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DOCUMRNT RESUME SP 003 424 EDQ3t 57c mlry Proderick mi,m1vr. enrichment Programs 'orTntcllectual1y rifted Pupils. -2;q1171pumToy california qtatP Sept. of 1Mucation,Sacramento. Pcrinv9 v;prcv Oic r '1UC1'iOfl (min), washingfo-i,, Nr. coonrrative Pesearch Program, ')JP rani 7WmP.

1'n1 prTcp rnrq nrice mF-6'n.7q PC-%a-90 DFSCPTDTOrS Curriculum Devolonment, *Curriculum nrichment, *rlementary School Curriculum, ElementarySchool qciece, *Tinrichmrint Programs, rine Arts,*Gifted, Tnservice meachPr rducation, Languaae Arts, Resource matPrials TDT"ITTrTrilS CFIlifornta roloct Talent

APSTT'ACT This renort of the enrichment phase ofCalifornia nroject TalPnt isesianel to nrovide guidelines forteachers in other schools. Part I containsfive chapters on the Planningphases of the enrichment nroaramwhich was operate A at thedemonstration center of the Tos AngelllsUnified School District from1963-1966. TncluAro are rationale forenrich el curriculum for the aifted; identification of factors to he consideredin structuring or revising curriculums; outlines for criteria Forobjectives with specific cognitive, affective, and conativebehaviors noted; description of learning activities and curriculumorganization; and lists of resources in Personneland materials. The five chantersin Part 2 renort the continuing inserviceteacher training program established at the demonstration center.Tncluded are outlines ofcurriculum provisions to promote he development of creativeexpression, critical appreciation and scientificattitudes with formats for lesson plans and study units. Part3, which deals with the implementation of the Program in elementaryschools, contains description of source materials forlesson plans and course outlines, the content of which parallelsthe teacher materials(presented in part 2)in language arts, fine arts, andscience. Part 4 on program evaluation includes check lists for usein evaluating pupils' progress and for teacherself-appraisal. ',Selected References',for each chapter cite books, articles,audiovisual aids, and other supplementary materials. (JS) U,S, DEPARTMENT OT REAM,EDUCATION a WELFARE 4 A OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS HEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVEDFROM INE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT,POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OfEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

CALIFORNIA

MO Alb. 411111

Programs for Intellectually Gifted Pupils

Prepared by Mary Broderick Hill Education Research Consultant CALIFORNIA PROJECT TALENT This publication was funded under theCooperative Research Program of the Office ofEducation, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Foreword

California public schools provide equal opportunity for every boy and girl of school age to become knowledgeable in the basic subjects and proficient in using the basic skills of learning. The programs are also of sufficient scope and depth to permit each girl and boy to acquire the special preparation needed for beginning employment in fields in which no more than high school graduation is required or for entering college. In conducting their educational programs, the schools of this state employ a variety of practices to meet the needs of those who are talented. Cdifornia Project Talent has highlighted special provisions that have proved most beneficial to these students. In this publication, which was developed by the project staff, attention is directed to program enrichment. The ideas regarding planning, developing, and conducting enrichment programs merit the attention of all educators, for they are ideas that have resulted from the work done in California Project Talent; that is, they are the products of experimentation. Their application has produced highly satisfactory results.

Superintendent of Public Instruction

iii Preface

California Project Talent was conducted under the direction of the California State Department of Education as a demonstration and field study of education programs that were designed to provide opportunity for talented pupils in grades one through eight to capitalize on their talents. The project was financed with funds secured through the Cooperative Research Branch of the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

The education programs demonstrated and studied were (1) enrichment; (2) acceleration; (3) counseling- instructional; and (4) special class. This publication contains the final report of the Enrichment Program, which was conducted cooperatively by the project staff and members of the professional staff of the Los Angeles Unified School District in 12 demonstration schools of that district.

Boys and girls can have the advantage of participating in enrichment programs and at the same time have the advantage of being with their own age groups. An enrichment program begun in elementary school can be extended into high school by making only minor adjustments in the regular school program. The adjustments result in the regular program having an added dimensionone that permits the talented pupil to profit fully from using his ability to best advantage.

S. W. PATTERSON JOSEPH P. RICE, JR. Chief, Division of Special Chief, Bureau for Educationally Schools and Services Handicapped and Mentally Exceptional Children

PAUL D. PLOWMAN Consultant in Education of the Mentally Gifted Contents

Page

iii Foreword

Preface

1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter Part One: The Planning Phase

5 I. FOUNDATIONS OF THEENRICHMENT PROGRAM Survey of Literature on Definitions ofEnrichment 5 6 Survey of Literature on Philosophiesof Enrichment 8 Conclusions 8 Selected References 10 II. ENRICHMENT FOR THEGIFTED: A FRAME OF REFERENCE The Nature of the Environment 10 Sociopsychological Implications of Enrichment 11 Characteristics of Gifted Learners 14 20 General Principles of Learning 25 Levels of Intellectual Functioning 28 The Logic and Sequence of SubjectMatter 29 Summary 29 Selected References 33 III. OBJECTIVES OF ENRICHMENT 33 Guidelines for Identifying Objectives 34 Selection of Objectives 35 Validity of Objectives 35 Evaluation of Objectives 35 Selected References 37 IV. THE PROVISION OF AN ENRICHEDCURRICULUM 37 Values Underlying Curricular Planning 37 Selection of Curricular Content 39 Organization of Learning Opportunities 40 Curriculum of the Enrichment Center 40 Promotion of Creative Expression 41 Promotion of Critical Appreciation 41 Promotion of the Scientific Approach 42 Summary 42 Selected References

vii

6 ''...114141;r/ Chapter Page V. ENRICHMENT RESOURCES IN PERSONNEL AND MATERIALS 44 The Roles of Resource Personnel 44 The Use of Resource Materials 45 Summary 46 Selected References 46

Part Two: The Teacher Training Program

VI. INSERVICE TEACHER TRAINING 53 Activating Change 53 Development of Effective Teachers 53 Procedures for Teacher Education 54 Purpose of Teacher Training 55 Summary 55 Selected References 55

VII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVE EXPRESSION 56 Nature of the Creative Person 56 Nature of the Creative Process 57 Nature of an Environment Conducive to Creativity 59 The Contribution of Background Information to Creativity 59 Reading Skills 59 Literature 60 Communicative Skills 67 Summary 68 Selected References 68

VIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL APPRECIATION 72 Artistic Appreciation and Expression 72 The Structure and Form of Artistic Composition 72 The Teacher's Role in Promoting Artistic Appreciation 73 Music 73 Painting 85 Sculpture 86 Periods of Art and Music History 88 Summary 89 Selected References 89

IX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH 92 The Scientific Attitude 92 Teacher Training in the Scientific Processes 92 Selection of Content Areas in Scientific Fields 93 Content of Scientific Courses 93 The Study of Astronomy 93 The Study of Geography 97 The Study of Mathematics 99 Mathematical and Astronomical Geography 107 Logic 108 Research Methods 109 Additional Background Materials Prepared 111 Selected References 111

viii Chapter Page X. FORMATS FOR LESSON PLANS AND STUDY UNITS 114 The Planning of Formats 114 Fundamentals of Planning 114 Examples of Formats 114 Selected References 118

Part Three: Implement;ition of the Program

XI. APPLICATION OF ENRICHMENT IN THE CL/ASROOM 121 Administrative and Instructional Roles 121 Classroom Organization 1 122 Sound Filmstrip on the Project 123 Actualization of Enrichment I 123 Selected References 123

XII. ENRICHMENT THROUGH CREATIVE EXPRESSION 125 Enriched Units of Study in Creative Expression 125 Course Outline in Creative Expression 125 Daily Lesson Plans for Classes in Literature 132 Selected References 139

XIII. ENRICHMENT THROUGH CRITICAL APPRECIATION 142 Implementing Enrichment in Critical Appreciation 142 Course Outline in Critical Appreciation 142 Daily Lesson Plans for Classes in Music and Art 147 Selected References 150

XIV. ENRICHMENT THROUGH ASCIENTIFIC APPROACH 153 Implementing Enrichment in a Science Curriculum 153 Outline of Scientific Experiences in the Area of Mathematics 153 Daily Lesson Plans for Development of the Scientific Approach 166 Selected References 171

Part Four: Program Evaluation

XV. OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY 177 Project Talent Contract Specifications 177 City and State Criteria 177 Rationale of Curriculum Development 177 Queries to Educators and to Parents 178 Appraisals of Behavioral Changes 178 Evaluative Instruments 179 Summary 186 Selected References 186

ix Introduction

A comprehensive, operational statement of ideals and As indicated byitstitle, "Implementation of the objectives should underlie any enrichment program devel- Program," Part Three concerns the administration and oped for intellectually gifted pupils. Accordingly, the promotion of enrichment in elementary schools. After author has sought to adhere to that standard in preparing discussing fundamental concepts, roles, and provisions in this volume for publication. Chapter XI, the author describes source materials for lesson plans and course outlines in chapters XII, XIII, and XIV, Part One presents five chapters on the planning phases of the content of which parallelstheteacher materials the enrichment program as it was conceived and executed presented in chapters VII, VIII, and IX. at the demonstration center of the Los Angeles Unified School District from 1963 through 1966. Chapter I defines Part Four, "Program Evaluation," which consists solely the concept of enrichment and discusses the philosophy of Chapter XV, presents both an overview and a summary upon which it is founded. Chapter II identifies those facets of enrichment with special reference to the work of the of programs for the gifted which need to be studied and demonstration center staff at Los Angeles directed by the considered in structuring or revising enriched curriculums. author as educational consultant. Chapter XV concludes The major sections of that chapter pertain to environmental with checklists that should prove useful in evaluating the factors, sociopsychological implications of enrichment, the pupil's progress in creative writing, critical appreciation, characteristics of gifted children, general principles of and the scientific 4.pproach, together with a checklist for learning, levels of intellectqal functioning, and the logic and the teacher to utilize in evaluating his own effectiveness in sequenceof course content presentedinenrichment enriching the learning experiences of his pupils. courses. Chapter III outlines suitable criteria upon which to base the program's objectives; it distinguishes intellectual The author has also appended conclusions or summaries levels of subject content and determines specific cognitive, to individual chapters. A list of "Selected References," affective, and conative or psychomotor behaviors to be citing books, articles, audio-visual aids, and other materials achieved. In Chapter IV the author deals with the choice of that can augment and strengthen enrichment programs, has pertinent learning activities and the organization of appro- been placed at the end of each chapter in the publication. priate elements in offering an enriched curriculum. Chapter Broad in scope and varied in subject matter, these lists offer V lists the resources required for enriching educational an abundance of resource information on the various programs in terms of personnel and materials. subject matter fields considered herein.

