɨ* Vaha: asɨk kɨn SW Tanna: nai ye nɨhu* kapiel Vaha: nai ye nɨhu* Whitesands: əji e kapiel Whitesands: nɨgi ye nəlkɨ* Lit. strike + TR + stone Lit. wood + LOC + leg See also hit s.th. or s.o. (1) shine V/INTR shoot an arrow and miss V/TR i laet sutum wan aro, be mestem Kwamera: mher, əhiə Kwamera: ərkwai Lenakel: asiə Lenakel: haupən iluə N Tanna: asiə N Tanna: əht arə pən SW Tanna: əsiə SW Tanna: arɨp ərhav Vaha: əsiə Vaha: halpai Whitesands: asiə Whitesands: atɨp pətgəm

193

194 shred s.th. lengthwise V/TR Vaha: nɨkalɨ* katem longfala blong hem Whitesands: nɨkalɨ* Kwamera: əpi ətestesi See also (1) about; (2) gossip Lenakel: ətɨk N Tanna: ɨtas side of the face N SW Tanna: hasɨs saed blong fes Vaha: hasɨs Kwamera: tənime* Whitesands: agarɨs Lenakel: kawitəlɨg* N Tanna: nɨkaltəlgɨ* shred s.th. open V/TR SW Tanna: nɨkatərg* pulum open Vaha: nɨkaotəlɨgɨ Kwamera: ərimi Whitesands: nɨkavitəlgɨ* Lenakel: hatkəpu See also eye N Tanna: agəp SW Tanna: hapu sigh V/INTR Vaha: hapu pulum win from we yu taed Whitesands: əgəpu Kwamera: eihaag fi Lenakel: amigəlh shrug one’s shoulders V N Tanna: eagpɨr sakem solda SW Tanna: eihaag əpɨr Kwamera: orəha nura* Vaha: eihag əpɨl Lenakel: ətəkɨn nuik* Whitesands: eihaag əlhi N Tanna: ərəkɨn nueg* SW Tanna: oriah nura* sign; miracle; omen N Vaha: oliah nula saen, merekel Whitesands: ərəkɨn nura* Kwamera: nɨmtətien Lit. ruin + shoulders Lenakel: nɨmtətin N Tanna: nəmtətin sibling N SW Tanna: nɨmtətien See (1) cross-gender sibling; Vaha: nɨmtətien (2) same-gender sibling; (3) Whitesands: ol əpu† same-gender younger sibling †See reveal sick, be V/A (INTR) similar to each other, be V/A See die i semak Kwamera: əmnəm̃ hen sickness N Lenakel: ap aukɨr See death (1) N Tanna: ehm am̃ hen SW Tanna: əm nəm̃ hen sick of s.th., be V/A Vaha: əm nəm̃ hen See bored, be Whitesands: eru əm̃ hen See (1) resemble s.th. else (1); side of s.o. or s.th. N (2) enough, be long saed blong Kwamera: nɨkare* sing V Lenakel: nɨkal* singsing N Tanna: nɨkalɨ* Kwamera: ani SW Tanna: nɨkar* Lenakel: ani

195

N Tanna: əni sister of a female N SW Tanna: əni See same-gender sibling Vaha: əni Whitesands: ani sister of a male (1); female parallel See say; See also (1) dance; cousin of a man N song; (2) dare sista blong wan man Kwamera: kətutu, single, be (female) V/A kətirim̃ a* i no mared Lenakel: nowin* Kwamera: avən N Tanna: wɨnɨ* Lenakel: — SW Tanna: nowin* N Tanna: — Vaha: nowin* SW Tanna: əriwək Whitesands: nowɨn* Vaha: — Whitesands: aliwək sister of a male (2) N Col. See parallel cousin, cross- gender sing songs V/INTR singim singsing sister of a woman’s husband N Kwamera: oskafa See sister-in-law Lenakel: əukapə N Tanna: atəpə sit V/INTR SW Tanna: əukapə sidaon Vaha: əukapə Kwamera: əkurei Whitesands: ətəpə Lenakel: əwətə See also dance N Tanna: əp̃ələh sister-in-law (of a woman); SW Tanna: əkwətə woman’s female parallel cousin (1) Vaha: əkwətə N Whitesands: əharəg sista blong hasband, kasen sista See (1) have a meeting; (2) Kwamera: kuni meeting; See also (1) married, Lenakel: yəuɨgɨn/kuni be (2); (2) stand up N Tanna: yəgwɨn SW Tanna: kuni sit with legs straight forward Vaha: kuni V/INTR Whitesands: neiwə* sidaon, leg i stret Kwamera: əkurei sister-in-law (of a woman); musatuk woman’s female parallel cousin (2) nusu* N Lenakel: — sista blong hasband blong, kasen sista N Tanna: — blong SW Tanna: əkwətə Kwamera: pɨkum̃ ɨg* mhuatuk kɨn Lenakel: — nɨhu* N Tanna: — Vaha: əkwətə SW Tanna: nɨrkugɨ* mhuatuk kɨn Vaha: nɨlkugɨ* nɨhu* Whitesands: neiwə* Whitesands: aharəg

196

mwharu e tikikwipɨr nelkɨ* Vaha: keləh ila* Whitesands: kəlhə ila* skewer meat V/TR rusum long faea long wan stik sky (1) (blue) N Kwamera: piri skae Lenakel: apil Kwamera: kəpuapen N Tanna: apil Lenakel: kəpoapɨn SW Tanna: əpir N Tanna: kəpuapɨn Vaha: əpil SW Tanna: kapoapɨg Whitesands: apil Vaha: kapoapɨg Whitesands: skin; husk N Lit. cloud + black skin blong Kwamera: teki* sky (2); atmosphere N Lenakel: nɨwig* ea we i stap raon long wol N Tanna: nɨvi* Kwamera: nɨmagou- SW Tanna: tɨki* agou Vaha: lesɨ* Lenakel: nɨmago-ago Whitesands: nosɨ* N Tanna: nagəp-agəp See also coconut husk SW Tanna: nɨmago-ago Vaha: nɨmago-ago skin, shed V/TR Whitesands: nɨmago-ago See shed skin sky (3); heaven N skink N skae See Sanford's emo skink Kwamera: neai Lenakel: neai skinny, be V/A N Tanna: neai bunbun SW Tanna: neai Kwamera: əkiriao Vaha: neai Lenakel: aviləg Whitesands: neai N Tanna: avilɨg SW Tanna: əkiriao slander (1); blaspheme V Vaha: əkilus† talem nogud Whitesands: akilkili† Kwamera: əski †See malnourished, be (2) Lenakel: ni tat N Tanna: ən rat skirt made of bark N SW Tanna: ni hah See bark skirt Vaha: ni hah Whitesands: əni rah skull N Lit. tell + bad bun blong hed Kwamera: kerhə slander (2) V Lenakel: nɨwigkɨləl See gossip (1) N Tanna: rəha* wipɨl- wipɨl slap V/TR SW Tanna: kerhə ira*, See clap

197 slave (1) N Vaha: əsawə slef Whitesands: əsawə Kwamera: yo tukwini See pillow Lenakel: yol atkokin N Tanna: yol ətəkun sleep soundly V/INTR SW Tanna: yor atuəkɨn slip gud Vaha: yol atuəkɨn Kwamera: apri yeru Whitesands: yol ərhwin Lenakel: apɨl əlu Lit. worker + on behalf of N Tanna: apɨl əlualu SW Tanna: apɨr yeru slave (2) N Vaha: apɨl yelu slef Whitesands: apli alu Kwamera: yo nəkwə Lenakel: yol noa* sleepwalk V/INTR N Tanna: yol noa* See grunt in one's sleep SW Tanna: yor nəkwa* Vaha: yol nəkwa* slide; crawl on the back; move Whitesands: yol noa* slowly (for liquid) V/INTR Lit. one + who does the will wokbaot olsem snel of Kwamera: tei Lenakel: ətei sleep V/INTR N Tanna: əkio slip SW Tanna: tei Kwamera: apri Vaha: tei Lenakel: apɨl Whitesands: rei N Tanna: apɨl See also mudslide SW Tanna: apɨr Vaha: apɨl sling N Whitesands: apli sling See blink; See also wake up Kwamera: təriuv Lenakel: təliv sleepiness; fatigue N N Tanna: makətəlip slip SW Tanna: kwətɨriv Kwamera: napriyen Vaha: kwətɨliv Lenakel: — Whitesands: kutəliuv N Tanna: — SW Tanna: napɨrien slip (1) V Vaha: napɨlien glis long rod Whitesands: naplien Kwamera: əvi, akɨk See also (1) snore; (2) tired; Lenakel: eokakiə (3) yawn N Tanna: eguahtete SW Tanna: əviəməkrə sleep on a pillow V/INTR Vaha: eiaməklə slip long wan pilo Whitesands: ovaməklə Kwamera: əsawə Lenakel: əsawə slip (2) V N Tanna: əsawə i glis long wan samting SW Tanna: əsawə Kwamera: akɨk

198

Lenakel: — small, be; short, be V/A N Tanna: — sotfala SW Tanna: akɨk Kwamera: owihi Vaha: akɨk Lenakel: əsuas Whitesands: oskəreirei N Tanna: əkuəkɨr SW Tanna: əkəskəh slippery, be (1) (of grass, mud) Vaha: əkok V/A Whitesands: əkəku i glis See smallness; See also long, Kwamera: əkwəraren be Lenakel: əməkləh N Tanna: əməklah small ant N SW Tanna: əməkrəh See ant (small) Vaha: əməkləh Whitesands: əməkləh small clearing N See tide pool slippery, be (2) (of grass, sweaty legs) V/A small fruits N i glis See palm, k.o. (1) Kwamera: əkwərarən

Lenakel: əukakiə smallness; shortness; childhood N Tanna: egoakiəh N SW Tanna: əkwərar taem i pikinini Vaha: əkwərar Kwamera: nouihien Whitesands: avinɨgi Lenakel: nəsuəsan slow; slowly ADJ, ADV N Tanna: nəkəkuan See easy SW Tanna: nəkəskəyen Vaha: nəkokien slowly; hesitatingly; late ADV Whitesands: nəkəkuyen slo See small, be Kwamera: kəmər Lenakel: kiəmei small of back N N Tanna: kəmɨn baksaed SW Tanna: kəmər Kwamera: kəkreighi* Vaha: kəməl Lenakel: nɨmansi* Whitesands: kəməl N Tanna: nolaguɨli* See also quickly SW Tanna: kərkrenəsi* Vaha: — smack one's lips V/INTR Whitesands: nulaugəlhi* mekem noes wetem skin blong maot, See also back olsem kis Kwamera: osamə small one N Lenakel: ətəmaluə† smol wan N Tanna: əsamə Kwamera: kwətɨni SW Tanna: osamə Lenakel: irəsuas Vaha: okwamə N Tanna: netɨn Whitesands: ətəmaluə† SW Tanna: kwətɨni †See summon pigs Vaha: kwətɨni

199

Whitesands: təkaku Vaha: eiasɨs See also kava drunk during Whitesands: əgarɨs daylight smash s.th. open (1) (with a knife) small tuber pudding (cooked in V/TR saucepan) N kilim wetem naef simboro Kwamera: aruipəhar Kwamera: kwənəgen Lenakel: arwopsɨl Lenakel: noanəgen N Tanna: ahtɨpɨlɨs N Tanna: noanɨgen SW Tanna: arkwhopsɨr SW Tanna: kwənagɨn Vaha: ətkwopsɨl Vaha: kwənəgen Whitesands: ətapsɨl Whitesands: kaotəgɨn smash s.th. open (2) (with a rock) small village N V/TR See village (3) kilim wetem ston Kwamera: arui əteisi smash a hole through s.th. V/TR Lenakel: arwosɨsɨn stikim (wetem naef) N Tanna: aht əlkin Kwamera: osi ərori SW Tanna: arkwəsɨs Lenakel: huateih Vaha: ətkwəsɨs N Tanna: ahterəh Whitesands: əht arɨs SW Tanna: hoteih Vaha: whalteih smile; laugh V/INTR Whitesands: ahtərerəh laf Kwamera: arɨs smash s.th. (1) V/TR Lenakel: əliel See pound s.th. (1) N Tanna: alah SW Tanna: arh smash s.th. (2) (by squeezing); ruin Vaha: aləh s.th. by adding too much coconut Whitesands: aləh to it V/TR smasem wetem fingga smoke N Kwamera: əvai ətesi smok Lenakel: ətɨt əsɨsɨn Kwamera: nɨsenap N Tanna: ur əlkin Lenakel: nahnɨkəm SW Tanna: əvɨt əsɨs N Tanna: nəhaniəm Vaha: əvɨt əsɨs SW Tanna: nehenap Whitesands: əmkərɨs Vaha: nehenap See squeeze (2) Whitesands: nahnɨgəm See also float around smash s.th. (3) (by standing on it) V/TR smooth, be; tidy, be V/A brumbit smut gud Kwamera: əviə əteisi Kwamera: piəpiə Lenakel: wasɨsɨn Lenakel: opiə N Tanna: eguamnu N Tanna: apiə SW Tanna: əviəsɨs SW Tanna: piəpiə

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Vaha: piəpiə Kwamera: əserɨp Whitesands: piəpiə Lenakel: əvi noanaləl See entirely N Tanna: iu noanəliel SW Tanna: əserɨp snail N Vaha: əsɨpier snel Whitesands: iui noanəha- Kwamera: təkiəv ləhal Lenakel: təkiəv See also (1) sleepiness; (2) N Tanna: təkiəp yawn SW Tanna: təkiəv Vaha: təkiəv snort V/INTR Whitesands: təkiəv noes blong pig Kwamera: əpuuk snap a branch or twig V Lenakel: apuuk brekbrekem wud N Tanna: apuuk Kwamera: okrig əfifi SW Tanna: əpuuk Lenakel: arkəl-arkəl Vaha: əpuuk N Tanna: atgəlh-atgəlh Whitesands: apuuk SW Tanna: okrig-okrig

Vaha: oklig-oklig soft, be V/A Whitesands: atgəlhi- sofsof atgəlhi Kwamera: məru-məru sneeze V/INTR Lenakel: mərɨk-mərɨk sni N Tanna: mətmətɨg, Kwamera: əm̃ eta ame-ame Lenakel: amətəh SW Tanna: marɨmar N Tanna: amtah Vaha: matə-matə SW Tanna: əmtəh Whitesands: mətmətɨg Vaha: əmtəh See (1) easy; (2) newly-born, Whitesands: amtəh be; (3) rotten, be (3); See also strong, be sniff V/TR smelem sole of foot N Kwamera: pegi See palm of hand Lenakel: əro neipienan† some ADJ N Tanna: əto napiɨnan† samfala SW Tanna: pig Kwamera: nep̃ɨn Vaha: pin Lenakel: nɨvin Whitesands: əto N Tanna: neen napienien† SW Tanna: tɨksɨn †Lit. feel + smell Vaha: nulɨn Whitesands: nəwein snoop V/TR See also friends See look for s.th. (1) somersault V/INTR snore V/INTR kalipet pulum nostrel Kwamera: osəruə†

