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The Language Situation in Vanuatu Terry Crowley Published Online: 26 Mar 2010 This article was downloaded by: [Monterey Inst of International Studies] On: 16 December 2013, At: 22:46 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Current Issues in Language Planning Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rclp20 The Language Situation in Vanuatu Terry Crowley Published online: 26 Mar 2010. To cite this article: Terry Crowley (2000) The Language Situation in Vanuatu, Current Issues in Language Planning, 1:1, 47-132, DOI: 10.1080/14664200008668005 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14664200008668005 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. 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Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and- conditions Downloaded by [Monterey Inst of International Studies] at 22:46 16 December 2013 The Language Situation in Vanuatu Terry Crowley Department of General and Applied Linguistics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand One of thesmallest nations, Vanuatu isalsolinguistically the most diverse. In addition to itsEnglish-lexifier pidgin nationallanguage, English and Frenchare official languages.While local languages are valued symbols of identity,little attempt has beenmade to promote functionalliteracy in locallanguages, while English and French havebeen promoted by education.Although Bislamais the national spoken language, littleattention has been paid to developing itswritten form. It hasbeen difficult to speakof ‘languageplanning’ regarding local languages, the approach having beenone of maximum non-involvement, though some changes are now envisaged. Introduction Vanuatuis a politicallyindependent republic locatedin the south-western Pacificbetween Fiji, SolomonIslands and New Caledonia,about 1700 km north-eastof Brisbane in Australia(Figure 1).Formerly known as the New Hebrides, Vanuatugained itsindependence fromjoint Anglo-French colonial controlin 1980.This political ‘ condominium’was not established until 1906, which possiblymakes Vanuatu the lastpart of the pre-colonialworld to have ever been colonised by a European power. Ni-Vanuatu1 (asthe people of Vanuatuare known) andpeople fromthe neigh- bouring islandgroups of Fiji, New Caledonia,Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea,Irian Jaya (in the easternpart of Indonesia) andTorres Strait (between the Queensland mainlandand Papua New Guinea) arenormally described as Melanesians.This name derives fromthe physicalappearance of the people who aredarker in complexionthan their Polynesian,Micronesian and South-east Asian neighbours. The populationof Vanuatuis currently estimatedto be about195,000, which is fewer thanwhat in manycountries would be regarded asa regionalcity of very moderatesize. This population is spread throughout a large number of islandsof varyingsize in aY-shaped archipelagothat spreads over a north-southdistance ofapproximately 850 km (Figure 2).Inter-island travel is often difficult, depend- ent onirregular (and often uncomfortable)shipping, orrelatively expensive Downloaded by [Monterey Inst of International Studies] at 22:46 16 December 2013 plane flights which only service a restricted range of locations. While travelbetween islandscan be difficult, travelwithin islands can some- timesalso be awkward.Only the largestand most populated islandsof Espiritu Santo,Malakula, Efate and Tanna have road networks of anyextent. These roads arefor the mostpart fairly rough,and they areeasily damaged (or even made impassible) by badweather. Only onEfateis there aroadthat links allpopulated centreson the island,though ittoo can be impassiblein badweather. On allother islands,roads typically extend only tothoseplaces where constructionis least 1466-4208/00/01 0047-86 $10.00/0 ©2000 T. Crowley CURRENT ISSUES IN LANGUAGE PLANNING Vol.1, No.1, 2000 47 The Language Situation in Vanuatu 48 Current Issues in Language Planning Figure 1 Location of Vanuatu in the southwestern Pacific disfavouredby topographyor rainfall,and people onsomeislands frequently have to walk some distance to reach the nearest road. Telecommunicationshave improved considerably since independence (though itis only possible tosaythatbecause telecommunicationswere particu- Downloaded by [Monterey Inst of International Studies] at 22:46 16 December 2013 larlybasic before 1980).There isnowa direct-dialtelephone network(powered by solarcells in the outerislands where there isoften noelectricity supply) link- ing allislands (as well aslinking Vanuatuto the outsideworld). However, tele- phone callsare quite expensive given mostlocal people’ s incomes,and it isnot uncommonfor community telephones tohave to be disconnecteddue to non-payment of bills in the outerislands where people arelimited in their income-generating capacities. While in somerural areas there isa fairly dense coverageof privatetelephone connections,many villages have no telephones atall. People in somevillages are able tomake do with the lesssatisfactory teleradio alternative, which canbe patchedinto the telephone network.The soundquality with this system is much The Language Situation in Vanuatu 49 Downloaded by [Monterey Inst of International Studies] at 22:46 16 December 2013 Figure 2 Islands of Vanuatu 50 Current Issues in Language Planning worseand there isno privacy, so anybody whois listening onthe networkcan eavesdropon aconversation.Of course,many villages have neither atelephone nora teleradio,which meansthat long distancecommunication depends ona willingness –orability– totravel(often onfoot) to avillage where there issome meansof telecommunication.Under suchcircumstances, something as simple as makinga phone callcan sometimestake people twoor three daysof their time. There areonly twourban centresof anysize in Vanuatu,the capitalPort Vila onthe centralisland of Efate(with apopulationof approximately35,000) and Luganville onthe northernisland of EspirituSanto (with anapproximatepopu- lationof 10,000).The Melanesian populationlives overwhelmingly in smallrural villagesfollowing largely subsistencelifestyles, withonly about15% of Ni-Vanuatu living in either ofthe towns.The grossdomestic product per capita isapproximately $US1000 (Siegel, 1996a:98), which reflects the relativelack of exploitable resourcesin the country,so there isa high dependence onexternal aid.The majorexport commodities produced in Vanuatuare copra, cocoa, beef, coffee andkava, 2 while tourism(mostly from Australia and New Zealand)and a tax-exemptfinance centre provide additionalemployment foreducated local people, as well as opportunities for investment. The Language Profile of Vanuatu National/official languages Vanuatuis linguistically the world’s mostdiverse nationin termsof the number ofactivelyspoken indigenous languagesper headof population,with at least80 locallanguages spoken by anaverage of only about2500 speakers each. 3 Thisextreme linguistic –andaccompanying cultural – diversityis acknowl- edged in the preamble to the constitution of Vanuatu, which states: We the people of Vanuatu Proud of our struggle for freedom Determined to safeguard the achievement of this struggle Cherishing our ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity Hereby proclaimthe establishmentof the united andfree Republic of Vanuatu. The constitutiondeclares that Bislama is the ‘nationallanguage’ , while Bislama, English andFrench areall declared to be ‘officiallanguages’ . In addition,the ‘principal languages of education’ are declared to be English and French: Downloaded by [Monterey Inst of International Studies] at 22:46 16 December 2013 The nationallanguage ofthe Republic isBislama. The officiallanguages are Bislama,English andFrench. The principal languagesof educationare English and French. (The Constitution of Vanuatu, Article 3:1.) In additionto the high statusaccorded to these three lingua francas,there isalso a paragraphwhich protectsthe indigenous vernaculars,and which even provides forthe possible elevationof anyone of these languagesto the statusof ‘national language’ at some time in the future if the circumstances warrant. 4 There isactually a slightdifference in the wordingof the English andFrench versionsof the constitutionwith regard to the statusof these languages.Article 3:1 in the French version reads as follows: The Language Situation in Vanuatu 51 Lalangue véhiculaire
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