Entitled "The Teacher Training Program," Part Two of The Photographic Office of the Audio-Visual Section, this document also consists of five chapters. In Chapter VI Los Angeles Unified School District, provided the photo- the author reports on the teacher education program graphs contained in this monograph. All of them serve to established for the faculty of the Los Angeles Enrichment illustrate enrichment in action at the demonstration center Demonstration Center. This was an inservice type of in Los Angeles. program that operated for the duration of the enrichment project. The ensuing three chapters VII, VIII, and IX This report of the enrichment phase of California Project outline the curricular provisions developed at the Los Talent is published with the hope that it will provide Angeles center to promote the development of creative effective guidelines and useful springboards for instructors expression, critical appreciation, and scientific attitudes, in other schools as they carry out .the vital work of respectively. To aid the instructor in implementing the fostering the educational progress of gifted children. A curriculums described in those chapters, Chapter X contains concomitant hope is that the report will also assist teachers formats for lesson plans and study units. in upgrading instruction for the school populace as a whole.

1 Part One The Planning Phase Chapter I Foundations of theEnrichment Program

The term "enrichment" is often too loosely applied to a and related reading; (b) study of the fine arts, handicrafts, variety of programs within the curriculum. In order to or industrial arts;. and (c) "busy work" or unnecessarydrill. delimit precisely and specifically the scope of the intended He maintains that the third type represents actual impover- program, plans for enrichment should include a listingof ishment for the superior child. He acknowledges the fact those details to be incorporated in the program's opera- that true enrichment for the student invariably means tional definition. additional work for his instructor because such a program demands that students be taught simultaneously on different instructional levels. SURVEY OF LITERATURE ON DEFINITIONS OF ENRICHMENT Ruth Martinson, the project coordinator of the Califor- nia State Study of Gifted Programs (12), considers true A survey of the professional literature reaffirms the enrichment as the kind of learning that enables the students necessity for a specific operational definition of "enrich- (a) to perceive relationships between facts presented in ment" as a foundation upon which to base the program. As course content and information gleaned from abroader is shown by a perusal of the literature in the field, the term fund of human knowledge; and (b) to make further "enrichment" as originally used embodied broad connota- discoveries based on those learning experiences. She views tions that varied widely among various school systems and enrichment as encompassing those educational experiences that served traditionally to identify only vaguely a broad that encourage a student to apply and to generalize his type of curricular program directed toward the superior knowledge in a particular area. student. Leon Lessinger (19) describes enrichment as a process of The advent of the Committee on Education of Intel- relating subject matter to those interdisciplinary concepts lectually Gifted Pupils under the aegis of the Los Angeles which have the 'potential of clarifying the subject matter, Unified School District marked one of the first attempts to integrating general knowledge, and transferring training. define clearly and exactly the goals and to pinpoint the scope of a good enrichment program. Thatcommittee Many educational authorities have directed their atten- reported: tion to the learning characteristics of gifted students as a basis both for defining the word "enrichment" and for Enrichment requires a learning environment conducive to program planning. Robert DeHaan and Jack Kough(8) exploration and originality. An enriched educational program for intellectually giftedpupilsis based on the recognition of statethat enrichment isthe process of tailoring the individual differences and is planned to meet individual needs curriculum to the needs, interests, and abilities of the gifted and to challenge abilities. Enrichment emphasizes quality rather students and of adding more variety and complexity to than quantity and adds depth and scope to learning experiences. their assignments. Paul Witty (29) declares that special It provides for development of the following abilities: reflective abilities are nurtured in a classroom by capable, well- and critical thinking, problem solving, and creative thinking and expression. (13)1 prepared, and enthusiastic teachers who stimulatethe pupils' curiosity and who offer the pupils rich opportunities for developing their interests. Spencer Brown (3) says that enrichment means adding to the curriculum materials or experiences other than those James Gallagher (16) defines "enrichment" as any acti- offered to the average student. He lists three different types vity that develops the intellectual skills and talents of the of so-called enrichment: (a) projects or reports prepared giftedchild. Such a child has the ability to associate along the lines of the pupil's special interests, with emphasis concepts, evaluate facts and arguments, create new ideas, on creative or investigative work, experiences inleadership reason through complex problems, and understand unusual situations.Gallagher asserts (15) that unless those extra activities serve to advance the special characteristics named, IN umbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. they do not merit the title of enrichment.

5 6

A publication of the Educational Policies Commis- Basic to any enrichment program are the following sion (11) states thatlifefor the gifted appears to be factors: enriched merely by theliving of it. The Commission declares that from the same stimuliwhether formally Characteristics of the learner arranged by the school or merely existing haphazardly in the environmentthe gifted student acquires deeper in- Needs of society sights, broader understandings, keener appreciations, and more memories. The Commission emphasizes, however, Principles of learning that although "learner-determined" enrichment almost in- evitably results from practically any type of experience for Sociopsychological implications mentally superior students, the gifted child derives considerably less value from unplanned, unstructured ekperi- Levels of intellectual functioning ences than he does from the formal classroom situation aimed expresslyatincreasinghis understandings. The The logic and sequence of subject matter fields Commission saysthat, as narrowly conceived, "enrichment" describes the deliberate differentiation of curriculum Chapter II deals with these six factors, all of which must content and activities for the more intelligent pupils in a be researched to obtain the data necessary to serve as a heterogeneousclass.Such extra learning opportunities foundation for building an enrichment program. should permit each student to delve more deeply into the fields of his special interests, to give creative expression to In considering a philosophy of education designed to his individual talents, and to explore a wide variety of both help realize the hopes and ambitions of parents for their intellectual and nonintellectual activities. The Commission children, Don Parker (21) has proposed what he terms a defines enrichment, in its broader sense, as a policy rather "Multi-level Philosophy." A multilevel school situation than a plan and notes that, as such, it may be executed in permits each child to start where he is and to move as fast connection with acceleration,abilitygrouping, individ- and as far as his individual learning rate and capacity will ualized assignments, elective courses, or any other such allow. Parker stresses the wide variance in learning rate and special techniques. ability among pupils within a single classroom.

According to Maurice Freehill (14), too, it is perhaps Paul Woodring (30) remarks that while our philosophy improper to consider enrichment as a special plan, because must aim to promote the intellectual development of each all instruction of superior students is aimed at increasing student, broad differences in the intellectualability of curricular enrichment. Freehill describes enrichment "in individual students must be recognized. depth" as being academic in content in contradistinction to that "in breadth," which involves wider variety and more The fundamental concept expressed in the Rockefeller opportunities for exploration. He points out that such reportis that although all men are equally worthy of the programs permit gifted children to work attheir own best efforts of educators, individuals differ widely in both individualrates of speed and attheir own levels of their motivation and capacity; it follows, then, that they comprehension, using more difficult books and exploring must also differ in their potential for achievement and in more fields of learning than do other members of the class. theiractual attainments. Much of mankind's greatness He lists the most common approaches to enrichment as stems from the individual's aspiration and abilities and depth assignments and projects, free-choice activities, super- ultimately from his freedom to excel. J. Ned Bryan (4) has vised correspondence courses, provision of extra materials, furthered this idea in stating that freedom must include the summer school, and participation in community activities. freedom to develop fully one's own individual gifts.