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Lenakel: aunɨpɨn sour, be V/A N Tanna: emkafitokw† konkon SW Tanna: ənəmkawto Kwamera: əfiə Vaha: ənəmkawto Lenakel: awier Whitesands: emkəunatu N Tanna: agɨn, wəkwək †See forward flip SW Tanna: əukə Vaha: əukə s.th. rotten N Whitesands: arfu See pulp, dirty source N song N See eye See (1) dance; song; (2) history south DIR See (1) ninety degrees soon ADV clockwise from the coast; (2) i no long taem ninety degrees counter- Kwamera: rɨpko mhə tui clockwise from the coast Lenakel: kəsənian mə təruh sow V N Tanna: otɨsu əhɨn See scatter (3) SW Tanna: pəh nien mə tuktu space N Vaha: pəh nien mə See room tuk nuəh Whitesands: səmo tuəh space between two things N agɨn See between Lit. It’s not a long time spark N sorcery N asis blong faea we i laet nekaimas Kwamera: nɨməkmək ye Kwamera: nahak nap† Lenakel: nətɨk Lenakel: nɨmtalɨgɨ* N Tanna: nətɨk N Tanna: nɨmtalh* SW Tanna: nahak SW Tanna: kwənəmtarh* Vaha: nahak Vaha: kwənəmtalh* Whitesands: nərɨk Whitesands: nɨmtalh* See perform sorcery †Lit. spark of fire See also fire sore N See boil N spark V/INTR faea i kamaot sore, be V/A Kwamera: əmsirɨp See (1) burn; (2) wounded be Lenakel: — (1) N Tanna: ləpləp SW Tanna: əmsirəp soul N Vaha: əmsirəp See voice (2) Whitesands: ilələklək

202 speak; talk V SW Tanna: əgkiar əkhen toktok Vaha: əgkiat əkhen Kwamera: əgkiari Whitesands: əghaji əghen Lenakel: əkar N Tanna: əghat spear N SW Tanna: əgkiar spia Vaha: əgkiat Kwamera: nɨtei Whitesands: əghati Lenakel: suk See (1) messenger; (2) N Tanna: nɨro speech; See also (1) disobey; SW Tanna: kwənhao (2) interrupt; (3) rebuke; (4) Vaha: kwənhai whisper Whitesands: nɨro See also (1) shoot an arrow or speaker, away from DIR spear; (2) throw s.th. See away from speaker and elongated addressee spear a person or animal V/TR See stab a person or animal speaker, toward DIR See toward speaker speech N toktok speak hypocritically V Kwamera: nəgkiarien See carve Lenakel: nəkaran N Tanna: nəghatən speak kindly V SW Tanna: nəgkiarien toktok gud long Vaha: nəgkiajien Kwamera: əgkiari vivi Whitesands: nəghajien Lenakel: əni vivi See speak N Tanna: ən vivi SW Tanna: əgkiar vivi spicy food; red pepper N Vaha: əgkiat vivi i konkon Whitesands: əghati vivi Kwamera: kwəsɨrɨs Lenakel: noasɨli speak mistakenly V N Tanna: noasɨli mistek SW Tanna: kwəsɨrɨs Kwamera: — Vaha: kwəsɨrɨs Lenakel: əni atəv Whitesands: noasɨrɨs N Tanna: ən akiəh SW Tanna: ni əkiə spider N Vaha: ni əkiə See wolf spider Whitesands: — See also think erroneously spiderweb N bed blong spaeda speak vaguely V Kwamera: nɨpneiəv talem nogud Lenakel: lie-liə Kwamera: əgkiari N Tanna: liɨ-liɨ əkenhən SW Tanna: rie-riə Lenakel: əni əkhen Vaha: liə-liə N Tanna: — Whitesands: liə-liə

203 spill out of the mouth, not allow spit (1) V any liquid to V/TR spetem See dam (2) Kwamera: ətpɨr Lenakel: ətpɨs spin (1) V N Tanna: agəh† tanem raon SW Tanna: ətpɨs Kwamera: ərari Vaha: ətpɨs Lenakel: alal Whitesands: ətɨpɨs N Tanna: əgo †See spit (2) SW Tanna: arar Vaha: alal spit (2) (small amount) V/INTR Whitesands: əlali spet Kwamera: ərɨgavəs spin (2); twist; turn V Lenakel: agh tanem N Tanna: agəh† Kwamera: kurigi SW Tanna: ərɨgavh Lenakel: əvtin Vaha: ətgavəh N Tanna: uarin Whitesands: orɨgəhu SW Tanna: ukrakin †See spit (1) Vaha: ukjin Whitesands: wərin spit (3) (large amount) V spet spine muscle N Kwamera: ərɨgəwəpəsi See muscle along the spine Lenakel: aghitə N Tanna: əgəh-əpis spirit N SW Tanna: ərɨg əpɨs See dwarf spirit Vaha: — Whitesands: agh əpis spirit of st.th.; reflection of s.th.; shadow of s.th. N splash into water V speret blong wota i jam insaet, o i jamaot Kwamera: nənmɨ* Kwamera: ewə Lenakel: nanmu* Lenakel: eiwa N Tanna: narmɨ* N Tanna: efautɨm̃ SW Tanna: nənmɨ* SW Tanna: ewə Vaha: nənmɨ* Vaha: əluə Whitesands: narmɨ* Whitesands: eiwə, jipu See also image splash s.th. out of s.th. V spirit world N kapsaetem ples blong ol speret Kwamera: ətəgi Kwamera: nəripai Lenakel: ətəg Lenakel: naripai N Tanna: eləg, əhtəg N Tanna: noanpɨn SW Tanna: ətəg SW Tanna: naripai Vaha: ətəg Vaha: natipai Whitesands: ərəgɨn Whitesands: natipai

204 splinter (esp. from volcanic rock) Whitesands: ətamtei N See also (1) axe; (2) machete smol pis wud o ston i stikim yu Kwamera: — spoon N Lenakel: miminau See scooper N Tanna: — SW Tanna: miminau spotted (of animals) ADJ Vaha: miminau anamol i blak mo waet Whitesands: meimeinao Kwamera: kurkurkwi Lenakel: katɨk-atɨk split apart, be V/A N Tanna: kɨlai-kɨlai haf i brok SW Tanna: kurai-kurai Kwamera: əskərəg Vaha: kasɨk-asɨk Lenakel: awiləgləg Whitesands: kɨlai-kɨlai N Tanna: atɨlkin SW Tanna: əskərəg spotted, be (such as fruit); Vaha: əskələg freckles, have V/A Whitesands: asuələgləg blak mak long wan frut o long skin blong man split s.th. lengthwise (1) V/TR Kwamera: — katem longfala blong hem Lenakel: ətəlhiəpɨn- Kwamera: ərpɨfĩ iepɨn Lenakel: whaprai N Tanna: ahleipɨg-eipɨg N Tanna: uhapɨk SW Tanna: əskəpneipən SW Tanna: hoprai Vaha: asɨk eipən- Vaha: ohaptai eipən Whitesands: ətamtei Whitesands: əjiəpniəpɨn See interpret spray V/INTR split s.th. lengthwise (2) (by wota i jamaot standing it upright) V/TR Kwamera: igɨs-igɨs katem long longfala blong hem Lenakel: iuk-iuk Kwamera: əvskrigi N Tanna: igɨs-igɨs Lenakel: ərɨplai SW Tanna: igɨs-igɨs N Tanna: uəh Vaha: igɨs-igɨs SW Tanna: ərɨprai Whitesands: iuɨg-iuɨg Vaha: ətəptai Whitesands: ohamtei spread out s.th.; make s.th. level (1) V split s.th. lengthwise (3) (by seraot wan wan striking it with an axe or machete) Kwamera: virɨs V/TR Lenakel: hekələg splitim samting (olsem wud) N Tanna: an atit Kwamera: us SW Tanna: vi rikrik Lenakel: arwoprai Vaha: vi jikjik N Tanna: ahtɨp Whitesands: əvi ələklək SW Tanna: arkoprai Vaha: ətkoptai

205 spread out s.th.; make s.th. level (2) N Tanna: apɨlpɨl V/TR SW Tanna: əpɨrpɨr spredem wan samting Vaha: əpɨlpɨl Kwamera: əpəkɨr Whitesands: apɨlpɨl Lenakel: apəkɨr See make noise N Tanna: elkin-elkin SW Tanna: apəkɨr squat; unlevel, be (of ground) Vaha: apəkɨl V/INTR Whitesands: eləki sidaon antap, graon we I no level See also make level Kwamera: əkurei təutə Lenakel: əwətə ita ita spring (of water) N N Tanna: əp̃ələ riəriər springwota SW Tanna: əkwətə haktə Kwamera: — haktə Lenakel: sipsip Vaha: əkwətə pəktə N Tanna: nəmtɨ nəhau pəktə SW Tanna: — Whitesands: əharəg pəri Vaha: — pəri Whitesands: — Lit. at + up + up See also waterfall squeal V/INTR spring up (of water) V See hoot springwota Kwamera: kwərkwər squeeze s.th. (1) V/TR Lenakel: — skwisim N Tanna: — Kwamera: əvai SW Tanna: kwərkwər Lenakel: avɨr Vaha: kwɨlɨkwɨl N Tanna: avɨr Whitesands: — SW Tanna: əvɨt Vaha: əvɨt sprinkle V/TR Whitesands: avɨr See douse See smash s.th. (4) sprout above ground V/INTR squeeze s.th. (2) V/TR I stap gru See (1) knead; (2) smash s.th. Kwamera: — (2) Lenakel: — N Tanna: atp̃erəh stab a person or animal; spear a SW Tanna: əməteih person or animal V/TR Vaha: əməlteih sperem Whitesands: — Kwamera: əpi See make noise Lenakel: ətɨk N Tanna: aru sprout a new bud; branch SW Tanna: hai V/INTR Vaha: hai i stap gru ol niufala lif Whitesands: aro Kwamera: əpɨrpɨr Lenakel: —

206 stab a person or animal to death See also (1) married, be (3); V/TR (2) motion to stop; (3) stikim mo kilim i ded persevere; (4) proclaim (2) Kwamera: əpi əpnei Lenakel: ətkəpnin stand firmly V/INTR N Tanna: agəmnu, See persevere ətamnu SW Tanna: hapni stand on s.th. in order to hold it in Vaha: hapni place V/TR Whitesands: ohamnu See hold s.th. in place by See also stone a person or standing on it animal to death stand ready V stack things on top of one another rere blong V/TR Kwamera: ərer matuk hivimap i go antap Lenakel: ail matu Kwamera: rɨn N Tanna: ətul matɨp Lenakel: hatɨkəl SW Tanna: ərer matuk N Tanna: ər Vaha: ətel matuk SW Tanna: rɨg Whitesands: ətul malu Vaha: lɨg Whitesands: əli stand under the shelter of s.th. V stanap ananil long wan tri stag beetle N Kwamera: ərer teigən See stubborn person Lenakel: — N Tanna: — stale, be; leftover, be (from SW Tanna: ərer ətgɨn previous day, of drinks or food) Vaha: ətel ətgɨn V/A Whitesands: ətul agəl kakae blong yestedei Kwamera: əkwase stand up V/INTR Lenakel: ahl stanap N Tanna: auig Kwamera: əmter, SW Tanna: əkwahir əskəmter Vaha: əkwahil Lenakel: arm̃ ig Whitesands: ahal N Tanna: ətul† SW Tanna: hekɨmter stand; stop V Vaha: eihamtu stop, stanap Whitesands: ətul† Kwamera: ərer †See stand; stop; See also sit Lenakel: ail N Tanna: ətul† star; iris N SW Tanna: ərer sta, ae Vaha: ətel Kwamera: kəməhau Whitesands: ətul† Lenakel: məhau †See stand up N Tanna: məhau SW Tanna: kɨmhau Vaha: kɨmhau

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Whitesands: məhau steam from volcano N See also (1) eye; (2) morning See volcano steam and ash star; (3) noon, be; (4) pupil steep place N stare V stip ples lukluk i go Kwamera: kwopɨn Kwamera: əji əter əknekɨn Lenakel: alkəlɨk Lenakel: ikyəkɨs N Tanna: alkəlɨk, N Tanna: lekiəkɨs əpɨtəlɨk SW Tanna: ikəutən SW Tanna: arha əterɨk Vaha: ikeikɨs Vaha: alha ətelɨk Whitesands: ekiəkɨs† Whitesands: atel kelɨk †See waterfall starfish N stem N See blue starfish han blong lif Kwamera: nɨkəki* start at V/INTR Lenakel: nɨklɨkɨli* See come from N Tanna: nəukɨnɨ* SW Tanna: nɨkəki* startle V/TR Vaha: nɨkəke* See awaken Whitesands: nɨkɨlkɨli* See bone; See also taro stem stay V/INTR See be stem of coconut leaf N See coconut leaf stem steal V/TR stil step carved into s.th. (esp. into a Kwamera: akres coconut tree for climbing it) N Lenakel: akləh lada, step N Tanna: əkləh Kwamera: penpen SW Tanna: əkrəh Lenakel: penpen Vaha: əkləh N Tanna: — Whitesands: akləh SW Tanna: penpen See thief; See also commit Vaha: penpen adultery (1) Whitesands: tətarivaru steam V/INTR step into s.th. (such as a canoe); See create steam step over s.th. (such as a barrier) V/TR steam; humidity N jam blong go insaed stim Kwamera: aji pən Kwamera: nənəs Lenakel: at pən Lenakel: nowəs N Tanna: egu pən N Tanna: nowah SW Tanna: at pən SW Tanna: nowəh Vaha: at pən Vaha: nowəh Whitesands: ahtji pən Whitesands: nowəh

208 step over s.th. V/TR samting we i fas olsem glu See step into s.th. Kwamera: kwənəpit̃ Lenakel: noanəp̃it sternly ADV N Tanna: noaneg See strongly SW Tanna: kwənəp̃it Vaha: kwənəp̃it stick for digging N Whitesands: noanəp̃eit See digging stick still; to this day (1) ADV stick for killing birds N yet See throwing stick for killing Kwamera: ihi birds Lenakel: ənəh N Tanna: əh stick for walking N SW Tanna: hanə See walking stick Vaha: ənhə Whitesands: hanə stick out the tongue V pusumaot tang still; to this day (2) ADV Kwamera: ruai kasem tede Lenakel: ewai Kwamera: təvɨr N Tanna: yoin Lenakel: — SW Tanna: ruai N Tanna: — Vaha: luai SW Tanna: təvɨr Whitesands: ewə Vaha: telɨn† Whitesands: — sticks, throw V/TR †See forever See throw sticks stillness N stick s.th. inside of s.th. V See emptiness putum insaed Kwamera: atkowini sting V/TR Lenakel: atməluin See burn N Tanna: ɨtətlin SW Tanna: atmərukɨn stinger; anus (vulgar) N Vaha: anməlukɨn as blong Whitesands: əgmalwin Kwamera: — Lenakel: nəkwutɨ* sticky, be; hold hands with s.o. N Tanna: nelwɨ* V/A, V SW Tanna: nəkwutɨ* fas Vaha: nəkwutɨ* Kwamera: əptəpit̃ Whitesands: nɨmansi* Lenakel: əp̃it pən See anus (1) N Tanna: əp̃eri pən SW Tanna: əp̃it pən stinging nettles (Dendrocnide sp.) Vaha: əp̃it pən N Whitesands: əp̃er pən nanggalat Kwamera: nəvirəkw sticky thing N Lenakel: nəwiro

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N Tanna: nəvitok Lenakel: kəp̃iel SW Tanna: nəvirəkw N Tanna: kəp̃iel Vaha: nəvitəkw SW Tanna: kəp̃ier Whitesands: nɨvito Vaha: kəp̃iel See also (1) jellyfish; (2) Whitesands: kəp̃iel Appendix C See also (1) magical stone; (2) roll s.th.; (3) shoot a bullet stingray N See whiptail stingray stone a person or animal to death V/TR sting the eyes V/TR sakem ston blong kilim See burn or sting the eyes Kwamera: ərkwətan Lenakel: aruopni stink V N Tanna: ahtɨmnu See have an odor SW Tanna: arkwhopni Vaha: ətkwhopni stir V/TR Whitesands: ahtɨmu miksim, tantanem See also stab a person or Kwamera: arkini animal to death Lenakel: alkin N Tanna: alkin stone used for magic N SW Tanna: arkin See magical stone Vaha: alkin Whitesands: alkin stop V See stand stoke a fire V/TR makem faea i hot stop crying; be quiet V/INTR Kwamera: əteji stap kwaet Lenakel: atɨt-atɨt Kwamera: p̃im N Tanna: atɨt-atɨt Lenakel: apum SW Tanna: ətɨt-ətɨt N Tanna: apum Vaha: əgətɨg SW Tanna: p̃im Whitesands: əji-əji Vaha: p̃im See also fire Whitesands: apum See also distract from crying stomach N bel story N Kwamera: tətɨp̃i* See myth Lenakel: tɨp̃eiuwə N Tanna: tɨpəin straddle s.th. such as a log V/TR SW Tanna: tɨp̃eiuwə See walk across s.th. Vaha: tɨp̃eiuwə Whitesands: tɨp̃eiuwə straight, be V/A See belly stret Kwamera: ətukwatukw stone N Lenakel: atuatu ston N Tanna: ətuatɨp Kwamera: kəp̃ier SW Tanna: atuatukw

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Vaha: ətkwatukw strangle V/TR Whitesands: aruaru skwisim nek See also crooked, be (1) Kwamera: əvai əpnei Lenakel: əvɨt əpnin straighten V/TR N Tanna: aril stretem SW Tanna: əvɨt əpni Kwamera: usatuk Vaha: əvɨt əpni Lenakel: whatu Whitesands: avɨr əmhu N Tanna: urapɨk SW Tanna: whatuk straw (for sucking) N Vaha: whatuk stro Whitesands: hwaru Kwamera: kwəjiuvjiuv Lenakel: kəvi straighten up V/TR N Tanna: — See prepare (2) SW Tanna: kwəjiuvjiuv Vaha: kwəjiuvjiuv strainer N Whitesands: kwirɨm See coconut bark fiber See also suck strain through a strainer V/TR strength N sef See health Kwamera: askɨn Lenakel: us stretch V/TR N Tanna: awɨrh See pull (2) SW Tanna: kni Vaha: kni strike the bottom of s.th. (such as Whitesands: awɨrh a coconut) V kilim saed daon blong wan samting stranger N (olsem kokonas) strenja Kwamera: oksokwin Kwamera: yəp̃sup̃ɨs Lenakel: ətiwɨn Lenakel: yep̃sɨp̃ɨs N Tanna: əht naunɨsin N Tanna: etəmp̃ɨsp̃ɨs SW Tanna: arkokrisɨn SW Tanna: yep̃sɨp̃ɨs Vaha: ətkweikun Vaha: yep̃sɨp̃ɨs Whitesands: əhji nosi Whitesands: etəm yap̃ɨsp̃ɨs See also bottom or outside of See also foreigner s.th. stranger, be a V/A string N i wan strenja See vein Kwamera: pɨspɨs Lenakel: auneiwən string for bow N N Tanna: ol iapɨspɨs in† See bowstring SW Tanna: apsɨpɨs Vaha: apsɨpɨs strip leaves off a branch V/TR Whitesands: pɨspɨs tekemaot ol lif †Lit. do+ stranger + TR Kwamera: ereirhi Lenakel: aslig-aslig

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N Tanna: aslin-aslin SW Tanna: sisəg SW Tanna: əsrig-əsrig Vaha: sisəg Vaha: əslig-əslig Whitesands: sisɨg Whitesands: aslin-aslin See (1) close s.th.; (2) crowded, be; (3) dam (2) strong, be (1); hard (not soft), be; expensive, be; difficult, be V/A stuck, be (2) (after having been i sas shot, as an arrow in a tree) V/A Kwamera: əknekɨn i fas long samting Lenakel: ətɨpɨk Kwamera: rətei N Tanna: iakɨs Lenakel: sul SW Tanna: əutən N Tanna: sul Vaha: eikɨs SW Tanna: rətei Whitesands: iəkɨs† Vaha: lətei †See stubborn person Whitesands: surətei See also soft, be See also shoot an arrow or spear strong, be (2) V/A See healthy, be stuck, be (3) (while suspended, as a broken branch in a tree) V/A strongly; firmly; sternly ADV (INTR) strong i fas Kwamera: əfiə Kwamera: əgher əteirei Lenakel: iəkɨs Lenakel: əkil ətai N Tanna: iəkɨs N Tanna: əkul ətai SW Tanna: skai SW Tanna: əker əterɨk Vaha: skai Vaha: əkel ətɨlɨk Whitesands: eskasɨk, iəkɨs Whitesands: əkul-əkul See also (1) rebuke; (2) scold, Lit. hang + strongly be (2) stuff food inside bamboo V/TR stubborn person; stag beetle (Fam. putum insaed samting (olsem bambu) Lucanidae) N Kwamera: arɨgɨn stronghed Lenakel: arɨgɨn Kwamera: kəmeirɨs N Tanna: arɨgɨn Lenakel: kɨlɨpɨs SW Tanna: arɨgɨn N Tanna: kɨlɨpɨs Vaha: hatgɨn SW Tanna: kəmeirɨs Whitesands: argɨn Vaha: kɨlpɨs Whitesands: tatol iəkɨs in† stumble over s.th. (1), like speech or †Lit. make + strong + TR a stone V/TR mestem, mistek stuck, be (1) (as an object in a Kwamera: əvi əmkeisər tight place) V/A Lenakel: eivkakiə i fasfas N Tanna: egoakiə Kwamera: əsisəg SW Tanna: əviəkiə Lenakel: miah Vaha: eakiə N Tanna: iai Whitesands: oakiə

212 stumble over s.th. (2) V summit (2); complete V foldaon long rod klaem antap long wan hil, finisim Kwamera: apəti klaem antap long wan samting Lenakel: apitətəl Kwamera: əkwiri N Tanna: apitətəl Lenakel: əjao SW Tanna: apitətər N Tanna: əriaoh Vaha: apitətəl SW Tanna: okrig Whitesands: apitətəl Vaha: oklig† Whitesands: ariawə stupid, be; ignorant, be V/A †See full, be (1) krangki Kwamera: ətəwao summon chickens ingressively Lenakel: eno-eno V/TR N Tanna: alməl singaotem faol SW Tanna: ətəwao, Kwamera: aghagha, armar ətɨktɨk, Vaha: ətəwao ətuktuk Whitesands: ətəwao Lenakel: ako-ako N Tanna: ako-ako succeed V/INTR SW Tanna: əgha-əgha See excel Vaha: amətuk suck V/TR Whitesands: ako-ako olsem we yu dring loli See also chicken Kwamera: tɨm̃ i Lenakel: tɨm̃ summon pigs V/TR N Tanna: ɨrɨm̃ singaotem pig SW Tanna: tɨm̃ Kwamera: ətam-ətam Vaha: tɨm̃ Lenakel: atəm-atəm† Whitesands: rɨm̃ N Tanna: amtei-amtei in sugar cane N SW Tanna: atəm-atəm suga ken Vaha: atəm Kwamera: nəruk Whitesands: atəm-atəm† Lenakel: nəru †See smack one’s lips N Tanna: nətɨp See also pig SW Tanna: nɨtuk Vaha: nɨtuk summon s.o. V/TR Whitesands: nətu singoat long wan man See also masticate sugar cane Kwamera: əkwein Lenakel: aun summit (1); cross over V N Tanna: aun klaem antap long wan hil, krosem hil SW Tanna: okrən Kwamera: ajioueni Vaha: oklən Lenakel: atəko Whitesands: aun N Tanna: aht See shout SW Tanna: əjiərok Vaha: əjiəlok sun N Whitesands: ajego pən san

213

Kwamera: meri Lenakel: arkətai Lenakel: mɨt N Tanna: əgɨtai N Tanna: mɨt, mɨtgar SW Tanna: arkəterɨk SW Tanna: mɨrh Vaha: alkətelɨk Vaha: mɨnhag Whitesands: əgərai Whitesands: mɨtɨgar See also (1) moon; (2) star; (3) support s.o. under the armpits turn around V/TR See carry or support s.o. sunbathe V/INTR under the armpits See noon, be support s.th. with an additional sunset hibiscus (Abelmoschus post V/TR Manihot; green leafy vegetable) sapotem wetem wan wud N Kwamera: ərkwəsan, aelan kabej əter Kwamera: nuwəs Lenakel: arwəsan Lenakel: nuhuə N Tanna: arwəsaan N Tanna: nounuə SW Tanna: hap̃as SW Tanna: nuhuə Vaha: hap̃as Vaha: mənuəh Whitesands: ərwəsaan Whitesands: nəunuəh See also Appendix C surface of s.th. (such as water) N antap long (wota, klaod) sunshine; daytime N Kwamera: nɨmaimai* deilaet Lenakel: nɨmalmal* Kwamera: rukwəsikər N Tanna: nɨmalmal* Lenakel: məgkat SW Tanna: nɨmarmar* N Tanna: nərauiə Vaha: nɨmalmal SW Tanna: rukweiha Whitesands: nɨmalmalɨ* Vaha: lukweiha Lit. leaf-leaf of Whitesands: nərauiə See leaf of a tree or plant supply s.th.; give s.th. surface that is flat N abundantly/freely V/TR See bed givim kago Kwamera: vehi† surprised, be; act quickly V/A, V Lenakel: autə seksek N Tanna: autei Kwamera: əkəri SW Tanna: autə Lenakel: awɨr Vaha: autə N Tanna: aut Whitesands: — SW Tanna: akur †See carry s.th. in one hand Vaha: akut See property Whitesands: aut support oneself with one arm V swallow V sidaon, sapotem bodi wetem wan han swolem Kwamera: hatəterei Kwamera: ətəgai

214

Lenakel: təgai Whitesands: kwəlei N Tanna: arga See also Appendix C SW Tanna: ətgai Vaha: ətgai swiftlet N Whitesands: ərɨgei See glossy swiftlet See also drink swim V/INTR sway V See float muvmuv Kwamera: atou-atou swing N Lenakel: atou-atou swing N Tanna: atou-atou Kwamera: kasukwei SW Tanna: atou-atou Lenakel: kasukei Vaha: atou-atou N Tanna: kasukei Whitesands: ətou-ətou SW Tanna: kasukei Vaha: kasukei swear; curse V Whitesands: kasukei swea Kwamera: ai, əkunan swing V/INTR Lenakel: eipawə swing N Tanna: əpowə Kwamera: asukei SW Tanna: arpakwə Lenakel: asukei Vaha: alpakwə N Tanna: asukei Whitesands: əpawə SW Tanna: asukei Vaha: asukei sweat N Whitesands: asukei See perspiration swing open V/TR sweat V/INTR See open (1) See perspire swollen, be V/A sweep V/TR solap brumum Kwamera: əsisi Kwamera: aies Lenakel: asis Lenakel: eaiəh N Tanna: asis N Tanna: aiəh SW Tanna: əsiis SW Tanna: ahiə Vaha: əsiis Vaha: aiəh Whitesands: asisi Whitesands: aiəh See fat, be sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) Syzygium malaccensis N N See Malay apple kumala Kwamera: kwərei Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus Lenakel: kwəlei fagiferus) N N Tanna: kwəlei namambe SW Tanna: kwərei Kwamera: kwənkwənei Vaha: kwərei Lenakel: nəwɨk

215

N Tanna: nəu Kwamera: sigi pən SW Tanna: nɨkwənai Lenakel: əsɨgi pən Vaha: nɨkwənai N Tanna: əghi pən Whitesands: nəu SW Tanna: əsɨg pən See also Appendix B Vaha: əsɨg pən Whitesands: əghi pən tail N Lit. lead away by a leash tel blong See also lead by a rope Kwamera: kwənpiki* Lenakel: nɨpik* take s.th. down V/TR N Tanna: nɨpik* karemdaon SW Tanna: nɨpikov* Kwamera: vəhi irap Vaha: nɨpikɨ* Lenakel: ləhsihao Whitesands: nɨpik* N Tanna: lɨsiəhau SW Tanna: rəhsi əhu take a shortcut V/INTR Vaha: ləhsi əhu livim rod blong go kwiktaem Whitesands: ləsi ahu Kwamera: əp̃ini Lenakel: əpkəkru take s.th. out of s.th. (1) V N Tanna: apətɨp tekemaot wan smol samting SW Tanna: əpəru Kwamera: kumiri Vaha: apətu Lenakel: ləsita Whitesands: agətu N Tanna: ɨlə rəkɨs SW Tanna: wəhsi ta take feces out of intestines from an Vaha: vah takə animal V Whitesands: rəkɨs klinim gat Kwamera: eitesi take s.th. out of s.th. (2) V Lenakel: ətkerɨn tekemaot wan smol samting N Tanna: əgəlɨn Kwamera: ukwum̃ iri SW Tanna: əhi Lenakel: elɨg Vaha: əhi N Tanna: ielɨg Whitesands: eiəh SW Tanna: ierɨg See also excrement Vaha: ielɨg Whitesands: iəlɨgi take off clothing V karemaot samting (olsem klos) talk V Kwamera: ariək raka See speak Lenakel: p̃ek N Tanna: apeg tall, be V/A SW Tanna: əpəkiəta See long, be Vaha: pɨk takə Whitesands: əpeig rəkɨs tallest one N See also clothing See longest one take part in circumcision ritual tame animal N V See lame person or animal sakomsaes