The Educational Policies Commission (6) stresses the SURVEY OF LITERATURE ON PHILOSOPHIES threefold thesis that all children have some gifts; that all of OF ENRICHMENT their gifts are required for a strong society; and that the ideal of democracy insists that all children be granted equal The philosophy underlying a program necessarily deter- respect. The Commission's report asserts that the obligation mines the logic and rationale of the actions planned for its to show equal respect and concein to the individual is not implementation. The purpose of the philosophy is to to be equated with the obligation to give each child provide a statement of operational objectives to serve as a identicaltreatment. The principlethat extra provision constant upon which to base the development of the should be made for students endowed with high intelligence program. Thus the philosophy of the enrichment program simply because of that intelligence forms a part of the forgiftedstudentsdictatesthechoice of personnel, broader statement that all educational programs should be materials, and learning opportunities used in implementing geared to the needs and abilities of the children whom they that program. serve. Although many basic educational needs are common 7

to all persons, each student is a uniqueindividual; there- opment of all inherent capabilities with which itsmembers fore, within the limits of practicality, instructional methods are endowed; and (d) schools shoulddiscover and exploit should be individualized accordingly. all talents of their students,

0. L. Davis (7) comments that providing equal oppor- J. Ned Bryan (26) urges that the gifted be identified and tunity for all does not mean offering everyone the same encouraged in the elementary school. He proposes the educational environment, experiences, or materials; rather, adoption of four general categories of talent as guides in it means giving each student individualizedattention in designing educational programs: academic, creative, kines- accordance with his ability to learn. Davis arguesthat thetic, and psychosocial. Bryan describes a gifted student as educating for life in a democracy does not demandthat the one who possesses ahigh degree of ability, actual or futurephysicist,musician, or salesman learn the same potential, in one or more of those categories. things at the same time; it does demand that each childbe instructed according to his own inherent capabilities. Francis Keppel (18) also recognizes the national need for offering maximum opportunity to gifted students. Stressing Further concern for the optimum development of the thenecessityfor making a commitment to academic individual as a contribution to the vitality of the culture is excellence, he defines the general goal of education as the voiced by Kenneth E. Anderson (24), whoemphasizes the optimum development of each individual's human resources fact that the development of the full potential of talented within the context of his own capacity, motivation, and persons is essential to the welfareand progress of society as talents. Charles Bish (2) observes that if we cultivate the a whole. Bereday andLauwerys (1) assert that because ideal of excellence while protecting the moral values of everyone does some things betterthan others, no one is equality, we must be extremely Jensitive to the principle completely lacking intalent; they conclude from this rooted deep in the American conscience that each student statement that the finding and developing of talent is at the is equally worthy of attention and concern and that each very root of all educational processes. must be accorded equal opportunity in termsof his needs and abilities. This concept recognizes individual differences In its publication The Central Purpose of American in intelligence and variations in motivation; hence it can Education, the Educational Policies Commission (5) affirms accept wide disparities in intellectual performance. that respect for the individual, which lies at the core of the American value system, challenges teachers to enable each The attainment of intellectual excellence is not a new of their students to attain their full stature as adults by objective, having been a human concern for centuries. As reaching the limits imposed by their native intelligence. The Plato wrote in Book VI of his Laws in the fourth century, Commission defines the principal purpose of American B.C.: education as developing the ability to think logically and Whatever the creature, be it plant or animal, tame or wild, if accurately. On page 17 of the Commission's report is the its earliest growth makes a good start, that is the most important statementthat a person develops his thinking ability step toward the consummation of the excellence of which nature gradually and continually as he exercises it. Upon man's use is capable. of hisrational powers rests his ability to achieve his personal goals and to fulfill his obligations to society at Educators have long pondered the dimensions of excellence large. in education. Lawrence Thomas (27) comments thatsuperi- ority applies not merely to a person or to his achievements; According to the findings of the Educational Policies it also concerns the relationship between the two factors. Commission, individual strength springs from a thinking, He suggests that before judging the merits of a particular aware, and enlightened minda mind that possesses the performance, we should first consider its elements: (a) the capacity for aesthetic sensitivity and moral responsibility. nature of the learning materials as related to theability The Commission's report affirms the importance of an level of the student; and (b) the purpose, industry, and education that is at once suffused with creativity and workmanship of the student. If the learner's purpose differs innovation and characterized by the process of logical significantly from his teacher's, the learner's achievement thinking and the attitude of thoughtfulness. may easily be evaluatedinappropriately. A standard of excellence becomes valid and operative only insofar as the In a federal report on the education of superior students, work materials are properly matched with the student's the Office of Education (9) has recognized the need to goals and abilities. identify and to utilize the individual talents of all students. That report emphasizes the following four statements: Ruth Martinson (20) reportsthat the philosophical (a) talents pertain to every avenue of human endeavor; attitude adopted toward a program for the giftedhas a (b) high intelligence is more likely to be generalized than decided bearing upon the evaluation of the successof that specialized; (c) American society needs the positive devel- program. When the EnrichmentDemonstration Center was /".

opened,itsleadersdirectedspecific attention to the activities. A view widely held among educators is that philosophy of the Los Angeles Unified School District under special classes offered for the gifted child will eventually which it operated. That philosophy was explicitly defined as improve instruction for all children, be they slow, average, follows: or superior.

The basic point of view. .. isthat every pupil be expected to Superior students generally justify all educational efforts make the most of his potentialities; that every pupil be 'helped to and funds expended in their behalf, because, to a greater attain as high a level of intellectual development as is possible; that there be deliberate plans made to identify individual degree than most, such students represent the hope of differences; and that provisions be made for learning situations improvement in our civilization that may eventually result for pupils of varied abilities, interests, and talents. (10) in a better life for their less well-endowed fellows as well as for themselves. "The butcher, the baker, the candlestick maker" and their occupational counterparts are all certainly The flexible program of enrichment developed by the Los essential to the smooth, day-to-day functioning of our Angeles system (17) includes both group and individual society. For improvements in that society, however, we work experiences. must look to the giftedthat fortunate group which has been, until recently, largely ignored in our efforts to raise Four different areas in which enrichment units may be the least able students to a level approaching mediocrity. integrated are listed by Virgil Ward as (a) the humanities, including language arts, literature, and foreign languages; Itisthe superior children, comprising but a small (b) mathematics; (c) the natural sciences; and (d) the social minority of the student bodies throughout the land, who sciences, including history, government, economics, and will provide most of our future authors, musicians, artists, geography. (28) statesmen, inventors, and leaders in other fields; it therefore behooves us to intensify our efforts to serve all gifted pupils David Sanders (25) observes that enrichment is highly more adequatelythat they may better serve us in the dependent upon the skills and artistry of the individual future. teacher, as it differs subtly from the more routine instruction of the average child. He writes that the enrichment process requires a teacher who is at once psychologically Selected References secure and sensitive to the needs and interests of gifted students. 1. Bereday, George Z. F., and Joseph A. Lauwerys. Concepts of Excellence in Education. New York: For teachers whose regular classes include a few superior Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1961. students, Paul Plowman suggests the three following modes of enriching the program: (a) additional activities planned 2.Bish, Charles E. "The Academically Talented," tomeetindividualinterests andabilities;(b) use of NEA Journal, L (February, 1961), 33-34. advanced materials to generate ideas; and (c) special help, direct or indirect, to the gifted through resource persons of 3. Brown, Spencer. "How Educate the Gifted Child? the community. (22) Commentary Magazine, XXI (June, 1956), 523-41.

4.Bryan, J. Ned. "Talent and Today's Schools," The Superior Student, VI (November-December, 1963). CONCLUSIONS (The Newsletter of the Inter-University Committee on the Superior Student, University of Colorado.) From the foregoing discussion it would appear that most authorities specializing in the education of the gifted now 5. The Central Purpose of American Education. Educa- agreeinprinciple on the basic concepts involved in tionalPoliciesCommission.Washington,D.C.: enrichment programs. However different these programs National Education Association and the American themselves may be, the various connotations of the term Association of School Administrators, 1961. "enrichment," like the objectives underlying its implementation in the schools, have become generally standardized. 6.Contemporary Issues in Elementary Education. Edu- cationalPoliciesCommission. Washington, D.C,: Among the objectives stressed in most programs for the National Education Association and the American talented are: an increased ability to analyze and to solve Association of School Administrators, 1960. problems; the development of more profound and worthwhile interests; the stimulation of originality, initiative, and 7. Davis, 0. L., Jr. "Grouping for Instruction: Some self-direction; and an increased social conscience resulting Pc 'spectives," The Educational Forum, XXIV (Janu- from interaction with peer groups through cooperative ary, 1960), 209-16. 9

8.De Haan, Robert F., and Jack Kough. Helping Chil- 19. Lessinger, Leon. "Enrichment for Gifted Pupils - Its dren with Special Needs. Chicago: Science Research Nature and Nurture," Exceptional Children, XXX Associates, 1957. (November, 1963), 119-20.

9."EducatingTalentedChildreninElementary 20.Martinson, Ruth. Special Programs for Gifted Pupils. Schools," in Education Briefs, No. 36. Washington, Bulletin of the California State Department of Educa- D.C.:Officeof Education, U.S. Department of tion, Vol. XXXI, No. 1, January, 1962. Sacramento: Health, Education, and Welfare, November, 1958. California State Department of Education, 1962.

10.Education of Intellectually Gifted Pupils in Los Angeles City Schools. Committee on Education of 21.Parker, Don H. Schooling for Individual Excellence. Intellectually Gifted Pupils. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Camden, N.J,: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1963. Unified School District, May, 1962. 22.Plowman, Paul D. Guidelines for Establishing and 11.Education of the Gifted. Educational Policies Com- Evaluating Programs for Mentally Gifted Minors. mission. Washington, DC.: National Education Asso- Sacramento: California State Department of Educa- ciation and American Association of School Admini- tion, 1962. strators, 1950. 23.The Pursuit of Excellence: Education and the Future 12.Educational Programs for Gifted Pupils. A Report to of America. Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Inc. New the California Legislature Prepared Pursuant to Sec- York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1958. tion 2 of Chapter 2385, Statutes of 1957. Sacra- mento: California State Department of Education, 24.Research on the Academically Talented Student. 1961. Edited by Kenneth E. Anderson. Project on the Academically Talented Student. Washington, D.C.: 13.Enrichment for the Intellectually Gifted. Committee on Education of Intellectualy Gifted Pupils. Los National Education Association, 1961. Angeles:Los Angeles Unified School District, Sep- tember, 1960. 25.Sanders, David C. Elementary Education and the Academically Talented Pupil. Washington, D.C.: Con- 14. Freehill, Maurice F. Gifted Children: Their Psychol- ference on Elementary Education and the Academi- ogy and Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1961. cally Talented Pupil, 1959.

15. Gallagher, James J. The Gifted Child in the Elemen- tary School. Series: WHAT RESEARCH SAYS TO 26.Talent: A State's Resource, a State's Responsibility. THE TEACHER, No. 17. Department of Classroom OE- 20048, Bulletin No. 34. Edited by J. Ned Bryan. Teachers, American Educational Research Associa- Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1963. tion of the National Education Association, 1959.

16. Gallagher, JamesJ.Teaching the Gifted Child. 27. Thomas, Lawrence G. "Educational Dimensions in Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1964. Excellence," CTA Action, II (April 17, 1964), 4.

17.Guidance of Gifted Pupils. Guidance and Counseling 28.Ward, Virgil S. "New Perspectives in the Education of Section,Divisionof Elementary Education. Los the Gifted," The Educational Forum, XXIV (March, Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, May, 1960), 329-35. 1961. 29.Witty, Paul. "Does the I.Q.Identify All Gifted 18. Keppel, Francis. "In Search of Excellence," Health, Children?" National Parent-Teacher, LI (February, Education, and Welfare Indicators (April,1964), 1957), 17. xxxi- xxxviii. (Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Divi- 30.Woodring, Paul. A Fourth of a Nation. New York: sion of Public Documents.) McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957. ChapterII Enrichment for the Gifted: A Frame of Reference

This chapter deals in sequence with the following topics, rights and recognition, the fight for civil liberties, desegrega- all of which are relevant to enriching the education of the tion of classrooms through cross-town bussing, increased gifted: (a) the nature of the environment; (b) sociopsycho- educational budgets and tuition costs, conflicting expecta- logical implications of enrichment; (c) characteristics of tions from theschools, and therapidexplosion of gifted learners; (d) general principles of learning; (e) levels knowledge in certain fields. (1)1 of intellectual functioning; and (0 the logic and sequence of subject matter. Recent manifestations of civilization have increased the pressures exerted on youth as well as on their elders. Strains operating upon our total society cannot fail to affect the THE NATURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT child in his classroom; however, such strains may be somewhat alleviated by a closer interaction between the Basic to an educational program for the gifted are a schools andthe communities which they serve, thus knowledge of the role of the school as a social agency, an narrowing the chasm between the varied world of reality understanding of the pupil's present environment, and an outside the schoolhouse and the consistent learning rou- awareness of the society which he will be expected to serve. tines within it. (2) Some types of stress are desirable; others The various societal forces affecting talented children also are not. Causes of negative stress situations include the affect their potential contributions to the world's welfare; threat of almost instantaneous destruction by nuclear such forces, therefore, must all be considered in designing warfare, the dwindling of living space in the midst of curriculums for the superior child. population expansion, the acceleration of crime, the pollution of air and water, student unrest and revolt at the university level, and anxiety over school marks rather than Functions of the School as a Social Institution a calm concern with learning.

The principal purposes of the school are to help the pupil Among the positive causes of pressure are the increasing to shape realistically his personal goals in life, to give him amount of knowledge to be mastered, man's ventures into the learning and the tools necessary to achieve those goals, outer space, development of electronic instruments, prog- and to transmit the cultural heritage from one generation to ress in many scientificfields, and the multiplicity of the next. To those primary objectives have been added inventions affecting everyday life. (2) Uncertainty and certain supplementary obligations to help the child meet anxiety may result from the patterns emerging from our some of his basic needs. Subsidiary roles of the school are culturethatrequire students to orient themselves to toassistitsstudents inthe following areas:health; probabilities rather than to certaintiesto accept change companionship; economic and civic security; intellectual as the rule instead of the exception. development; the instillation of moral, spiritual, and aesthetic values; and the pursuit of leisure-time activities. Tasks dictatedtothe school by socialforces are enumerated by Richard I. Miller (3) as follows:

Environmental Forces Affecting the School Coping with the knowledge explosion

As a social insitution, the school is expected to react to Developing logical patterns of thought the various social, economic, and political pressures operating in its community. Especially in times of rapid drastic Teaching issues in relation to values change like the present, these forces decisively affect the conditions under which American youth live and learn. Promoting a feeling of social responsibility Among the factors influencing the school are population growth, urbanization, automation, amount of manpower 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected available, the attempts of disadvantaged groups to win References" at the end of this chapter.

10 11

Building an understanding of foreign languages and evolvingworld, enrichment planners cannot afford to civilizations ignore the guidelines resulting from the research of psychologists and other social scientists. Focusing on the individual

Maintaining integrity and courage Theories of Individual Development Psychologists have determined that man has an inborn The Use of Societal Data in Planning capacity for responsible self-direction and an inborn need for Enrichment to fulfill his capabilities. The behaviorist view of man as a reactive organism responding mechanically to the various Like other educational developments, enrichment pro- stimuli of his environment has given way to the concept of grams must reflect the needs of the societywhich they man as an energy system whose behavior is determined serve; hence the staff of the Enrichment Demonstration jointly by his heredity and by his environment. The latter Center in Los Angeles studied the forces currently influenc- viewpoint explains man's ability to evaluate stimuli in terms ing our citizenry. Significant patterns in those forces were of his needs, to assign value to events, to think creatively, sought on which to focus enrichment. According to the and to initiate action. study conducted by demonstration center personnel, the enrichment program should reflect two fundamental objec- Educational psychology is concerned with two types of tives of the school: developing the pupil's ability to think learning processesassociative and cognitive. Associative rationallyand transmittingtheculturalheritage. The learning, which plays a more significant role in early curriculum, therefore, included material provided by vari- childhood, includes trial and error, conditioning, imitation, ous disciplines to promote those twin objectives. Changes in memorization, and identification. Cognitive learning, on the pupils' intellectual behavior were observed to indicate their contrary, is concerned with creativity, imagination, and levels of thought. abstract reasoning; such learning becomes more important as the child becomes more actively involved in the learning The demonstration center staff believed that enrichment process. Associative and cognitive learning are not mutually should also promote the following supplementary functions exclusive;theyrepresent,rather,two extremes of a of the school: continuum having passive conditioning at one end and creative reasoning at the other. Learning does not consist Encouragement of healthful living merely in obtaining facts and information about the world; italsoincludestheacquisitionof new insights and Provision of human companionship orientation patterns. (20)

Recognition of the importance of economic and civic To determine the factors most significant in nurturing security the child's potential, researchers of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development examined find- Intellectual development ings of the behavioral disciplines of psychology, psychiatry, and sociology. They concluded that educators should Acknowledgment of moral, spiritual, and aesthetic devote more effort to (a) individual differences; (b) creative values and divergent thinking; and (c) analyses of teaching processes and their effects on pupil achievement. (17) Provision of worthwhile leisure-time activites J. S. Bruner and Leo Postman describe the learner as a The prime objective of the ensuing enrichment program was discoverer or creator of his own world; the teacher's role is to assist the 750 gifted children involved to realize their full to provide him with opportunities to learn through think- potential so that they might utilize the riches of their ing. The writers have found that the best way to evolve a heritage from the past, the better to contribute to the personal framework is to use a spiral approach to major cultural legacy of the future. concepts through providing a wide diversity of experience. They stress the need for self-direction, active learning, and a rich classroom environment. (6) SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLIC ATIONS OF ENRICHMENT Psychotherapists have also originated many ideas applicable to enrichment programs. Such authorities in the field In their efforts to lead the gifted child to successful asCarlR.Rogers (19),Erich Fromm (9),EarlC. adulthood both as an individual and as a citizen in an Kelley (15), and Arthur W. Combs (18) agree that the '9F mpriaFai Eararoaawir rP11 tw29101042051