216

Tanna road N Kwamera: təme See traditional circular road Lenakel: noanalhlɨ* on Tanna N Tanna: nounəmt* SW Tanna: kwənkukɨs tap on s.th.; flick s.th. (by hand) Vaha: kwənkukɨs V/TR Whitesands: noanahlɨ* kilkilim See also stem Kwamera: rukunkun Lenakel: atkətɨk taste N N Tanna: əht-əht See thoughts (1) SW Tanna: əsɨk-əsɨk Vaha: asɨk-asɨk tasty, be V/A Whitesands: əhji-əhji i swit Kwamera: əsien taro (1) (Fam. Araceae) N Lenakel: autei taro N Tanna: əteihen Kwamera: nerei SW Tanna: heikɨn Lenakel: nɨtei Vaha: heikɨn N Tanna: nɨtei Whitesands: aorəhi See also bland, be SW Tanna: nɨtər Vaha: nɨtəl tattle V Whitesands: nɨtei talemaot nogud fasin blong nara man See also Appendix C Kwamera: əkər-əkər Lenakel: əkəl-əkəl taro (2) N N Tanna: oɨ kəkɨl-əkɨl taro SW Tanna: əkəl-əkəl Kwamera: tete Vaha: əkəl-əkəl Lenakel: tete Whitesands: əlili N Tanna: tete SW Tanna: tete tattoo N Vaha: tete mak Whitesands: tete Kwamera: nətətao Children’s talk Lenakel: nətətao N Tanna: natɨtao taro branch N SW Tanna: nətətao See branch (esp. taro) Vaha: nətətao Whitesands: nətətao taro flower N Pol.? Kwamera: kwənasɨm See history Lenakel: — N Tanna: — taunt s.o. V/TR SW Tanna: kwənahup mekem i fraet Vaha: — Kwamera: eip̃eip̃i Whitesands: noɨgɨ nɨtei† Lenakel: orarh †Lit. taro + flower N Tanna: — SW Tanna: eip̃eip̃ taro stem (for planting) N Vaha: eip̃eip̃ han blong taro, blong planem Whitesands: ip̃ip̃

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TB N teeth, gnash V See hunger (3) See gnash teeth teacher N tell V tija See say Kwamera: yahatən Lenakel: yetukun tell a lie V N Tanna: yagɨtun giaman SW Tanna: yhajoun Kwamera: eikuə, əvsiete Vaha: yhajoun Lenakel: eiuə Whitesands: yagətun N Tanna: eiuə SW Tanna: eikuə teach s.o.; point toward s.o. or s.th. Vaha: eikuə V/TR Whitesands: eiuə soemaot, tijim See liar; See also guess Kwamera: əhatən

Lenakel: ətɨkun tell a story V N Tanna: əgətun storian SW Tanna: hajoun Kwamera: əvisau Vaha: hajoun Lenakel: ausito Whitesands: əgətun N Tanna: asɨto tears N SW Tanna: əvsao tia blong ae Vaha: əvsai Kwamera: nɨse nənime* Whitesands: anus Lenakel: ni nəmro* See news; See also parable N Tanna: nowi nɨmtɨ* SW Tanna: nehe nɨmr* tell stories about ancestors Vaha: nehe nɨmt* V/INTR Whitesands: nəhu nəmtɨ* storian Lit. liquid + eye Kwamera: əfuku Lenakel: us lis tear s.th. apart V/TR N Tanna: uwəh namsu terem SW Tanna: vus ris Kwamera: sɨsi Vaha: vus lis Lenakel: təlin Whitesands: us lus N Tanna: eiarəsin See also ancestors SW Tanna: eikus Vaha: eəusɨs tempt s.o. V Whitesands: eiarɨs traem Kwamera: vəhi pən vəhi tear s.th. open V/TR pən brekem, openem Lenakel: ofin-ofin Kwamera: eitəhi N Tanna: osi pən osi Lenakel: hapu pən N Tanna: əhap SW Tanna: vəhsi pən SW Tanna: əhipu vəhsi pən Vaha: heipu Vaha: vah pən vah Whitesands: əhapu pən

218

Whitesands: əfən-əfən that; those (1) (distant) DEM Lit. give + give hemia Kwamera: kwərha tendon N Lenakel: ka See vein N Tanna: ilou SW Tanna: ai termite N Vaha: ai wan kaen bebet Whitesands: aha Kwamera: mɨruk-mɨruk Lenakel: mɨsu-mɨsu that; those (2) (more distant) N Tanna: — DEM SW Tanna: mɨsuk-mɨsuk hemia Vaha: mɨsuk-mɨsuk Kwamera: fa, nah Whitesands: misuk-misuk Lenakel: a N Tanna: əh testicle (1) N SW Tanna: a See egg Vaha: a Whitesands: aha testicle (2); Adam’s apple; tumor; knot in muscle N that; which; whom; whose REL bol blong we Kwamera: kapaap Kwamera: səme Lenakel: amakɨm Lenakel: yerəm N Tanna: noanenet N Tanna: itəm SW Tanna: kapaap SW Tanna: yame Vaha: kapaap Vaha: yatmei Whitesands: agɨmagɨm Whitesands: etəm See while walking thatch made from coconut leaf N testicles; scrotum N See coconut leaf bol blong Kwamera: nərei* that's all ADV Lenakel: nəwiərɨ* hem ya nomo N Tanna: nəwiərɨ* Kwamera: inhiai SW Tanna: nowierɨ* Lenakel: əm ɨk Vaha: nowierɨ* N Tanna: rafin† Whitesands: nəwiərɨ* SW Tanna: hanəmei Vaha: ənhəmei thank you INTJ Whitesands: rafwin† tenkyu †See all Kwamera: tanak Lit. these are the only ones Lenakel: tenkiu N Tanna: ta their (1) (DU) PRO SW Tanna: tanak blong tufala Vaha: tanak Kwamera: kɨnrau Whitesands: sipɨn† Lenakel: təhnilao fr. Eng. thank N Tanna: rəhalao †Lit. take it SW Tanna: kapəriu

219

Vaha: kap̃əliu SW Tanna: əriə Whitesands: rəhalao Vaha: aliə See belonging to (2); See also Whitesands: ilah (1) my; (2) your; (3) his; (4) our then ADV See after their (2) (TRI) PRO blong trifala the next day, be V/A (INTR) Kwamera: kənrahar nekis de Lenakel: təhniləlh Kwamera: əkwakwi irə N Tanna: rəhaləhal Lenakel: kɨni kəlaowuk SW Tanna: kapərisɨr in Vaha: kap̃əlisɨl N Tanna: lawɨg in Whitesands: rahaləhal SW Tanna: kwamer kɨn Vaha: kwamet kɨn their (3) (PL) PRO Whitesands: lawɨg lan blong olgeta See also tomorrow Kwamera: kənraha Lenakel: təhnilar there ADV N Tanna: rəhalat See toward (2) SW Tanna: kapəriə Vaha: kap̃əliə these DEM Whitesands: rəhala See this them (1) (DU, OBJ) PRO they (1) (DU) PRO long tufala tufala Kwamera: nirao, minrao Kwamera: irau Lenakel: ilau Lenakel: ilau N Tanna: ilau N Tanna: ilau SW Tanna: əriu SW Tanna: iriu Vaha: aliu Vaha: iliu Whitesands: ilau, lau Whitesands: ilau them (2) (TRI, OBJ) PRO they (2) (TRI) PRO long trifala trifala Kwamera: nirahar, Kwamera: irəhar minrahar Lenakel: ilhel Lenakel: ilhel N Tanna: ilɨhal N Tanna: iləhal SW Tanna: irisɨr SW Tanna: ərisɨr Vaha: ilisɨl Vaha: alisɨl Whitesands: iləhal Whitesands: ilahal they (3) (PL) PRO them (3) (Pl, OBJ) PRO olgeta long olgeta Kwamera: irəha Kwamera: irəha Lenakel: ilar Lenakel: nilar N Tanna: ilat N Tanna: lat SW Tanna: iriə

220

Vaha: iliə Lenakel: nar Whitesands: ilah N Tanna: nat SW Tanna: nar thick, be V/A Vaha: nat tiktik Whitesands: nati Kwamera: kɨmkɨm See also image Lenakel: kɨmkɨm N Tanna: kɨmkɨm things N SW Tanna: kɨmkɨm kako Vaha: kɨmkɨm Kwamera: narɨmnari Whitesands: kɨmkɨm Lenakel: narɨmnar See also thin and flat, be N Tanna: natɨmnat SW Tanna: narɨmnar thick rope N Vaha: natɨmnat See rope (2) Whitesands: natɨmnati thief N think (1); hear; feel V stilman harem Kwamera: yakres Kwamera: regi Lenakel: yakləh Lenakel: əro N Tanna: yakləh N Tanna: əto SW Tanna: yəkrəh SW Tanna: ərɨg Vaha: yəkləh Vaha: əlɨg Whitesands: yakləh Whitesands: əto See steal See thoughts (1); See also selfish, be thigh N tik pat blong leg think (2); listen V/TR Kwamera: nuva* lesen Lenakel: nɨva* Kwamera: ətərɨg N Tanna: nuva* Lenakel: ətəlɨg SW Tanna: nuva* N Tanna: ətəlɨg Vaha: nuva* SW Tanna: ətərɨg Whitesands: nuva* Vaha: ətəlɨg Whitesands: ətəlɨg thin and flat, be V/A See thoughts (2) tin, flat Kwamera: əgei-əgei think erroneously V/INTR Lenakel: əgei-əgei tingting blong yu i no tru N Tanna: əgei-əgei Kwamera: wəkamo SW Tanna: əgei-əgei Lenakel: məta Vaha: əgei-əgei N Tanna: əmta Whitesands: əgei-əgei SW Tanna: məta See also thick, be Vaha: məta Whitesands: məta thing N See also speak mistakenly samting Kwamera: nari

221 third person dual object pronoun thirsty, be; needy, be V/A PRO tosta See them (1) Kwamera: əkwakwa Lenakel: owawə third person dual possessive pronoun N Tanna: owaowa PRO SW Tanna: əkwakwa See their (1) Vaha: əkwakwa Whitesands: owaowa third person dual subject pronoun PRO this; these (1) DEM See they (1) hemia klosap Kwamera: i, naha third person plural object pronoun Lenakel: ɨk PRO N Tanna: u See them (3) SW Tanna: e Vaha: e third person plural possessive Whitesands: u pronoun PRO See their (3) this; these (2) DEM hemia klosap third person plural subject pronoun Kwamera: kwəranah PRO Lenakel: kerhuə See they (3) N Tanna: huə SW Tanna: kwusei third person singular object pronoun Vaha: kwusei PRO Whitesands: inuha See he this one; these ones DEM third person singular possessive hemia pronoun PRO Kwamera: inə See his Lenakel: un N Tanna: inu third person singular subject SW Tanna: en pronoun PRO Vaha: en See he Whitesands: iko third person trial object pronoun thorn N PRO nil See them (2) Kwamera: rɨvi Lenakel: nilh* third person trial possessive pronoun N Tanna: nilh* PRO SW Tanna: nirh* See their (2) Vaha: nilh* Whitesands: nilh* third person trial subject pronoun PRO thorny vine N See they (2) See vine, k.o., with thorns

222 those DEM throwing stick for killing birds See that N wud blong sakem (long wan pijin o thoughts (1); taste N kakae) tingting Kwamera: kawəs Kwamera: nɨregien Lenakel: nimh Lenakel: ninətinan N Tanna: neim N Tanna: nətoən SW Tanna: karpə SW Tanna: nərɨgien Vaha: kawə Vaha: nəlɨgien Whitesands: kawəh Whitesands: nətoyen See think (1) throw more than one thing V/TR See toss more than one thing thoughts (2) N tingting throw s.th. V/TR Kwamera: nətərɨgien See toss s.th. Lenakel: nətəlɨgan N Tanna: nətəlɨgən throw s.th. at a person or animal SW Tanna: nətərɨgien V/TR Vaha: nətəlɨgien See throw s.th. away (1)

Whitesands: nətəlɨgien throw s.th. away (1); throw s.th. at See think (2) a person or animal V/TR

sakem thrash about V/INTR Kwamera: erukw See flail Lenakel: aruin

N Tanna: atɨpin three NUM SW Tanna: arukɨn trifala Vaha: atukɨn Kwamera: kəhar Whitesands: atulan Lenakel: kɨsɨl N Tanna: kɨsɨl throw s.th. away (2) V/TR SW Tanna: kɨsisɨr sakem Vaha: kɨsisɨl Kwamera: ərarki Whitesands: kɨsɨl Lenakel: əlakin See also trial number marker N Tanna: ərakin SW Tanna: arakikɨn three days ago ADV Vaha: əlalkɨn tri dei i go finis Whitesands: arakilan Kwamera: irəkəhar Lenakel: nolakɨsɨl throw s.th. away (3) V/TR N Tanna: lekɨsɨl sakem i go aotsaed SW Tanna: niksɨr Kwamera: ərarki irap Vaha: yəksɨl Lenakel: arwoatou Whitesands: niəh N Tanna: ərakin iarɨp See also (1) yesterday; (2) day SW Tanna: arkwərhav before yesterday Vaha: atkweitam Whitesands: ahtu pətɨgəm Lit. throw + out

223 throw s.th. by flicking of the wrist throw up V V/TR See vomit V sakem samting olsem ston long solwota thumb N Kwamera: apasiwə fingga we i stap hem wan long han Lenakel: amasiwɨl Kwamera: pɨsasori N Tanna: arparɨpə Lenakel: pisasul SW Tanna: apasiwɨr N Tanna: pɨsasol Vaha: apasiwɨl SW Tanna: pɨsasur Whitesands: arɨg rəkɨs Vaha: pɨsasol See also heel Whitesands: pɨsasol See also (1) finger; (2) index throw s.th. elongated, such as a finger; (3) little finger; (4) spear V/TR middle finger; (5) ring finger sakem Kwamera: erɨp thunder N Lenakel: eipatkin tanda N Tanna: argin Kwamera: karuəruə SW Tanna: ərɨp Lenakel: kaluəluə Vaha: alɨp N Tanna: kaluəluə Whitesands: arəg lan SW Tanna: karuəruə See also spear Vaha: kaluəluə Whitesands: kaluəluə throw s.th. inside (such as a pig into See also lightning a pig pen) V/TR See toss s.th. inside (such as a tickle s.o. V/TR pig into a pig pen) mekem i laf, from we yu tajem hem Kwamera: əkwresi throw s.th. round and miss V/TR Lenakel: — sakem, be mestem N Tanna: aukɨlu Kwamera: erukai SW Tanna: — Lenakel: arhuato Vaha: — N Tanna: aht akiə Whitesands: aut SW Tanna: akrwərhav Vaha: atkwai tide, be high V/INTR Whitesands: aht əpətɨgəm See high tide, be See also (1) miss s.th. round that was thrown; (2) shoot tide, be low V/INTR an arrow and miss See low tide, be throw sticks; extend a limb V/TR tide pool; small clearing N sakem wud smol ples (long rif) Kwamera: eiwəs Kwamera: nɨpategəv Lenakel: hawə Lenakel: — N Tanna: oahin N Tanna: nɨpatneigov SW Tanna: ahuə SW Tanna: nɨpagteigov Vaha: awəh Vaha: nɨpagteigov Whitesands: awəh Whitesands: nɨpətənego