learner profits most from those experiences which he Implications of Grouping considers as self-enhancing, self-actualizing, or self-fulfilling. Their findings indicate that learning is affected by a positive Optimum realization of individual potential within a view, of self, by identification with others, by the pupil's group situation is treated by George F. Kneller, who says goals and values, and by the process of attaining one's that the pupil ought not to be subjected to group processes highest potential. Knowledge is assimilated and retained in the misguided belief that group learning is somehow only as the learner can relate it to himself. superior to individualeffort. A subjective analysis of intragroup relations may strengthen the effectiveness of J. P. Guilford's laboratory experiments indicate that grouping, the most important objective of which is to aid in treatment should be differentiated for each child in the the individual struggle for self-fulfillment. The teacher must classroom in conformance with his own unique personality exercise vigilance to prevent the demands of group dynam- traits. Guilford defines "personality" as a pattern of traits ics from repressing attempts at self-fulfillment. (16) Never- that distinguishes one individual from another and that theless, Marcella Bonsall feels that gifted children are aided underlies his relatively consistent way of interacting with inacquiringa sense of adequacy and self-confidence his environment. A "trait" is defined as any distinguishable throughjustsuchassociationswiththeirintellectual and relatively enduring characteristic of a person; it may be peers. (5) general, such as his intelligence, or specific, such as a penchant for golf. Traits, which refer to either biological or The theory of human behavior presented by Harry Giles psychological structure and functioning, are determined by concerns the individual's activestrivingfor continuity theinteraction between hereditary and environmental between himself and his society. According to Giles, growth factors. The following broad areas of individual differences is the chief purpose and a sense of belonging the chief are used to categorize particular personality traits: (a) phys- condition of human endeavor. A prime condition for icalappearance; (b) temperament; (c) ability or actual growth is a feeling of belonging to a larger unit, and this is competenceinanarea;(d) capacity or potential for as true of the single cell and of the group itself as it is of the development; (e) aptitude or propensity for achievement; individual. The desire to "belong," which counts among the (f) interest; (g) action patterns; (h) Moss tolerance; (i) atti- strongest motivators of humanity, poses the following tudes; and .(j) character, or the moral and ethical dimen- dilemma: How can one followone's own particular sions of personality. To foster optimum development of the inclinations and concurrently maintain good, relationships child, elementary school enrichment programs must provide with other persons equally bent upon realizing their own for those differences by offering individualized work in potentials? (12) various fields of endeavor. (13) The application of these sociopsychological ideas to Ronald C. Doll has found that certain conditions in the enrichmentdictatesthenecessityforteachingself- schoolsmilitateagainstthe development of achild's acceptance as a part of the curriculum. Varied experiences potential, alienate the learner from his teacher, and result in should be provided for children who should be given the unrealistic self-images. In Doll's opinion, the pupil's self- time, space, and materials necessary to follow their partic- image should be focused positively through interaction ular bents. Children should occasionally work alone under with empathetic instructors and peers and through the use the guidance of the teacher; at other times they should of stimulating materials. (14) engage in group activities to communicate their learning and to react to the experiences of others. The teacher In discussing the issue of free will versus determination, should therefore allot time blocks both for group instruc- Jacob Getzels says that relative freedom depends on having tion and for supervised study. multiple choices for behavior. The broadly educated man is freer than the narrowly trained man in that the former can Jacob Getzels and Herbert Thelen observe that the choose from a greater number of possibilities for action. school class is the image of a social system in motion or in Emphasizing the importance of freedom of choice, Getzels dynamic disequilibrium. Continually faced with emergent writesthatalthough emergent values tend to reward complexities and conflicts, the classroom group deals with conformity and condemn individuality, the culture should these realities by modifying their goals, expectations, and encourage personal independence and autonomy in order to selective perceptions. Through such classroom experiences enable the gifted individual to be productive and innova- the children can become creative, autonomous participants tive,to capitalize on his native endowments, to give in other social systems later in life. (11) Superior pupils expressionto his exceptionaltalents, and to commit tend to regard one another as resource persons and to himself to his own standards. Thus, a change in our value cooperate in one another's projects more fully than do system is required in order to motivate the superior pupil to average ones. Able pupils should not be enslaved by group work to his capacity and to sacrifice present pleasure for norms, which stifletheir optimum growth. In order to future achievement. (10) enhance the child's freedom to verbalize frankly while ri0V-101:741.4:41.1.~.114.114,../.1 .141.1,31.4.#21

retainingthesenseof anonymityessentialtoself- facilitate such learning activities as drill and following expression, the group should be kept as small as possible in directions. The most flexible social structures occur in the consonance with its goals. classroom through the use of both "group" and "nongroup" techniques. The types of endeavor best achieved By his own behavior, the gifted child creates a school through group activity are setting goals, planning school- environment characterized by lessdiscipline but more work, diagnosing difficulties, and learning social skills. The intellectualchallengethan are found in the ordinary activities that best lend themselves to individual work are classroom. The teacher of the talented may thus increase developing composition skills, obtaining and organizing her effectiveness by spending correspondingly less time on specificinformation, and testingone's knowledge. (8) lectures and other directed lessons and more time as a guide Application of Flanders' ideas to enrichment requires the and consultant than is usually the case. (7) teacher to balance his twin roles as director and consultant and to alternate among individual, small group, and whole Behavior controls that are developed from reacting to class instruction. the environment enable the child to participate usefully in the various groups to which he belongs. In a society of growing interdependency, in a world of increasing power Reviewing developments in social psychology that affect for labor unions, corporations, governmental agencies, and classroom instruction, William C. Trow and his collabora- social and fraternal organizations, children must learn to tors describe the teacher first as a resource person who develop desirable individual-group relationships, to choose lectures and demonstrates in order to improve his pupils' their leaders carefully, to recognize autocrats and dema- thinking ability. Secondly, the teacher serves as a strategist gogues, to protect individual rights in group settings, and to who possesses a high regard for democratic values and promote group progress. According to Edna Ambrose and considerable psychological insight into both group factors Alice Miel (4),sociallearnings that contribute to the and individual personalities. In this role the teacher helps growth of democracy demand the following abilities: the group to evaluate their progress; he also activates democratic processes in the classroom. In his third role the To feel with and for others teacher operates as a therapist who is both a clinician and a group worker. As such, he provides for group management To be personally ambitious without harming others and establishes rapport with each child to improve the latter's individual and social adjustment. (21) To find steadfastness in human associations

To learn values thatare basic to action Pupils may be grouped according to their objectives. Groupings may also be centered on special difficulties or To cooperate withothers in defining and solving abilities of their members, on generalized ability in one problems subject area, or on the solution of a particular problem; they may be founded upon peer friendships; or they may To solve problems creatively and imaginatively serve to divide and coordinate class-planned tasks. Other considerations to be observed in group formation follow: To utilize intelligently the knowledge that has been gleaned fromthe past The classroom atmosphere should be sufficiently fluid to permit the natural formation of groups and To be flexible enough to change procedures and to their facile dissolution when their purposes have been work alongside persons with differing sets of values served.

To accept individual differences in others Each child should move through a variety of groupings. To be circumspect in thought, speech, and deed In naming the groups, value judgments should be In discussing factors that lead to a child's independence, avoided to prevent the formation of a hierarchy. Ned Flanders emphasizes the role of the teacher, upon whom every student is to some extent dependent. The Group training should enable children to share ideas, teacher may create conditions eliciting, for the most part, serve as chairmen, learn self-management, and display dependent reactions from his class; conversely, he may cooperation. encourage all but the most dependent pupils to respond independently. Although dependency does not normally Groupsshouldprovidefeelingsofunityand encouragecreativity, dependency on the teacher may continuity. 14

As only one phase of classroom management, group- Balance between the teacher's role as director and as ing should not be expected to solve all learning consultant problems. Continuity and flexibility of grouping The entire class should be used extensively as a valid group in itself. Group dynamics and cooperative determination of group goals and values Some groups should be based on diversity rather than on homogeneity in interests or abilities. CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED LEARNERS The teacher should allot time to work with each group and provide a variety of instructional materials. Before embarking on an enrichment program, educators should first identify those children who are gifted, learn as Groups should furtherthe maximum individual much as possible about the potentialities and other charac- growth of their members. teristicsof each gifted child, and prepare cumulative records of information on each participant in the program. As a subtle and complex process, grouping should be based on the teacher's judgment rather than on arbitrary mechanical or mathematical systems. Intelligence Levels of Gifted Children

Sociopsychological Data A Resume Administrators of various school systems have applied differentcriteriaindeterminingthe intelligencelevel Because the major purpose of enrichment .is to develop requisite for including a pupil in the ranks of the gifted. fully the individual talents of the gifted, all classroom Generally speaking, intelligence quotients of children con- activities, both group and nongroup, should further that sidered "gifted" range from 120 to 180 and above, as end. Sociopsychological implications indicate that instruc- measured by individual intelligence tests. Spencer Brown tions should stress individual learning in all areas and should reports that only about 3 percent of all Americans have IQs so balance group and nongroup methods as toprovide above 135; 1 percent above 140; and about one fourth of 1 maximum opportunities for all participants. percent, above 160. Only one or two persons in a million have IQs of 180 or more, as measured by the Stanford-. In providing an enrichment program, therefore, the Binet Intelligence Test, which is probably the best known educator needs to consider all of the following socio of the many standardized tests for determining mental age psychological factors: as a basis for the IQ. (23)

The learner's capacity for responsible self-direction The Educational Policies Commission suggests (a) that pupils having IQs of 137 and above be identified as highly The effect upon the individual of his goals, values, gifted; and (b) that pupils having IQs of 120 to 137 be self-image, and identification with others rated as moderately so. (26) For the enrichment program of California Project Talent, an IQ of 130 was arbitrarily set as The learner's sensitivity to the feelings and reactions the lowest limit of giftedness. (27) of others Educators of the Los Angeles Unified School District The learner's environment and heredity as they have categorized as "gifted" those children whose IQ scores determine his behavior rank roughly in the top 2 percent of the total school population.Within thatgeneralclassification are two Provisionofavariedenvironmenttoincrease subgroups; gifted. pupils, whose IQs range from 130 to 160; selectivity and the highly gifted, whose IQs exceed 160. Children in the latter category, who number only one in each 10,000 of Differentiation in treatment for each child by his the population, obviously require highly individualized teacher educational programs.

The influence of group phenomena on the pace and The American Association for Gifted Children defines an type of learning academically gifted student as one who consistently excels in one or more of socially useful endeavors. (29) Robert Balance among individual, small group, and whole DeHaan and Robert Havighurst consider as gifted a child class instruction whose superiorityin any field would enable him to contribute significantly to cultural progress. They propose, historical figures, a disproportionately large number of therefore, that gifted children be selected from the top 10 whom were deranged. The names of Ralph Waldo Emerson, percent of their age croup in one or more of the following Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, and Vaslav Nijinsky have areas: general intellectual ability; talent inthe creative arts popularly been cited as examples of genius gone awry. of music, drama, creative writing, and graphic arts; and William James, after long denying any link between genius ability in science, mechanics, or social leadership. (24) and emotional abnormality, later rev-Irsed his position to claim considerable soundness fo -!1;e theory of the mad J. P. Guilford feels strongly that a single test score, such genius. (45, 46) as that for mental ageused in computing the IQ, cannot accurately measure all types of human intelligence, which One might well ponder the possibility that the efforts of comprises too many components to be summarized in one the school, like those of society at large, to force the gifted number on a scale. Guilford remarks that even Alfred Binet individual into the intellectual mold of the "average" might recognized intelligence as a multiplex of many different have contributed to his supposed instability. For itis factors, although Binet himself encouraged the concept of undoubtedly true that educators of the past, in their efforts IQ as a monolithic, undifferentiated ability by instituting to equalize treatment for all, did try, albeit unconsciously and revising intelligence scales that produce but one score. and unintentionally, to encourage the talented child to Guilford also regards the IQ test as inadequate to determine work at a level well below his mental capacityjust as suchqualitiesascreativity,ingenuity,inventiveness, they tried to raise the below-average student to a level resourcefulness, and originality of thought. (75) approximating mediocrity. Thus, learning could proceed comfortably at a lock-step pace without either inconven- iencing the teacher or requiring undue effort on the part of Historical Attitudes Toward the Gifted the administrator. (32a)

Vestiges of ancient beliefs regarding the physical, men- Whether out of envy on the part of the general populace tal, and emotional endowments of the intellectually gifted for their intellectual superiors or whether out of fear of the stillabound in the stereotyped views of our culture incomprehensible and the unknown, even modern manat regarding the superior student and still affect our attitudes least before the space ageretained the concept that the toward giftedness. (32a) gifted were rather "far out" intellectually; hence, the stereotype of the absent-minded professor or of the Likethemedieval Europeans, theancient Greeks scientist so preoccupied that he didn't "know enough to believed that genius was a divine gift, a touch of omni- come in out of the rain." As if to reinforce that viewpoint, science which enabled its possessors to penetrate into the the term "egghead" was widely and rudely applied to the depths of truth too profound for ordinary mortals to intellectual in America. That derisive word evoked an contemplate. Leadership of Plato's ideal state was to be unfortunate image of a man bald and shiny of pate, whose entrusted only to philosopher-kings of the highest order of oversized, oval-shaped head broadened at the crown as intelligence. The Bible itself extolled the saintly wisdom of though to accommodate an equally oversized brain. In the prophets and adjured men to seek the proper interpretation judgment of many of his contemporaries, the egghead was of divine will from their learned elders. Coexisting with prone to laughable eccentricities, if not to neardementia. those views, however, was a contrasting theory which held In the jargon of mid-twentieth century America, he was that genius, being inherently aberrant, could soar into admonished to "take his head out of the clouds" and to flights of creativity only on the wings of madness. "get his feet on the ground." During the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the These misconceptions about the intellectually well- Industrial Revolution, renowned thinkers again supported endowed were peculiar to the American culture and were the ancient credo to the effect that leadership should be especially common in small towns and rural areas, where limited to the mentally superior. In 1896 Sir Francis Galton "practicality" was the watchword and creative talent was a published Hereditary Genius, the first quantitative analysis misprized commodity. Such views were hardly calculated to of mental ability. His conclusions credited heredity as being inspire. the intellectual to exert himself to the fullest extent the prime determinant of intellectual prowess, which in in behalf of a society that deprecated his ability and held Galton's opinion depended largely on sensory develop- him more in scorn than in admiration. Burdened with such ment. (32b) Other persons writing inthenineteenth a stereotype, of which he was well aware,the egghead, century pointed to the instability inherent in genius; they whether young or old, was often discouraged from realizing held that nature somehow balances high mental powers his true worth in the proper exercise of his talents. with a type of affliction akin to degeneracy or insanity. That viewpoint was furthered in 1891 with the publication This condition existed in school systems around the by Lombroso and Nisbet of their studies on famous nation, in varying degrees, throughout the first half of the

If 16

twentieth century. Then in the 1950s a growing discontent served to elevate the status of the scientist, at least. This in the populace, combined with an interest in putting man disparagement of excellence in nearly all its forms but intospace, began toapply brakes to the forces of athletic reflects a mistaken sense of values and a faulty anti-intellectualism. (32a) People began to realize that if intellectual climate that perhaps characterize the United satellites were to be manned and outer space conquered by States to an extent greater than is exemplified by the other humanity, those feats would be accomplished by the countries of the Western world. (32a) intellectual resources of our society, not by brawn alone or by any amount of ballyhoo. An increasing fear of the As every teacher knows, children progress most rapidly Russians and an awe for their accomplishments led to a inthoseareas wherein achievementis crowned with determination on the part of Americans to match their accolades. It is therefore not remarkable that the typical scientific prowess, if not to surpass it. Beginning efforts student prefers the captaincy of the football team to the were made to reach the talented. The program for Mentally presidency of the California Scholarship Federation (CSF) Gifted Minors (MGM), instituted in California, heralded chapter in his school. The feminine contingent of the later endeavors on behalf of the gifted as exemplified by student body, too, tends to idolize the football hero and to the programs of California Project Talent. Other projects denigrate the CSF seal-bearer. It would seem that such and programs are being conducted in the nation. More are values and attitudes in our society do not augur well for the needed. Fortunately the citizenry and the schools have fuiure of our civilization, which depends for its advance- decided at last to recognize the potential of gifted students. ment on the development of our intellectuals more than it Special programs geared .to these youths' unique abilities does on that of our athletes. and dedicated to the complete development of their talents are becoming increasingly helpful. As J. P. Guilford has remarked, the zeal for mediocrity as evidenced by the wish for only average grades is hardly calculated to evoke the best effort from students either for Negative Influences on Scholarship themselves as individuals or for society at large. (32a) Small wonder, then, that the most promising students have often Despite the recent positive developments, however, that felt it necessary to conceal their light under the proverbial have helped to improve the education of superior students, bushel. To restore scholarship to the honorable place that certain negativistic influences still hamper the progress of once it held, it is incumbent upon educators to eradicate academic excellence in some California classrooms as in the strange preoccupation with the mediocre and the many other parts of the nation. Indicative of the spirit of ordinary that is the bane of scholarship. Far from discour- anti-intellectualism that yet haunts our society and that aging our ablest students from raising their heads above the induces many of our students to utilize only a modicum of mob, the teacher has the vitally important duty of drawing their talents in scholarly pursuits is the shibboleth of the forth th.?. best efforts from all his pupils with the aim of gentlemanly grade of "C" still coveted on many a college helping those children to reach as high as they can in- and high school campus. That ambition to achieve only deed, to stretch their reach by stretching their minds in average grades reflects a fear of superiority that has invaded intellectual effort. even elementary school classes. When the "C" student invokes admiration among his peers, the "A" student is Another condition that cannot help but affect the often held in contempt. classroom atalllevelsisthat of the riots and other upheavals which are currently upsetting college campuses at In order to avoid being ridiculed by their peers, students home as well as abroad. One can scarcely maintain the at all levels below that of university graduate programs have highest ideals of scholarship while participating in a riot or often sacrificed good grades to commonality, to the desire ina"sit-in"inthedean'soffice.Militating against to "get along" with classmates of lesser ability. School scholastic excellence, too is yet another recent phenom- counselors report that certain students actively retreat from enon the advent of the "hippy," complete with long hair, excellence in all areas but athletics, where superiority is not beads, boots, and flowers. The epitome of allthat a a liability. The attitude of those students may reflect their schoolteacher attempts to discourage in his pupils, the elders'deprecation of brain infavor of brawn. Itis average "flower child" is very little concerned with intel- certainly not to society's credit nor a matter of pride for lectual excellence or indeed with any form of superiority. It our culture that the university professor has never achieved is not only the underprivileged or "The Man with the Hoe" either the social status or the financial recognition of the of whom it might be said: "...what to him are Plato and professionalathlete. Popular acclaim both inside and the swing of Pleiades?"2 If a child considers himself as a outside of the schoolhouse applauds and lionizes the athlete and sportsman at the expense of the outstanding student 2Edwin Markham, "The Man with the Hoe." In F. T. Palgrave, The Golden Treasury (Centennial edition). New York: The New and the practitioner of the arts, the sciences, and the American Library of World Literature, Inc. (Mentor Book), 1961, humanities; however, the recent advent of the sputniks has p. 471. "dropout" from life, of what use is it to try to motivate Fortunately, however, the latest educational trendshave the recent him to stay in school? As pointed out in this chapter,the discouraged such leveling processes. Motivating pupil in his classroom is not immune from the cankersthat efforts of American educators to recognize andreward infect the world in the form of negative societalinfluences excellence on the part of gifted pupils has been the rise in like conformity, cynicism, rebellion, and fear ofmental Soviet power, for the threat posed byCommunist forces has awakened these educators to the needfor enabling excellence. better students in the United States to competesuccessfully is also quite Still another reason for downgrading ability of ahigh with their counterparts in the U.S.S.R. It fallacy that possible that the almost universal hunger of modern man order in the classrooms of America is the individual is "highbrow"pursuits, for recognition of the dignity and worth of the anyoneinterestedinso-called schools. whether in writing, music, or the other arts, issomehow having a motivational impact on the youth in our lacking in masculinity. According to the stereotype created the is American educators are becoming alerted also to by popular fancy, a poet, musician, actor, or artist gifted. The and a girl necessity for promoting creativity among the suspect of being somewhat effeminate in nature; perhaps who excels in the humanities is often considered odd or traditions and the demands of mass education have retarded developments in that direction, for creativityis peculiar.It would be interesting to know how many incipient Byrons, Frosts, Nijinskys, El Crews, and Menu- highly individualistic. However, it is encouraging to note the subject, bins have been repressed in their creativity by the stereo- that although much remains to be learned about heads the type which conceives of the artist asunmasculine. And how such noted researchers as J. P. Guilford, who many girls would havedeveloped into a George Eliot Psychological Laboratory of the University of Southern without the stigma that attaches to "a female intellectual" California, are currently investigating the factors involvedin and that forced Mary Ann Evans to adopt amasculine creativity and may be expected to provide some answers on children. pseudonym? how best to promote its development in talented Now directing the Aptitudes ResearchProject for the In attempting to explain the forces opposed to scholar- Office of Naval Research, Guilford said as early as1959: ship that have so long dominated the American educational ...We should be ready to experiment with novel methods.In scene, J. P. Guilford has writtenthat perhaps the root of these days of electronic marvels upon which we can draw . the problem lies in an erroneous conception of democracy we should expect to see some radicalchanges in educational as a social ideal embracingthe equality of mental abilities procedures. If we are not ready to tolerate the idea of drastic along with the equality of rights and opportunities. This changes, we are not ready for an age of creative education. (32a) odd notion, held also by some educators, has certainly inhibited the division of students into slow, average, and In the fourth century before Christ, Platooffered one superior groups. Such division has fortunately been accom- solution to the problem of inspiring creativity inchildren plished in most metropolitan areas in the face of complaints when he wrote in The Republic, Book VII:"Let early from certain quarters thatthe practice of "tracking" education be a sort of amusement; you will thenbe better students is somehow "undemocratic." It can no longerbe able to find out the natural bent." denied, however, that students learn best when they are neither forced to keep up with more intelligent pace-setters Personal Attributes of Gifted Children in the classroom nor yet retarded by slower learners,who Popular opinion to the contrary, modern investigators require both a greater amount of repetition and a more their detailed presentation of subject matter. At any rate, the have attested to the superiority of gifted children over leveling process as applied to the classroom has done our contemporaries in physical, social, moral, and emotional better students "a grave disservice,"in the words of characteristicsaswellasin educational development. Binet's collaboration with Simon in publishing their intel- Guilford a disservice that has damaged ourentire social ligence test in 1905 paved the way for investigating IQsand fabric. (32a) identifyingthespecialmentalattributes of talented children. (42) From a study of 1,500 gifted pupils, ranging Another reason adduced by Guilford for the dampening over a 25-year period,Terman and Oden found that of interest in scholastic achievement is the formerly strong intellectually superior children were also well above average focus upon the personal adjustment of pupils at the in physical attractiveness, social adjustment,size, strength, expense of their intellectual growth.Subject matter has general health, and educational attainment.(43) Terman often been sacrificedto emphasize "life adjustment" affirms that the highly able differ from the averageonly in courses in the mistakenbelief that a child's intellectual degree and not in kind and that theirdifferences lie in development is of considerably less importance thanhis general unitary intelligence, which may be measured on a emotional health. That philosophy attempted toforce all continuum. As already indicated, J. P. Guilforddisagrees children into a common mold of mediocrity. with the latter conclusion. (75) 18