224 tidy, be V/A †See bored, be See smooth, be ‡See disappointed, be See lame person or animal tie a knot in a rope V/TR (2); See also sleepiness fasem Kwamera: arpi tissue N Lenakel: ɨp See fat tissue N Tanna: rɨpɨn SW Tanna: rɨp title N Vaha: lɨp See greatness Whitesands: əp̃eris See also rope today; now ADV tede tie s.th. up V/TR Kwamera: ip̃et, fasem təkwtəkwni Kwamera: kwujihi Lenakel: toek Lenakel: aru ətin N Tanna: roiyu N Tanna: akilɨtain, SW Tanna: taktakun ətuatu Vaha: taktakun SW Tanna: rkwəji Whitesands: roiyu Vaha: tkwəji See also (1) quickly (2); (2) Whitesands: akilərain tomorrow; (3) yesterday See also release toe N tight, be V/A fingga blong leg See loose, be Kwamera: nɨkwai nɨsu* Lenakel: noan nəlkɨ* timber plate N N Tanna: noane lɨk* See roof ridge SW Tanna: kwənkwai nɨhu* tip s.th. upwards V/TR Vaha: kwənkwai kapsaetem nɨhu* Kwamera: əmter Whitesands: noanelkɨ* Lenakel: arkit Lit. fruit + leg N Tanna: əhig-əhig See also (1) ball of the foot; SW Tanna: herɨg (2) finger; (3) leg Vaha: helɨg Whitesands: ləfəri† together ADV †See lift up tugeta Kwamera: sɨmɨn tired, be; limber, be V/A Lenakel: kɨtən i taed N Tanna: kələh Kwamera: əpou† SW Tanna: kwis kwis Lenakel: əpou Vaha: kweih kweih N Tanna: əpou Whitesands: pət pəti SW Tanna: əpou See also mix things together Vaha: əpou Whitesands: əpou‡

225 tomorrow ADV torch N tumora See burning log used as a Kwamera: rəkwakwi torch Lenakel: tolauk N Tanna: olawɨg torch made of a coconut leaf N SW Tanna: tianəkwamer lif kokonas we i laet Vaha: tuknakwamɨt Kwamera: nukwihap̃ Whitesands: olawɨg Lenakel: noasiə See also (1) next day; (2) N Tanna: noanɨsiə today; (3) tomorrow; (4) SW Tanna: kwensiə yesterday Vaha: kwənkəkə Whitesands: noasiə tongs for raking out hot stones from an oven N torso N wud blong pulumaot ston blong See chest laplap Kwamera: kufei toss more than one thing, such as Lenakel: — trash or dirt V/TR N Tanna: — sakem SW Tanna: kuvhuə Kwamera: arki pən Vaha: kuvhuə Lenakel: wətə pən Whitesands: kufei N Tanna: arakin ego in See also earthen oven SW Tanna: arakə pən kɨn Vaha: alakə pən tongue N Whitesands: araki pə lan tang Kwamera: nərami* toss s.th. V/TR Lenakel: namə* sakem N Tanna: nam* Kwamera: ərkwi, rukwi SW Tanna: neram* Lenakel: arwin Vaha: nelam* N Tanna: atɨp̃in Whitesands: nəm* SW Tanna: arko See also stick out the tongue Vaha: atkuə Whitesands: atu too ADV See again toss s.th. inside (such as a pig into a pig pen) V/TR tooth N sakem insaed tut Kwamera: əkopərɨn Kwamera: revi Lenakel: oləpərɨn Lenakel: nəlu* N Tanna: aru egoin N Tanna: nəlu*, nelwɨ* SW Tanna: arkoparɨn SW Tanna: kweru* Vaha: ətkopətɨn Vaha: nɨkwəlu* Whitesands: əpətɨn Whitesands: nəlhu* See also (1) molar; (2) gnash totem magician N teeth See magician responsible for a totem

226 to this day ADV traditional circular road on Tanna See still (1) (in the center) N wan rod long Tanna Aelan, long toward (1) (mandatory); at PREP medel long Kwamera: mətəkeiyu Kwamera: ya Lenakel: matəkeiyu Lenakel: lə N Tanna: noakonap N Tanna: e SW Tanna: matəkeiyu SW Tanna: ye Vaha: matəkeiyu Vaha: ye Whitesands: matakeiyu Whitesands: e traditional circular road on Tanna toward (2) (emphatic); there (2) (along the mountains) N PREP, ADV wan rod long Tanna Aelan, long hemia longwe maonten Kwamera: few Kwamera: mənənp̃i Lenakel: apa Lenakel: mənənhɨp N Tanna: apəh N Tanna: — SW Tanna: apa, afai SW Tanna: mənənhɨp Vaha: aha Vaha: mənənhɨp Whitesands: apaha Whitesands: mənarfi toward addressee DIR traditional circular road on Tanna long yu (3) (along the coast) N Kwamera: pehe wan rod long Tanna Aelan, long Lenakel: pɨnə solwota N Tanna: pɨnə Kwamera: kwətərhen SW Tanna: pre Lenakel: kwətərhen Vaha: ple N Tanna: kwətərhen Whitesands: pɨnə SW Tanna: kwətərhen See also (1) away from Vaha: kwətəlhen speaker and addressee; (2) Whitesands: kwətərhen toward speaker trail; road N toward speaker DIR rod i kam long man we i stap toktok Kwamera: swatuk Kwamera: pehe Lenakel: suatu Lenakel: pa, hu N Tanna: swatɨp N Tanna: pa, huə SW Tanna: swatuk SW Tanna: pə Vaha: swatuk Vaha: hiə, ha Whitesands: swaru Whitesands: pa See also (1) away from train an animal or child V/TR speaker and addressee; (2) tijim pikinini no animal toward addressee Kwamera: əriəki Lenakel: ek track of s.th. N N Tanna: ek See footprint SW Tanna: ərik

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Vaha: əlik yerkwəhagɨn Whitesands: it† Lenakel: əwət ətin †See lead N Tanna: əp̃ələ əsgɨn SW Tanna: əkwətə sɨgɨn train s.o. V/TR Vaha: əkwətə sɨgɨn See drill Whitesands: əharəg əp̃ɨsgɨn traitor N Lit. sit + stuck man blong giaman Kwamera: kəut kəsuə trap for birds N Lenakel: kəut kɨsuə See bird trap N Tanna: kəut kəsuə SW Tanna: kəut kəsuə trap s.th. by hitting it V/TR Vaha: kəut kəsuə kilim wan samting mo holemtaet Whitesands: katwəs yamɨt Kwamera: osəteirei Lenakel: hotai transect s.th. V/TR N Tanna: əhtgəpis katem longfala blong samting SW Tanna: hoterɨk Kwamera: əraiəfi Vaha: owhatelɨk Whitesands: horain Lenakel: arakruv N Tanna: ətəgɨt trash; garbage N SW Tanna: ərəpɨr doti Vaha: ətəpɨl Kwamera: nɨm̃ inahak Whitesands: ətahli Lenakel: nələsɨg N Tanna: nərɨk transitive marker G SW Tanna: nɨrəsɨg from (s.th.), long (s.th.) Vaha: nələsɨg Kwamera: irə Whitesands: nɨləsɨg† Lenakel: in †See logjam N N Tanna: in SW Tanna: kɨn travel V/INTR Vaha: kɨn go Whitesands: e Kwamera: əsəku Lenakel: əso trap an animal with a bent wooden N Tanna: ɨso trap V/TR SW Tanna: əsokw trapem wan anamol wetem wud trap Vaha: asokw Kwamera: əkoi nei Whitesands: əso Lenakel: koh nɨk N Tanna: əgoh nɨg treat a person or animal poorly SW Tanna: əko nai V/TR Vaha: əko nai mekem i nogud long ol man Whitesands: əgoh nɨgi Kwamera: ərki metə Lenakel: alki amtə trap a person or animal by falling N Tanna: alɨki amtə down on top of it V/TR SW Tanna: ərɨk mɨtə sidaon i blokem Vaha: ərɨk mɨtə Kwamera: okurei Whitesands: alkia in

228 tree, k.o. N Vaha: nukne* wan kaen tri Whitesands: nəukət* Kwamera: nəmhiro Lenakel: namilo tree trunk, base of a N N Tanna: namlo bigfala haf blong stamba blong tri SW Tanna: nəmhiro Kwamera: krhan Vaha: nəmhilo Lenakel: nəmkalalu Whitesands: namlo N Tanna: — SW Tanna: təteiwhao tree; wood N Vaha: təteiwhao tri Whitesands: nɨpsayoaiyo Kwamera: nei Lenakel: nɨk trellis for yam N N Tanna: nɨg See yam trellis SW Tanna: nai Vaha: nai tremble V/INTR Whitesands: nɨgi seksek See forearm; See also (1) Kwamera: əprɨp Christmas tree; (2) Lenakel: asiəp coforearm; (3) rotten, be; (4) N Tanna: asiəp shin; (5) Appendix C SW Tanna: arpɨrɨp Vaha: arpɨrɨp tree top N Whitesands: orakəl han blong tri we i antap we i antap Kwamera: nəkrokweirɨ* trial N Lenakel: naulɨ* See death (1) N Tanna: naulɨ* SW Tanna: nəkurokr* trial number marker NUM MOD Vaha: nəkulokl* trifala Whitesands: naulɨ* Kwamera: mirəhar Lenakel: miel tree trunk (1) N N Tanna: əhal stamba SW Tanna: misɨr Kwamera: nɨp̃ai nari Vaha: misɨl Lenakel: — Whitesands: miləhal N Tanna: — See also three SW Tanna: nɨp̃rai nai Vaha: nɨp̃la* nai triangle N Whitesands: nɨpət nəgi See gable Lit. body + tree Trichoglossus haematodus N tree trunk (2); foundation N See rainbow lorikeet stamba Kwamera: nɨpətəki*, trick; scavenger hunt game N nukune* wan pleiplei blong givim plante Lenakel: nəukərɨ* kakae N Tanna: nəukət* Kwamera: nari iko SW Tanna: nukne* Lenakel: momao

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N Tanna: noekoeko Whitesands: nɨpəlhienien SW Tanna: nar iko See also fulfill itself Vaha: nat eko Whitesands: nati eko truth (2) N Lit. crooked + thing See body See also (1) hide-and-seek game; (2) play try V/TR See imitate trim a mustache or beard (1) V/TR try hard V See shave oneself traehad Kwamera: arkut trim a mustache or beard (2); Lenakel: alkut prune a tree V N Tanna: alkut katem en blong lif o hea SW Tanna: arkut Kwamera: kihi Vaha: alkut Lenakel: akɨs Whitesands: alkut N Tanna: atus See bother s.o. (3); See also SW Tanna: kɨs imitate Vaha: kɨs Whitesands: atei tryingly ADV See shave oneself See please

Trochidae N tuberculosis N See shellfish, k.o. See hunger (3) trough for feeding N tuber pudding N See feeding trough laplap Kwamera: nɨfər true, be V/A Lenakel: nəluwɨl tru N Tanna: nətuəl Kwamera: pərhien SW Tanna: tukwar Lenakel: parhien Vaha: tukwal N Tanna: parhien Whitesands: nəhuəl SW Tanna: əfrakɨs Vaha: pəlhien tuber pudding, small N Whitesands: parhien See small tuber pudding trunk of tree N tuber pudding with meat N See tree trunk tuluk Kwamera: kanɨm truth (1) N Lenakel: kanɨm trutok N Tanna: kanɨm Kwamera: nɨpərhien SW Tanna: kanɨm Lenakel: nɨparhienan Vaha: kanɨm N Tanna: nɨpəlhienən Whitesands: nəpəlaləh SW Tanna: nəfrakɨsien Vaha: nɨpəlhienien

230 tumble V Kwamera: uvsini saksakem Lenakel: whin Kwamera: kwai N Tanna: auhlin Lenakel: wai SW Tanna: ukreikɨn N Tanna: ol m̃ ei-m̃ ei Vaha: ukleikɨn SW Tanna: kwai Whitesands: auhlin Vaha: kwai Whitesands: owei turn s.th. upside down V/TR tanem tumble oneself/itself V/TR Kwamera: usireirei See roll s.th. Lenakel: whaləlin N Tanna: aləlin tumor N SW Tanna: orhərəkɨn See testicle (2) Vaha: whalələkɨn Whitesands: aləlin turn V See spin (2) turtle (generic) N totel turn a page V/TR Kwamera: yəku See pull (2) Lenakel: yao N Tanna: yəu turn around; set (of sun) V/INTR SW Tanna: yakw tantanem Vaha: yakw Kwamera: əkəkin Whitesands: yəu Lenakel: aləlin N Tanna: aləlin tusk of a pig N SW Tanna: əkəkin See horn

Vaha: ələləkin twenty-four hour period N Whitesands: aləlin See night See also sun twigs N turn s.th. V/TR See nest (1) See pull (2) twin N turn s.th. inside out V/TR twin klinim gat, tanem insaed i kamaot Kwamera: m̃ irm̃ ir Kwamera: uvnhan Lenakel: m̃ ilm̃ il Lenakel: usɨgan N Tanna: m̃ ilm̃ il N Tanna: ɨsigan SW Tanna: m̃ irm̃ ir SW Tanna: sinaowɨn Vaha: m̃ ilm̃ il Vaha: sinaowɨn Whitesands: m̃ ilm̃ il Whitesands: sɨgan See dual number marker turn s.th. over (1) V/TR twirl twine V/TR See pull (2) See make twine turn s.th. over (2) V/TR twist V tanem See spin (2)

231 two NUM kwermɨ* tufala Vaha: əmɨl ye lɨm* Kwamera: kəru Whitesands: əmeli e Lenakel: kiu nelmɨ* N Tanna: keiyu SW Tanna: kɨraru unequal reciprocation of gifts N Vaha: kɨlalu givim presen Whitesands: keiyu Kwamera: — See also dual number marker Lenakel: — N Tanna: — Tyto alba N SW Tanna: nəhwakɨrien See barn owl Vaha: nəhwakɨlien Whitesands: əhwakɨr udder N See also reciprocation See breast uneven, be; uneven V/A, ADV umbilical cord N See crooked, be (2) See navel unfortunate circumstances N uncle; father-in-law N See evil angkel Kwamera: mɨra* un-hang s.th.; complete s.th. Lenakel: mɨra* V/TR N Tanna: etəmaa* karemaot samting we i hang SW Tanna: mɨra* Kwamera: osəkeisər Vaha: mɨta* Lenakel: whakiein Whitesands: u* N Tanna: whakiein SW Tanna: əhokiə unconscious, make V Vaha: əwahkiə See make unconscious Whitesands: whakiəlan uncover s.th. V/TR unity N karemaot lif we i stap kavremap See heaviness Kwamera: Lenakel: pigaro unknown N N Tanna: epɨk See secret SW Tanna: əsɨgərok Vaha: — unlevel, be V/INTR Whitesands: airəgɨn See squat See also wear a hat unripe, be (1) V/A under the responsibility of s.o. i no rere blong kakae CL Kwamera: ap̃is long han blong Lenakel: amɨrəv Kwamera: əmak ye rəgɨ* N Tanna: əmta Lenakel: — SW Tanna: amrə N Tanna: — Vaha: amtə SW Tanna: əmer ye Whitesands: əmtə

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See (1) green, be; (2) ripe, Kwamera: nəmi* be; See also unripe, be Lenakel: nami* N Tanna: nami* unripe, be (2) V/A SW Tanna: nami* i no raef Vaha: nami* Kwamera: ap̃is Whitesands: nami* Lenakel: afkə N Tanna: ɨpɨka us (1) (DU INC) PRO SW Tanna: apkə yumitu Vaha: apkə Kwamera: krao Whitesands: pɨkɨs Lenakel: kəlao N Tanna: itəmlau unroll V SW Tanna: ərau See release Vaha: əlau Whitesands: kilau untie V See release us (2) (DU EXC) PRO long mitufala unto PREP Kwamera: kɨmrao long Lenakel: ilao Kwamera: irə, ye N Tanna: itɨmlau Lenakel: ila* SW Tanna: əmru N Tanna: la* Vaha: amlu SW Tanna: ira* Whitesands: itəmlao Vaha: ila* Whitesands: la* us (3) (TRI INC) PRO long yumitrifala upon PREP Kwamera: kɨtaha See when (3) Lenakel: kətəlh N Tanna: itəməhal upside down, turn s.th. V/TR SW Tanna: ətasɨr See turn s.th. upside down Vaha: kɨteisɨl Whitesands: kitəhal urge V/TR See remind us (4) (TRI EXC) PRO long mitrifala urinate V/INTR Kwamera: kɨmrahar pispis Lenakel: iləlh Kwamera: ami N Tanna: itɨməhal Lenakel: amiamil SW Tanna: əmasɨr N Tanna: amil Vaha: amesɨl SW Tanna: amam Whitesands: itəməhal Vaha: ami Whitesands: ami us (5) (PL INC) PRO See also defecate yumi Kwamera: kɨtəha urine N Lenakel: kətar pispis N Tanna: kitat

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SW Tanna: ətawə N Tanna: nɨmɨ* Vaha: asə SW Tanna: ni* Whitesands: itah Vaha: nɨmɨ* Whitesands: nɨmɨ* us (6) (PL EXC) PRO mifala veil V Kwamera: kɨməha See wear a veil Lenakel: kəmar N Tanna: itɨmat vein; tendon; string N SW Tanna: əmawə string blong bodi Vaha: əmha Kwamera: nowə Whitesands: itɨmah Lenakel: nulɨkin N Tanna: noanol vain, in ADV SW Tanna: naus See in vain Vaha: naus Whitesands: noanələus valley N krik very thick rope N Kwamera: nəkwan See rope (3) Lenakel: nəuwan N Tanna: nəuwan vibrate V/INTR SW Tanna: nəkwan i seksek Vaha: nəkwan Kwamera: kiu Whitesands: enəlugɨn Lenakel: kiu See also mountain N Tanna: asief SW Tanna: kiu Vanuatu white-eye N Vaha: kiu See yellow-fronted white-eye Whitesands: əulaɨl variously ADV village (1) N defdefren vilej Kwamera: səpəmsəpə Kwamera: rukwənu Lenakel: Lenakel: lawənu N Tanna: pɨsɨn-pɨsɨn N Tanna: tuənu, SW Tanna: pɨsɨn-pɨsɨn nətuənu Vaha: pɨsɨn-pɨsɨn SW Tanna: rukwanu Whitesands: pɨsɨn-pɨsɨn Vaha: tɨkwanu Whitesands: lawhənu vegetable, green leafy N See also hometown See sunset hibiscus village (2) (fig.) N vegetables N See canoe See roasted vegetables village (3) (small) N vegetation for planting N smol vilej kaka blong planem Kwamera: nɨm̃ ərərə Kwamera: sɨp̃asɨ* Lenakel: təmirərə Lenakel: ne* N Tanna: mərəmrə

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SW Tanna: kwənmərərə insaed blong man Vaha: kwənmərərə Kwamera: reri* Whitesands: noanmərərə Lenakel: nɨki* N Tanna: nɨki* village belonging to one’s cross- SW Tanna: rɨki* cousins N Vaha: li* See good friend Whitesands: nɨki* See also (1) remember (1); (2) village gate N remind See gate at the entrance of a village volcanic red rock N red rok blong volkeno vine, k.o., with thorns N Kwamera: faga ropnil Lenakel: noanəluə Kwamera: — N Tanna: — Lenakel: noanulkəsɨk SW Tanna: nəruə-nəruə N Tanna: nolkosɨk Vaha: nəluə-nəluə SW Tanna: kwənurkəsɨk Whitesands: nəluə-nəluə Vaha: kwəsolel See also splinter Whitesands: noanulkəsɨk volcano N vine; shoot N volkeno rop blong wan frut Kwamera: yasur Kwamera: kwənpərhi* Lenakel: hiau Lenakel: təkrɨ* N Tanna: yohei N Tanna: noanmɨsɨ* SW Tanna: yahur SW Tanna: kwənpɨrh* Vaha: yahul Vaha: kwənpɨlh Whitesands: yehuei Whitesands: — volcano steam and ash N vision N pispis blong volkeno See dream N Kwamera: təpisi Lenakel: — visit s.o. V/TR N Tanna: See face toward s.o., a SW Tanna: təpis direction (2) Vaha: təpis Whitesands: təpisi voice (1) N See also (1) gravel; (2) lava voes bombs Kwamera: rerɨ* Lenakel: nɨki* volition (1) N N Tanna: nɨki* tingting SW Tanna: rɨki* Kwamera: rerɨ* Vaha: li* Lenakel: nɨki* Whitesands: nɨki* N Tanna: nəwiali* SW Tanna: rɨki* voice (2); soul; insides (center of Vaha: li* emotion) N Whitesands: nɨki*

235 volition (2) N N Tanna: əsahgin See inside of s.th. SW Tanna: eitokɨn Vaha: ətankɨn vomit N Whitesands: ətahlgin traot Kwamera: newəyen wake up V/INTR Lenakel: neweian girap N Tanna: nioan Kwamera: ətuwi SW Tanna: nɨruəyen Lenakel: ait Vaha: nɨluəyen N Tanna: aiir Whitesands: neiweiyən SW Tanna: arha Vaha: alha vomit V/INTR Whitesands: aiir troaot See (1) born, be; (2) look Kwamera: ewə around; See also awaken Lenakel: ewə N Tanna: eoa walk (1) V/INTR SW Tanna: ruə† wokbaot Vaha: luə† Kwamera: avən, evən† Whitesands: ewə Lenakel: ariwək †See explode N Tanna: aliwək SW Tanna: əriwək vouch for V Vaha: əliwək See run Whitesands: əliwək †See happen wag; wave around V See also while walking saksakem Kwamera: owinowini walk (2); follow V Lenakel: — wokbaot N Tanna: — Kwamera: əkerha, esi SW Tanna: əwhanəwhan Lenakel: ali Vaha: əwənwən N Tanna: ətəp Whitesands: urinurin SW Tanna: əri See sharpen a knife Vaha: əli Whitesands: əto wait V/INTR wet walk across s.th.; straddle s.th. such Kwamera: fini as a log V/TR Lenakel: əshanin wokbaot long wan wud N Tanna: əsaghin Kwamera: esi-esi SW Tanna: whin Lenakel: əro-əro Vaha: whin N Tanna: eigopaag Whitesands: ətanin SW Tanna: əri-əri Vaha: əli-əli wait for s.o. or s.th. V/TR Whitesands: əto-əto weit long Kwamera: eitenhi walk around V/INTR Lenakel: ətahnin See happen

236 walk backwards V wall N wokbaot long baksaed wol Kwamera: avən təkuta* Kwamera: nap̃ər Lenakel: əliwək lə Lenakel: nap̃ər nɨməta* N Tanna: nap̃ət N Tanna: alowək ye SW Tanna: nap̃ər nɨm̃ əta* Vaha: nap̃ət SW Tanna: əriwək kɨn Whitesands: nap̃ət nɨmeita* See also make walls with wild Vaha: əliwək kɨn cane nɨmeita* Whitesands: aliwək e wander V/INTR nɨmtaa* See loiter Lit. walk + TR + back See back (body part) want V See love V walking stick N stik blong wokbaot war, make V Kwamera: kaskɨn See make war Lenakel: kaskɨn N Tanna: kasɨkɨn warm oneself by a fire V/INTR SW Tanna: kaskɨn sidaon klosap long faea Vaha: kaskɨn Kwamera: ərhiəp̃ Whitesands: kaskɨn Lenakel: ərəukəm See walk with a walking N Tanna: ətonɨgəm stick SW Tanna: ərkəp Vaha: əlkəm walk over s.th. V/TR Whitesands: ətogɨm jam ova See fire Kwamera: əviəpaag Lenakel: eivkəpaag warm up s.th. V N Tanna: egupag mekem i hot SW Tanna: əviəpaag Kwamera: ərəgi Vaha: eapaag Lenakel: heig Whitesands: əpagla N Tanna: əgəpan SW Tanna: əraag walk with a walking stick V Vaha: əlaag wokbaot wetem stik blong wokbaot Whitesands: eig Kwamera: askɨn Lenakel: askɨn† warn s.o. V/TR N Tanna: asɨkɨn wonem SW Tanna: askɨn Kwamera: asuəp̃iri rerɨ* Vaha: əskɨn Lenakel: sɨg nɨki* Whitesands: askɨn N Tanna: əghaiɨr e †See limp niki* See walking stick SW Tanna: sɨg rɨki* Vaha: ol nɨmɨtəlgɨ* Whitesands: əhtəghi

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pətgəm Whitesands: kɨlmə nɨki* watch out; be careful V wart N yu lukaot, nogud yu foldaon strongskin Kwamera: regi Kwamera: yəukier Lenakel: — Lenakel: wiel-wiel N Tanna: — N Tanna: wiel-wiel SW Tanna: ərɨg+PRO SW Tanna: kwier-kwier Vaha: əlɨg+PRO Vaha: kwiel-kwiel Whitesands: ətou+PRO Whitesands: wieli-wieli water N wash hands V/INTR wota wasem han Kwamera: nuwi Kwamera: ərkwerɨg Lenakel: nu Lenakel: ətəvilɨm N Tanna: nəhau N Tanna: atəvilɨm SW Tanna: nu SW Tanna: ərav Vaha: nu Vaha: ətav Whitesands: nəhu Whitesands: ərav waterfall N wash s.th. ashore V/TR kaskad pusum i goso Kwamera: nwaan Kwamera: sai Lenakel: nuviə Lenakel: — N Tanna: — N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nuwaan SW Tanna: siai-siai Vaha: nuwaan Vaha: siai-siai Whitesands: ekiəkɨs† Whitesands: roro †See steep place See also go ashore See also spring (of water) wash s.th. or oneself V/TR water hole; puddle N wasem smol wota Kwamera: aikwas Kwamera: kwətəgi Lenakel: eikwas Lenakel: noanu N Tanna: aikwas N Tanna: noano SW Tanna: aikwas SW Tanna: kwətɨg nu Vaha: aikwas Vaha: kwətɨg nu Whitesands: aikwas Whitesands: noanəhu fr. Bis. wasem water surface N wasp N See surface of s.th. honet Kwamera: m̃ ar wattle and comb of a rooster N Lenakel: pɨrmat namariu N Tanna: tamar Kwamera: nɨkɨmɨ* SW Tanna: pɨrmat Lenakel: — Vaha: pɨrmat N Tanna: —

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SW Tanna: kapa* kərərəg N Tanna: itɨmhal Vaha: kapa* kətəlɨg SW Tanna: kɨmasɨr Whitesands: rəh* kətəlɨg Vaha: kɨmeisɨl Whitesands: itəməhal wave; waves N wef we (5) (PL INC) PRO Kwamera: peao-peao yumi Lenakel: peao-peao Kwamera: kɨtaha N Tanna: peao-peao Lenakel: kətar SW Tanna: peao-peao N Tanna: kɨtat Vaha: peao-peao SW Tanna: kɨtawə Whitesands: peao-peao Vaha: kɨsə fr. Pol. Whitesands: kitah wave around V we (6) (PL EXC) PRO See wag mifala Kwamera: kɨməha we (1) (DU INC) PRO Lenakel: kamar yumitu N Tanna: itɨmat Kwamera: krau SW Tanna: kɨmawə Lenakel: kɨlau Vaha: kɨmhə N Tanna: kɨlau Whitesands: itəmah SW Tanna: kɨrao Vaha: kɨlao wean a child V/TR Whitesands: kilao no givim titi Kwamera: əsuatən we (2) (DU EXC) PRO Lenakel: hoatəg mitufala N Tanna: əlh Kwamera: kɨmrao SW Tanna: əsuətan kɨn Lenakel: kəmlao Vaha: əsuətan kɨn N Tanna: itɨmlau Whitesands: asuərəg SW Tanna: kɨmru See also breastfeed Vaha: kɨmlu Whitesands: itəmlao wear a bark skirt V/TR putum grasket we (3) (TRI INC) PRO Kwamera: əvisi yumitrifala Lenakel: apiəg Kwamera: kɨtaha N Tanna: apiəg Lenakel: kathel SW Tanna: apiəg N Tanna: kitəhal Vaha: əpiəg SW Tanna: kɨtasɨr Whitesands: apiəg Vaha: kɨteisɨl See also bark skirt Whitesands: kitəhal wear a hat; cover s.th. V we (4) (TRI EXC) PRO putum hat mitrifala Kwamera: əfəfau Kwamera: kɨmrahar Lenakel: əvhao Lenakel: kamhel N Tanna: əfəfau