The outstanding intellectual abilities of giftedchildren as both profit from exercising their abilitiesand must be enumerated by James Gallagher are thefollowing: the motivated in order to learn. (33) association of basic concepts; the critical evaluationof facts and arguments; the creation of new ideas;and the ability to analyze complex problems through anunderstanding of Individual Differences Among the Gifted other situations, other times, and other persons.(28) Individual differences are as widespread amongthe The IQs of Because he is better balanced emotionally, byand large, gifted as they are in the general population. than than the child of average or low ability, thegifted child is children considered superior range from 120 to more able to respond more appropriately tosocial situations, 200, and that variation in intellectualendowment is according to Ruth Strang. She notes, too, thathighly reflected in other differences. According toRuth Strang, intelligent children are usually endowed with more versa- gifted children whose IQs approximate 135usually achieve tility,creativity, logic, empathy, and curiosityand are a better emotionaladjustment than do those with IQs of possessed of a broader range of interests than aretheir about 165; the latter group normally excelsscholastically, contemporaries. Strang concurs with Terman's findingsthat however. Besides differing in IQ, these pupils alsomanifest the gifted tend also to be above average instrength of wide ranges in family background, culturalinfluences, rates physique and in mental and physical health.(41) In brief, of development, values and goals, andhome and school to an extent far greater than most,gifted children exem- experiences. Some gifted children havewell-integrated plify the ancient Roman dictum of Mens sanain corpore personalities, which make their behavior predictable;others sano "a sound mind in a sound body." do not. Thus the gifted as a group areless homogeneous than are children with only average or lowerIQs. (41) If personality be considered as the dynamicinterrelation of all the predispositions, desires, habits, and values of the individual, then the desirable characteristics attributed to Talent and Creativity gifted children would logically tend to contribute to the formation of a superior personality. That such is indeed the Children may be considered as gifted in several areas case was demonstrated by a studyof Gertrude Hildreth on other than scholastic achievement or generalintelligence. 50 gifted children; this group received almost five times as Paul Witty urges that the definition of giftednessbe many favorable notations fromobservers of their person- broadened to include achievement in one or more lines of alitytraitsasdid thecontrol group. (34) valuable human activity. As Witty observes,children gifted in art, music, writing, or social leadership arerecognized more readily by their performancethan by their lQs. (45) Learning Characteristics of Gifted Children Talent is a complex product comprised of innate ability Research studies have very often indicated therapidity plus training, according to Norman Meier, whospecifies six with which the gifted learn, as well as their ability to master components of artistic ability: manual skill, drive, general complex, profound material. Both of these facultiesobvi- intelligence, keen perception, creative imagination, and ously ought to be considered in planningenrichment aesthetic judgment. (37) Sidney Pressey thinks that talent is curriculums. Virgil Ward summarizes other learningcharac- culturally determined. The concentrations of giftedness at during the teristicsof superiorchildren as follows:(a) accurate certain periods and places, such as painting perception of social and natural situations, withinsight into Italian Renaissance or music in eighteenth century Ger- part-whole relationships; (b) independent learningof fact many, was encouraged by ahigh degree of popular interest and principle; (c) superior powers of retentionand recall; and acclaim in their respective environments. Pressey there- (d) sensitivity to inferences; (e) spontaneous elevation of fore stresses the importance of developing artisticpotentials immediate observations to higher abstraction planes;(f) of the gifted through enrichment. (38) association of ideas; (g) discriminatory power;(h) analysis and organization of factors; and (i) criticalthinking about A high correlation between the components of creativity self, other persons, and situations. (44) L. M. Termanand and the characteristics of the gifted was found by J.P. M. Oden estimate that about half of the childrenhaving IQs Guilford, who developed objective measurements for identi- of 135 or more have mastered the school curriculum to a fying talented persons. According to Guilford, creative point two full grades beyond the one inwhich they are thinking involves the following processes: identification, currently enrolled. (43) Helen Hey! agrees with Terman preparation, incubation, illumination,elaboration, and that learning characteristics of the gifted differfrom those verification. (32a) of the average only in degree. Both types ofpupils learn best from having direct, concrete experiences andfrom Elizabeth Drews believes that creativity consists primar- relating desirable or undesirable consequences totheir acts; ily of great self-confidence, combined with a desire to 19

understand, discover, and achieve. (25) Abraham Maslow describes the difficulties inherent in determining the child's distinguishesbetween"special-talent"and"self- degree of artistry or creativity at all stages of growth. The actualizing" creativeness (36); he agrees with Carl Rogers search for such talent is impeded by the following factors: that the urge to create is an inborn tendency of man- the correlation between talent and general intelligence is kind. (39) not high;artisticchildren may lack opportunities to develop their ability; as most young children enjoy exploring the creative arts, in the initial stages the average child Importance of Early Identification may perform as well as the gifted; shy, withdrawn children need guidance and a feeling of security before they can That the school's identification of children's capacities perform freely; such talents are best assessed by observing should begin early and continue systematically throughout actual performance; and tests do not measure such factors their educational careers is the thesis of the Guidance and as critical thinking, motivation, determination, and susten- Counseling Section of the Los Angeles Unified School tion of interest. Witty is also concerned about the discovery District. Members of that section maintain that the fol- and development of talents for leadership, because if such lowing advantages accrue from early identification of the abilityisnot channeled into worthwhile, constructive gifted: the school may begin early to guide both the child activities,it may easily be diverted toward destructive and hisparents; theschool may provide enrichment goals. (46) calculated to realize the young pupil's innate capacities; by interpreting the child's ability level to him, the school may Cumulative Records help him to establish appropriate goals; and acceleration may start early in his educational career.(31) All pertinent information on each student should be recorded in a single cumulative file presenting the following data: standardized test scores; teachers' grades; attendance Techniques for Identification of the Gifted records; healthhistory; familydata; recreational and avocational activities; information on the pupil's attitudes, The variety of approaches used by the schools to interests, and behavior patterns; notes on teacher confer- discover their gifted students should include observation by ences; anecdotal information; and teachers' observations. parents, teachers, medical advisers, and other professional persons; intelligence and achievement tests; individual study In their efforts to develop the potentials of their pupils, by the school counselor and psychologist; and dated teachers need to understand the causes underlying student examples of classroom and extracurricular endeavor that behavior. Proper implementation of an enrichment program indicate the talent of their originators. The intellectually entails a knowledge of the individual motivations, emo- gifted display the following attributes at an earlier age than tions, personal relationships, and environmental factors of do other children: (a) walking independently and talking the participants. This information is best presented in a with a large vocabulary; (b) resourcefulness in problem cumulative record, which aids in planning a curriculum to solving; (c) alertness, curiosity, and an eagerness to learn; include variations in learning opportunities for different (d) ability to retain information; (e) desire to read; (f) pro- children at their several levels of development. (30) The tracted concentration; (g) an interest in time measurements teacher's recorded observation of pupils may indicate by clocks and calendars; and (h) above-average physical size tangible evidence of giftedness. In commenting on the and strength. preparation of teachers'notesforthepupilprofile, Dorothy Barclay emphasizes the significance of colorful Children who score high on group intelligence tests language in presenting a realistic picture of the child. (22) should be tested individually by psychologists, who can thus observe facets of the personality dynamics of the The case study has a fourfold purpose: individualizing student and his reaction to problem solving. Mental ability children's curriculum experiences,integrating guidance should be tested at intervals throughout the school years, efforts with curriculum, providing materials for teacher although test scores may not be directly compatible owing education, and extending research in child development. to varying degrees of validity and reliability. While intel- California Project Talent has developed a case study form ligence tests have many limitations and do not measure all tofacilitate the study of gifted students. That form facets of ability, they do aid in the discovery of those provides for the following types of information: confi- students who possess a large vocabulary, a high degree of dential background data; records of contacts with pupils insight, a capacity for abstract thinking, and an aptitude for and parents; healthrecords; test scores; estimates of inductive reasoning. intellectual functioning; factors affecting physical, social, and emotional development; teacher recommendations and Paul Witty reports that authorities disagree as to whether ratings; questionnaires from parents; pupil ratings; dated children inherit or acquire certain talents and aptitudes. He samples of children's writings; and anecdotal records. (35) 20