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SW Tanna: əvəvhao SW Tanna: əkwai Vaha: əvəvhao Vaha: əkwai Whitesands: əfəfau Whitesands: owei See hat; See also uncover s.th. See also garden wear a veil V weed around plants V/TR i werem wan kaliko long hed klinim bus Kwamera: owiwi, Kwamera: əkwai əren osəman† Lenakel: owai alɨn Lenakel: — N Tanna: ohrakɨs N Tanna: — SW Tanna: əkwai harkɨn SW Tanna: atuopɨs Vaha: əkwai halkɨn Vaha: ətuk əpɨs̃ Whitesands: owei halɨn Whitesands: ahtərain† †See cover s.th. up (6) weight; sadness; difficulty N hevi blong hem wear s.th. around the neck V Kwamera: nɨpamien See hang or wear s.th. Lenakel: nəpamhan around the neck N Tanna: nəfɨgəmən SW Tanna: nɨpamien wear s.th. in the hair (such as Vaha: nɨpamien feathers) V/TR Whitesands: nɨfɨgəmien werem wan feta long hea Kwamera: rhi welcome s.o.; bless s.o. V Lenakel: alin welkam N Tanna: ahlin Kwamera: əvivi SW Tanna: hakin Lenakel: əni vivi Vaha: hakin N Tanna: ən vivi Whitesands: ahlin SW Tanna: ni vivi See also headdress Vaha: ni vivi Whitesands: əni vivi weave s.th. V/TR somap mat well done, be; accomplished, be Kwamera: əkwsərɨp V/A (INTR) Lenakel: oh i finis gud N Tanna: ouh Kwamera: usəpə SW Tanna: kuh Lenakel: owai pən Vaha: kwih N Tanna: owe pən Whitesands: auh SW Tanna: əkwai pən Vaha: əkwai pən web N Whitesands: owai pən See spiderweb welted, be (from a blow or allergy) weed a garden V/TR V/A klinim bus skin i soa Kwamera: əkwai Kwamera: ərpəkw Lenakel: owai Lenakel: ərpəw N Tanna: owei N Tanna: ərpəp

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SW Tanna: ərpəkw when (2) (past) INT Vaha: alpəkw wanem taem Whitesands: arfəu Kwamera: nesən Lenakel: nahaan wet, be V/A N Tanna: nəghaan i wet SW Tanna: nəgheen Kwamera: əptɨg Vaha: nəgheen Lenakel: əptɨg Whitesands: nəghɨn N Tanna: apɨlɨt SW Tanna: əptɨg when (3); as; upon CONJ, PREP Vaha: əptɨg taem Whitesands: əprɨg Kwamera: nəpɨn See also (1) dry, be; (2) moist, Lenakel: nian be N Tanna: nian SW Tanna: nɨpɨg whale N Vaha: nɨpɨg See beaked whale Whitesands: nian what INT where (1) INT wanem wem Kwamera: nəfe Kwamera: isa Lenakel: nɨtə Lenakel: hia N Tanna: nakə N Tanna: hia SW Tanna: naha SW Tanna: hiə Vaha: naha Vaha: hia Whitesands: nak Whitesands: ihiə what, doing INT where (2) INT See doing what wem Kwamera: paku whatever PRO Lenakel: pətəən wanem we N Tanna: — Kwamera: nəfe nəghɨn SW Tanna: pukhaa Lenakel: nət eianətɨgɨn Vaha: — N Tanna: nat nakə Whitesands: pərhuə SW Tanna: naha nhagɨn Vaha: naha nəgɨn where, going INT Whitesands: najinat See going where See also wherever wherever ADV, CONJ when (1) (future) INT wanem ples wem Kwamera: kwopɨn pəku Kwamera: nesən Lenakel: ikɨn pətəən Lenakel: to nəhn N Tanna: ikɨn pərhuən N Tanna: onəghan SW Tanna: ikɨn pukaa SW Tanna: tuk nagheen Vaha: ikɨn hia Vaha: tuk nagheen Whitesands: ikɨn pərhuə Whitesands: onəghən See also whatever

241 which REL Vaha: əgkiat See that; which əneiwən Whitesands: əghati while walking ADV əneiwən taem yu stap wokbaot Lit. talk + secretly Kwamera: əsain Lenakel: atmakəm whisper (2) V N Tanna: agmagɨm toktok slo SW Tanna: əpap Kwamera: əsiwən Vaha: əpap Lenakel: asiwən Whitesands: agmagɨm N Tanna: asiwən See testicle (2) SW Tanna: əsiwən Vaha: əsiwən whip N Whitesands: əni mətɨg wip Kwamera: kwənkɨrkɨr whistle V Lenakel: yarmətin wesil N Tanna: noanɨkɨlkɨl Kwamera: əverhɨp SW Tanna: kwəsiksik Lenakel: əvərh Vaha: kwəsiksik N Tanna: ahal Whitesands: noasikisiki SW Tanna: avirh Vaha: əvhel whip a person or animal V/TR Whitesands: əvəhal wipim Kwamera: ətəkwus white, be V/A Lenakel: alis-alis waet N Tanna: alis-alis Kwamera: əpsan SW Tanna: arkɨs-arkɨs Lenakel: ətuwən Vaha: alkɨs-alkɨs N Tanna: əruwən Whitesands: alis-alis SW Tanna: hawən Vaha: awən whiptail stingray (Fam. Whitesands: əruwən Dasyatididae) N See also black, be stingre Kwamera: weraku white-collared kingfisher (Halcyon Lenakel: — chloris) N N Tanna: welau kingfisa SW Tanna: werakw Kwamera: kakwəsiə Vaha: welakw Lenakel: keiwitei Whitesands: wəlau N Tanna: kahivtei SW Tanna: kakwəsiə whisper (1) V/INTR Vaha: kəwitei tok kwaet Whitesands: kəwitei Kwamera: əgkiari əfafə See also Appendix B Lenakel: əkar əuniwən N Tanna: əghat əniwən white-eye N SW Tanna: əgkiar apɨs- See yellow-fronted white-eye apɨs

242 white person N wild animal N See foreigner wel animol Kwamera: nari əprɨrm̃ ɨn white tree, bark of a N Lenakel: — See bark of a white tree N Tanna: — SW Tanna: nar aparu who INT Vaha: nat ətələnpən hu ya Whitesands: naji rarpɨn† Kwamera: sin †See illegitimate child Lenakel: pehe See also lame person or N Tanna: pah animal; tame animal SW Tanna: pa Vaha: pa wild cane (1) (Saccharum Whitesands: pəh maximum) N wel ken whom; whose REL Kwamera: nig See that; which Lenakel: nuwig N Tanna: nuvig width N SW Tanna: nuwig See greatness Vaha: nuwig Whitesands: nuwig wife N See also Appendix C See woman wild cane (2) (cut, used for wife of a woman’s brother N building yam trellises) N See sister-in-law See arrow shaft wiggle or pull s.th. free V/INTR wild cane lattice, make a V/INTR muvmuv blong kamaot See make a lattice of wild Kwamera: ivə raka cane Lenakel: ivkita N Tanna: iv rəkɨs wild food N SW Tanna: ivəta kakae blong bus Vaha: ivətakə Kwamera: — Whitesands: iwɨg rəkɨs Lenakel: noanmhən- See (1) pull (2); (2) pull s.th. noanmhən out of s.th. N Tanna: nawənɨn lapɨn SW Tanna: kwənmhan- wild, be V/A kwənmhan wel anamol Vaha: kwənmhan- Kwamera: əpɨrmɨn kwənmhan Lenakel: atipɨn Whitesands: — N Tanna: iarupɨn SW Tanna: əparu wild fruit N Vaha: ətələnpən See fruit, k.o. (3) Whitesands: əturarpɨn See also lame person or wild nutmeg (Myristica fatua) N animal; tame animal nandae

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Kwamera: nətaan Whitesands: tokolauwutu, Lenakel: — tokolau N Tanna: — See (1) mountain; (2) wind SW Tanna: nətaan (3) Vaha: nətaan Whitesands: nəraan wind (3) (originating from the See also Appendix C coast—east on the eastern half of Tanna; west on the western half of wild raspberry (Rubus moluccanus) Tanna) N N win i kam long is o wes frombwas, rasberi Kwamera: ruətu Kwamera: frombas Lenakel: luətu Lenakel: — N Tanna: luətu N Tanna: — SW Tanna: ruətu SW Tanna: prompas Vaha: luətu Vaha: — Whitesands: luətu Whitesands: kapliapli See (1) wind (2); (2) wind See also Appendix C (4); (2) wind (5) will N wind (4) (southeast on the eastern See volition half of Tanna; northwest on the win V western half of Tanna) N See more than, be win we i kam long saotis no notwes Kwamera: ruətuəmrai wind (1) (generic); hurricane N Lenakel: luətuəmlai win N Tanna: luətuəmlai Kwamera: nɨmətagi SW Tanna: ruətuəmrai Lenakel: nɨmətag Vaha: luətuəmlai N Tanna: nɨmətag Whitesands: luətuəmlai SW Tanna: nɨmətag See (1) wind (3); (2) wind (5) Vaha: nɨmətag Whitesands: nɨmətagi wind (5) (northeast on the eastern half of Tanna; southwest on the wind (2) (originating from the western half of Tanna) N mountains inland—west on the win i kam long notwes o notis eastern half of Tanna; east on the Kwamera: ruatɨm̃ etuə western half of Tanna) N Lenakel: luatumətuə win i kam long saotwes N Tanna: luətuəm̃ lae Kwamera: təkwəraruətu, SW Tanna: ruatɨm̃ etuə təkwarao Vaha: luatɨm̃ etuə Lenakel: tokolauwutu, Whitesands: luətuəm̃ lae təkwəlao See (1) wind (3); (2) wind (4) N Tanna: tokolauwutu, tokalau wind (6) (southwest on the eastern SW Tanna: tokolauwutu, half of Tanna; northeast on the təkwərao western half of Tanna) N Vaha: tokolauwutu, win we i kam long saotwes no notis təkwəlao Kwamera: uritogə

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Lenakel: uritogə wind up V/TR N Tanna: uritogə See coil SW Tanna: uritogə Vaha: ulitogə win first place V Whitesands: uritogə kam fastaem See wind (7) Kwamera: əmtia Lenakel: ərai ita wind (7) (originating 90 degrees N Tanna: əte rəkɨs clockwise from the coast—south SW Tanna: ərai ta on the eastern half of Tanna; north Vaha: ətai takə on the western half of Tanna) N Whitesands: əte rəkɨs win i kam long not o saot See also more than, be Kwamera: natogə Lenakel: natogə wing N N Tanna: natogə han blong pijin SW Tanna: natogə Kwamera: təm̃ ərm̃ əri* Vaha: natogə Lenakel: nɨm̃ əlm̃ əlɨ* Whitesands: natogə N Tanna: nɨm̃ əlm̃ əl See wind (6); See also ninety SW Tanna: təm̃ ərm̃ ərɨ* degrees clockwise from the Vaha: təm̃ əlm̃ əlɨ* coast Whitesands: m̃ əlm̃ əlɨ* See also flap wings wind (8) (originating 90 degrees counterclockwise from the coast— wings, flap V north on the eastern half of Tanna; See flap wings south on the western half of Tanna) N wipe; clean V/TR win i kam long not o saot klinim Kwamera: nɨpɨrapu Kwamera: əpərhi Lenakel: nɨpɨlap Lenakel: hapəl N Tanna: nɨpɨlap N Tanna: afəl SW Tanna: nɨpɨrap SW Tanna: əspir Vaha: nɨpɨlap Vaha: əspil Whitesands: nɨpɨlapu Whitesands: afəl See also ninety degrees counterclockwise from the wipe one's anus V/TR coast klinim as Kwamera: hatei wind (9) (northwest on the eastern Lenakel: haltei half of Tanna; southeast on the N Tanna: ahtei western half of Tanna) N SW Tanna: hatei win i kam long notwes o saotis Vaha: hatei Kwamera: pai Whitesands: tarerə Lenakel: pai See also anus N Tanna: pai SW Tanna: pai wipe s.th. off V/TR Vaha: pai waepemaot Whitesands: pai Kwamera: rai raka

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Lenakel: rai ita woman’s brother’s wife N N Tanna: aroiə rəkɨs See sister-in-law SW Tanna: rai ta Vaha: tai takə woman’s female parallel cousin Whitesands: tei rəkɨs N See parallel cousin, same- wisdom N gender; (2) sister-in-law See ability woman’s husband’s sister N witchcraft N See sister-in-law See sorcery woman’s male parallel cousin N withered, be V/A See parallel cousin, cross- i drae (lif) gender Kwamera: aukei Lenakel: aukei woman’s sister N N Tanna: aukei See (1) same-gender sibling; SW Tanna: aukei (2) same-gender younger Vaha: aukei sibling Whitesands: aukei women N without respect ADV woman See in vain Kwamera: nɨpran Lenakel: nɨpɨraovɨn wolf spider (Fam. Lycosidae) N N Tanna: nɨpɨtan braon spaeda SW Tanna: nɨpiraovɨn Kwamera: kamkəri Vaha: nɨptan Lenakel: mukəl Whitesands: nɨpətan N Tanna: məkəl See also (1) woman; (2) men SW Tanna: kəmkər Vaha: məkəl wood N Whitesands: məkəli-məkəli See tree woman; wife N wood, flat piece of N woman See flat piece of wood Kwamera: pran Lenakel: pɨravən, pɨran wood bridge N N Tanna: pətan brij oli wokem long wud SW Tanna: piraovən, Kwamera: nei kesiesi pian Lenakel: nɨk Vaha: pɨtavən, pɨtan kaməroəro Whitesands: pɨtan N Tanna: nɨg See also (1) man; (2) old kateigopagin woman; (3) pubescent girl SW Tanna: nai kəriəri Vaha: nai kəliəli woman’s brother N Whitesands: nɨgi katətoəto See parallel cousin, cross- gender

246 worker N Kwamera: əfwaki See slave Lenakel: əhuak N Tanna: əfak work party N SW Tanna: əhuak grup Vaha: əhuak Kwamera: nəkwər Whitesands: əfaki Lenakel: nəwuto See also (1) magical stone: (2) N Tanna: nafuto sanctify oneself for magical SW Tanna: nɨkwao purposes Vaha: nɨkwao Whitesands: oriarun† worshiper; believer; churchgoer †See pile up N See also call for a work party man we i prea Kwamera: yəməfwaki world N Lenakel: yaməhuak wol N Tanna: yəfak Kwamera: tənɨmtənə SW Tanna: yeməhuak Lenakel: nətənmin Vaha: yəhuak N Tanna: nətueintən Whitesands: yetəmfaki SW Tanna: tanɨmtanə Vaha: tanɨmtanə worthless person (pejorative name Whitesands: nɨtəniɨmtəni for males) N wan nogud nem worm; bug N Kwamera: nəmkwənhin bebet, wom Lenakel: nɨm̃ əkən Kwamera: m̃ imi N Tanna: — Lenakel: m̃ im SW Tanna: nəhm̃ inau N Tanna: m̃ im Vaha: nəhm̃ anən SW Tanna: m̃ im Whitesands: nəm̃ əg anɨn Vaha: m̃ im See penis Whitesands: m̃ imi See also (1) earthworm; (2) wound N grub worm soa Kwamera: nɨm̃ ap̃ worry N Lenakel: nəməkəm See confusion N Tanna: nɨm̃ əgɨm SW Tanna: nɨm̃ aap̃ worship; church N Vaha: nɨm̃ aap̃ jos Whitesands: nɨm̃ əgɨm Kwamera: nəfwakiyen Lenakel: nəwakan wounded, be (1); sore, be V/A N Tanna: nəfakən i soa SW Tanna: nəhuakien Kwamera: əm̃ isə Vaha: nəhuakien Lenakel: əm̃ hal Whitesands: nəfakien N Tanna: əm̃ əhal SW Tanna: əm̃ hir worship; pray; do magic V Vaha: əm̃ hel prea Whitesands: əmhali

247 wounded, be (2) V/A wring s.th.; scrub s.th. V/TR i soa klinim (olsem klos) Kwamera: əfəfau, əmisə Kwamera: əkwrigi Lenakel: əm̃ həl-əm̃ həl Lenakel: arɨg-arɨg N Tanna: əm̃ hal-əm̃ hal N Tanna: arɨg-arɨg SW Tanna: əm̃ hir-əm̃ hir SW Tanna: arɨg-arɨg Vaha: əm̃ hel-əm̃ hel Vaha: ətɨg-ətɨg Whitesands: əmhali- Whitesands: argi-argi əmhali wrist N wrap a garment or blanket around See heel oneself V/TR kavremap (olsem blangket) write V Kwamera: arkahu See etch Lenakel: alkawh in N Tanna: əfɨtai ɨn Xanthosoma sagittifolium N SW Tanna: arkawh kɨn See Hong Kong taro Vaha: alkawəh kɨn Whitesands: alkahu yam (Dioscorea spp.); year; fat N yam wrap hair with hair wrapper V Kwamera: nuk See wrap penis with Lenakel: nuv pandanus N Tanna: nup SW Tanna: nekw wrap penis with pandanus; wrap Vaha: nekw hair with hair wrapper V Whitesands: nu tantanem See also Appendix C Kwamera: ərəri Lenakel: aru yam mound N N Tanna: atu See mound (esp. of yams) SW Tanna: əruk Vaha: ətuk yam shoot; flame N Whitesands: atu faea See also (1) banyan (2); (2) Kwamera: nərami nau circumcision Lenakel: tito N Tanna: nəmnam wrapper for penis N nɨgɨm See circumcision SW Tanna: nimirao* Vaha: nɨmlao wrap s.th. around the waist V Whitesands: nəmnam werem olsem strap nɨgən Kwamera: ətouti Lenakel: ətəut yam trellis N N Tanna: ɨtəut bed blong yam SW Tanna: ətəut Kwamera: nɨpərpər Vaha: ətəut Lenakel: nupərəpər Whitesands: ətəuti N Tanna: aipiag SW Tanna: nupərpər

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Vaha: pələg yesterday N Whitesands: nai piəgiən yestedei See also make a yam mound Kwamera: neiv Lenakel: nənav yank s.th. V/TR N Tanna: neniap karemaot frut long wan tri SW Tanna: niev Kwamera: esi Vaha: nəniəv Lenakel: əlh Whitesands: nəniəv N Tanna: əhl See also (1) today; (2) SW Tanna: rhi tomorrow; (3) day before Vaha: lhei yesterday; (4) three days ago Whitesands: əlhi See also pick fruits yodel V/INTR singaot yawn V/INTR Kwamera: əwinɨn openem maot mo lego win taem yu Lenakel: winən harem slip N Tanna: amən Kwamera: əkwaagase SW Tanna: winən Lenakel: əwagtat Vaha: winən N Tanna: owagarap Whitesands: aunən SW Tanna: əkwaagha Vaha: əkwaagha yolk N Whitesands: owagrah See egg yolk See also sleepiness you (1) (SG, SBJ) PRO year N yu See yam Kwamera: ik Lenakel: ik yellow ADJ N Tanna: ik yelo SW Tanna: ik Kwamera: əkwes Vaha: ik Lenakel: auhia Whitesands: ik N Tanna: awiɨh See you (5) (SG, OBJ) SW Tanna: aokrəh Vaha: əukləh you (2) (DU, SBJ) PRO Whitesands: awiəh yutufala Kwamera: kɨmirau yellow-fronted white eye; Vanuatu Lenakel: kəmilao white-eye (Zosterops flavifrons) N Tanna: itəmlau N SW Tanna: kɨmiru wan kaen pijin Vaha: kɨmilu Kwamera: keihiap Whitesands: itəlao Lenakel: kɨləpləpɨn N Tanna: kɨleplepɨn you (3) (TRI, SBJ) PRO SW Tanna: keihap yutrifala Vaha: kələpləpɨn Kwamera: kɨmirahar Whitesands: kɨləpləpɨn Lenakel: kəmhiəl See also Appendix B N Tanna: itəməhal

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SW Tanna: kɨmisɨr Vaha: kɨmiə Vaha: kɨmisɨl Whitesands: itəmah Whitesands: itəməhal younger sibling of same gender you (4) (PL, SBJ) PRO N yufala See same-gender younger Kwamera: kɨmiaha sibling Lenakel: kamiar N Tanna: itəmat young man (marriageable) N SW Tanna: kɨmiə yangfala Vaha: kɨmiə Kwamera: təmaruə† Whitesands: itəmah Lenakel: təmaluə N Tanna: etəmaluə you (5) (SG, OBJ) SW Tanna: təmaruə yu Vaha: kwələkwei Kwamera: ik Whitesands: etəmaluə Lenakel: ik †See boy N Tanna: ik SW Tanna: ik young men (marriageable) N Vaha: ik yangfala boe Whitesands: ik Kwamera: nɨtəmaruə See you (1) (SG, SBJ) Lenakel: nɨtamaluə N Tanna: nɨtamaluə you (6) (DU, OBJ) PRO SW Tanna: nɨtamaruə long tutufala Vaha: nɨtamaluə Kwamera: kɨmirao Whitesands: nɨtaəmaluə Lenakel: ilao N Tanna: itəlao, your (1) (SG) PRO itəmlao blong yu SW Tanna: əmiru Kwamera: səim Vaha: kɨmilu Lenakel: taham Whitesands: itəmlao N Tanna: raham SW Tanna: kafam you (7) (TRI, OBJ) PRO Vaha: kafam long yutrifala Whitesands: raham Kwamera: kɨmirəhar See belonging to (2); See also Lenakel: kəmiəl (1) my; (2) his; (3) our; (4) N Tanna: itəməhal their SW Tanna: əmisɨr Vaha: amesɨl your (2) (DU) PRO Whitesands: itəməhal blong yutufala Kwamera: səkɨmirao you (8) (PL, OBJ) PRO Lenakel: təhmilao long yufala N Tanna: rəhatalau Kwamera: kɨmiəha SW Tanna: kapəmiru Lenakel: ilar Vaha: kap̃əmilu N Tanna: itəmat Whitesands: rəhatəmlao SW Tanna: əmiə

250 your (3) (TRI) PRO blong yutrifala Kwamera: səkəmirahar Lenakel: təhmiəl N Tanna: rəhatam̃ ahal SW Tanna: kapəmisɨr Vaha: kap̃misɨl Whitesands: rahatəməhal your (4) (PL) PRO blong yufala Kwamera: səkəmiəha Lenakel: təmiarh N Tanna: rəhatəmat SW Tanna: kapəmiə Vaha: kap̃əmiə Whitesands: rahatəmah you’ve got to be kidding INTJ tru? Kwamera: yemne, pinhɨk Lenakel: — N Tanna: — SW Tanna: emeh Vaha: emeh Whitesands: emeh

Ziphiidae N See beaked whale

Zosterops flavifrons N See yellow-fronted white-eye

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Appendix A.Nearly identical lexemes in Tanna’s languages.

Gloss Vernacular 1. ashamed aulɨs/aurɨs 2. atmosphere nɨmago-ago/nɨmagou- agou/nagəpagəp 3. backpack kajipə 4. bait nɨpien 5. baked vegetables kəktən 6. beloved, important keikei 7. bickering musmus 8. blood (possessive) nɨrə*/nɨta*/nɨtaw* 9. builder, woodcarver, hypocrite yalpəkao/yarpəkao/ yərpəkau 10. butterfly, moth p̃aup̃auk 11. cheek nɨkap̃* 12. chief yeni 13. cloud nəpuə 14. cry, bark, neigh, ring asək 15. dance (women, jumping up and əmako down) 16. descend eiwaiyu 17. digging stick kakɨl/kakɨr 18. dry (as in food that is not moist) pɨkɨn/peikɨn 19. echo təp̃utəm 20. evening meal for the men nahunu/nəhunu/nafunu/ nəfunu 21. exit, escape, go out iet/ier 22. fat tissue (possessive) nərp̃ə/nəlp̃ə/nɨlɨp̃ə/nəlɨp̃ə 23. festival of exchanging food with niel/nieli/nier/ nieri cousins 24. float, swim eiai 25. fork in the wood səpaag/səpaag*/təpaag/təpaag* 26. gable, jaw, triangle kaugə/nenkaugə 27. girl (affectionate term of address) koko 28. glutton yaoəgənam/yaoəgənəm 29. goodbye im̃ a* 30. he, him, she, her, it (3sg) in 31. hole (in stone, wood) nɨp̃əg/nəp̃əg 32. horsefly kətə 33. house nim̃ ə 34. hunger for meat naugə 35. I, me (1sg) yəu 36. intoxicated, drunk ap̃ɨs 37. kind of bat təu-təu/uto-uto/uuto-uuto 38. leaf (possessive) nɨm̃ al*/nɨm̃ alɨ*/nɨm̃ ar*/nɨm̃ ei*

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39. lean against, have faith in hatətə/əhatətə/ahtətə/ahatata 40. listen, think ətəlɨg/ətərɨg 41. midget, mythical dwarf yap̃ər/yəp̃ər/yəp̃ət 42. move violently əsəsao 43. much pɨk 44. mudslide (v) əsein/əsen 45. must (emphatic) əkeikei 46. new wi 47. outside iruə/iluə/ilhuə 48. Pacific reef heron pan 49. paddle (n) niuveiyə/niuweiyə/nuveiyə/niveiyə 50. paddle (v), push over, ride on an asuə/əsuə animal 51. place ikɨn 52. prohibit, fast from something atuakəm/ətuakəm 53. property nautə 54. pulp (esp. kava) nɨp̃ar/nɨp̃at 55. reciprocation, revenge tai*/nɨtai* 56. respect, let alone, avoid siai/ɨsiai 57. sacred dancing place im̃ arəm̃ /im̃ ərəm̃ /im̃ eim̃ /im̃ aim̃ 58. salt nɨgəl/nɨgər/nɨgal 59. shine asiə/əsiə/əhiə 60. sing ani/əni 61. sky, heaven neai 62. sleep on a pillow əsawə 63. smell, stink apien/əpien/apiɨn/eipien 64. stone kəp̃iel/kəp̃ier 65. strong, healthy əsanɨn 66. stumble over something apəti/apitətəl/apitətər 67. sway atou-atou/ətou-ətou 68. swing (n) kasukei/kasukwei 69. swollen, fat asis/asisi/əsiis/əsisi 70. thigh nuva*/nɨva* 71. thin, flat əgei-əgei 72. thunder kaluəluə/karuəruə 73. tired, limber əpou 74. twins m̃ irm̃ ir/m̃ ilm̃ il 75. urine (possessive) nami*/nəmi* 76. walking stick kaskɨn/kasɨkɨn 77. wall nap̃ər/nap̃ət 78. want, love okeikei/olkeikei/orkeikei 79. wind, hurricane nɨmətag/nɨmətagi 80. withered aukei 81. you (2sg) ik

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Appendix B. Birds of Vanuatu included in the lexicon.

Common name Scientific name barn owl Tyto alba brown goshawk Accipiter faciatus buff-banded rail Galliralus philippensis cardinal honeyeater Myzomela cardinalis collared gray fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa common myna Acridotheres tristis glossy swiftlet Collocalia esculenta Melanesian flycatcher Myiagra caledonica Pacific pigeon Ducula pacifica Pacific reef heron Egretta sacra parrot finch Erythrura trichroa peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus red-bellied fruit-dove Ptilinopus sp. Tahitian chestnut Inocarpus fagiferus white-collared kingfisher Halcyon chloris yellow-fronted white eye, Zosterops flavifrons Vanuatu white-eye

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Appendix C. Plants and trees of Vanuatu included in the lexicon.

Common name Scientific name plants Hong Kong taro Xanthosoma sagittifolium kava Piper methysticum stinging nettles Dendrocnide sunset hibiscus Abelmoschus Manihots sweet potato Ipomoea batatas taro Araceae wild cane Saccharum maximum wild nutmeg Myristica fatua wild raspberry Rubus moluccanus yam Dioscorea trees banyan Ficus benghalensis breadfruit Artocarpus altilis casuarina Casuarina equisetifolia coconut Cocos nucifera cottonwood Hibiscus tiliaceus dragon plum Dracontomelon vitiense Indian mulberry tree Morinda citrifolia Java cedar Bischofia javanica Malay apple Syzygium malaccensis palm, k.o. Metroxylon wurburgii

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Abbreviations

The table below lists the symbols and abbreviations that are used in this book.

< > orthographic form Lit. literally * bound morpheme LWC language of wider ADJ adjective communication ADV adverb N noun ART article NUM number BEN benefactive NUM MOD numerical modifier Bis. Bislama OBJ direct object CL clause Ord. order Col. colloquial PHR phrase CONJ conjunction PL plural DAT dative Pol. Polynesian DEM demonstrative PREP preposition DIR directional PRO pronoun DU dual PSV proto South Vanuatu Eng. English REFL reflexive esp. especially REL relative pronoun EXC exclusive SBJ subject Fam. family SG singular fig. figurative s.o. someone Fr. French sp. species (sg) fr. from spp. species (pl) G grammatical term s.th. something gen. genera TR transitive INC inclusive TRI trial INT interrogative V verb (unspecified for INTJ interjection transitivity) INTR intransitive V/A verbal adjective k.o. kind of V/INTR intransitive verb lgs languages V/TR transitive verb

256

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Lynch, John, and Terry Crowley. 2001. Languages of Vanuatu: A new survey and bibliography. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

Napuanmen nafuakien parhien [True prayer songs (in Kwamera)]. 1941. Kyneton, Australia: Armstrong Bros, Printers.

Nɨmtatin vi [New Testament (in Lenakel)]. 2007. Kooringal, Australia: Covenanter Press.

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About the author and data contributors

Kenneth Nehrbass is a translation and anthropology consultant with SIL Vanuatu. He has been conducting fieldwork on Tanna since 2003, focusing on the Southwest Tanna language. He holds a Ph.D. in Intercultural Studies from Biola University in California, USA.

Greg Carlson is a linguist with SIL Vanuatu. He conducted fieldwork in North Tanna on the North Tanna language from 1991 to 2007 and has been working in Whitesands on the Whitesands language since 2008. He holds an M.A. in Applied Linguistics from the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics in Dallas, Texas, USA.

Erik Stapleton is a linguist with SIL Vanuatu. He has been conducting fieldwork in South Tanna on the Kwamera language since 2004. He holds an M.A. in Applied Linguistics from the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics in Dallas, Texas, USA. His M.A. thesis was based on his research on Kwamera.