A case study should be initiated as early as possible in GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING the pupil's school career to present a comprehensive, cumulative record of his particular educational, needs and In implementing programs for the gifted, teachers must achievements. (40) apply their knowledge of educational principles to classroom procedures if the goals of enrichment are to be Whether an intensive and extensive case study be devised attained. Because basic learning principles are applicable to or a more informal cumulative record be kept, information helping the gifted attain their highest potential, a knowl- on each child should be forwarded from the originating edge of thoseprinciplesis considered significant for school to the next educational level as the child progresses educators who are concerned withtheintellectually from the primary grades through college. Gathered from endowed child. This section, therefore, briefly presents the the school, the home, and the pupil himself, information on learning principles that influenced planning for the Cali- his giftedness should expedite continuity of his guidance in fornia Project Talent Demonstration Center in Los Angeles. attaining educationalgoals consistent with hisspecial aptitudes. Learning Defined For apportionment purposes under Education Code Section 6426, the State Board of Education has placed Chiefly a conscious process as shown in Figure 1, responsibility for identifying mentally gifted minors on the learning may be termed a modification in pupil behavior administrative head of the individual school district or a caused by interaction with his environment. The process of district employee designated by the chief administrator. learning involves changes in behavior patterns of knowing, Section 199.11, Title 5, the California Administrative Code, understanding, thinking, feeling, valuing, and performing. which became effective on December 21, 1967, also The student should always be aware that he is learning. provides for a committee to aid in identifying mentally giftedminors.Thatsectionof thecodereadsin part: Developmental Learning

...The identification shall be based upon a study made by a committee of all available evidence as to a pupil's general Gertrude Hildreth defines developmental learning as an intellectual and scholastic capacity. The committee shall consist of the school principal, a classroom teacher familiar with the integral phase of child development that occurs concomi- school work of the pupil, a qualified school psychologist, and tantly with the whole growth process and that is charac- any other person or persons designated by the district employee terized by. prganization, spontaneity, self-initiation, and responsible for making the identification. goalsearching. Such learning depends upon maturation within the human organism as well as upon the outside To summarize, gifted children are generally superior to stimuli presented. Society expects each individual to master their classmates of similar age with respect to mental, certain tasks appropriate to his level of maturity at each physical, social, emotional, and personal characteristics. stage of his development. Underlying those specific tasks The wide range in their personaltraits disproves the are general ones common to all developmental stages that assumption that they comprise a homogeneous group. To a focus upon the achievement of healthy attitudes and greater degree than other pupils, they possess insights, accurate assumptions about one's self and one's environ- energy, and emotional stability. Although most gifted ment; the development of essential competencies to include pupils may be identified through their IQ scores, those physical, intellectual, emotional, and social skills; and the whose abilities lie in art, music, writing, and leadership may awareness of problemslikelyto be encountered and be better identified by their individual performance. Cre- methods of resolving them successfully. (51) ativity and originality are difficult to determine, inasmuch as tests to identify such talent have not been refined and IQ Each new learned performance depends upon the scores do not correlate highly with creativity. Identification acquisition of different patterns of response. For example, procedures should be initiated early in the grade school. the development of skills requires practice; attitudes involve value formulation; understandings suggest some type of Like educators engaged in other programs for the gifted, rational experience. Because a student begins to learn only personnel of the demonstration center of the Los Angeles when he discovers the inadequacy of his current modes of Unified School District planned their enrichment activities response to satisfy a conscious need, proper motivation is to equip thepupilto work with abstract concepts, of the utmost importance. Only when a person cannot meet generalize and summarize well, learn independently, con- a felt need with a reflexive, automatic, or habitual response centrate for extended periods, interrelate learnings from pattern does he begin to reason in attempting to solve his variousfields, evaluate critically, reason logically, and problem. When a situation causes a person to respond evolve new ideas. emotionally, he acquires suchfeelingsaslove,hate, 21

sympathy, resentment, pity, or admiration. Learning con- both the limitations and potentialities of each pupil and to tinues throughout lifeas various needs ariseand are plan his educational experiences accordingly. fulfilled. Physiological differences among children also affect their As the learner attempts to maintain himselfand achieve learning ability. Inasmuch as increasing knowledge rests in his goals, his responses become purposive; they mayrequire large measure upon sense perception, any defect or loss of the gathering of data or the application of facts,feelings, sight, hearing, taste, smell, or touch that is unobserved and and sentiments. Such responses, common to allhumanity, uncorrected may impoverish the learning process both in are referred to as thinking,feeling, and striving, or more quality and in quantity. Because learning depends largely technically as the cognitive, affective, and conative dimen- upon the relative perfection ofthe senses and the general sions of human behavior. (51) health of the learner, it is incumbent upon teachers to consider the physical attributes of their students in pre- See Figure 1 for a diagram of the various stagesinvolved senting their lessons. Physiological maturity affectsthe in true learning, which results in a permanentchange in learning processes because, as the organic structures basic to behavior patterns, as opposed to temporary learning,which certain skills mature, learning is facilitated; for example, is concerned only with the acquisition ofeasily forgotten many typing teachers feelthat their subject can best be facts, taught after a student reaches the age of fifteen, when his hand-eye coordination has improved to a point beyond that of the younger adolescent. Psychological maturity also influences learning by enhancing certaintraits of the Learning student, such as his ability to concentrate on a particular A Conscious Process assignment, to tolerate frustration, and to regard with objectivity the introduction of new ideas.

Differences in intelligence levels are significant in determining pupils'learningrates,theirinterests, and the complexity of the subject matter that they are prepared to absorb. Generally speaking, the higher a person's IQ, the Striving Thinking Feeling more capably andquickly he can master his assignments. (Cognitive) (Affective) (Conative) Brighter children tend to solve problems involving concept attainment with rather insightful leaps to solutions, while duller children usually learn more gradually. (56) Signifi- cant individual differences in learning, asexpressed by perceptual, emotional, cognitive, social, and simple motor behavior, have been reported by J. Kagan and his colleagues (58) and by G. S. Klein. (53) These authorities Acquisition of Integrated Knowledge attribute the variations that they observed to the children's 1 correspondingly different degrees of impulsiveness, atten- tiveness, and ability to focus on the environment.Effective learning implies integrated progress by the student in achieving his various potentialsforintellectual, social, emotional, and physical development. Changed Behavior Patterns The Principles of Motivation Figure 1. Stages in Permanent Learning An adequate degree of motivation impels, directs, and sustains those activities that result in learning. The student Recognition of Varied Potentials is motivated to absorb information related directly tohis own specific needs, interests,and goals. Association with Vital to the enrichment process is the recognitionof and persons who value intellectual competenceusually increases provision for the varied capabilities of the gifted. As motivation for learning. Interest and effort are mutually previously noted, IQs of such children, varying as theydo related as motivating forces; interest that is engendered as from 120 to above 180, represent a much wider rangethan the learner identifies with the subject then motivates is exhibited on intelligence levels of more averagepupils. It further effort. Intrinsic motivation arises when the subject is therefore necessary to determine as accurately aspossible matter isinitself meaningful to the learner; in such instances learning is its own reward. Somewhat less desir- of energy, and the ability to perceive and to organize able from a learning standpoint is extrinsic motivation, relationships. external to the subject and imposed from without; it is related to some form of reward or punishment, such as grades. A common form of motivation lies in making the General Types of Learning pupil aware of his progress, which feat the teacher may accomplish by using achievement-measuring devices and other yardsticks in grading pupils' efforts. Only when As has been previously indicated, learning falls into two successes and failures become obvious are students encour- categories associative and cognitive. Associations may be aged to understand and correct their errors. either logical or arbitrary. Memorization, a form of association usually limitedto verbal symbols, involves both To involvehis pupils in the learning situation, the logical and arbitrary types of learning. Although significant successful teacher relates learning tasks to their individual meaning improves memorization, it is not essential thereto. purposes and experiences. Although competition may prove Cognitive learning involves the acquisition of insights, stimulating, it should be based upon the pupil's own grade which may be described as the perception of new relation- record rather than upon rivalry with others; indeed, the ships based on one's knowledge, memories of past experi- argument has been raised that interpupil comparisons may ences, and reasoning powers. actually impede learning. Kurt Lewin reports that the pleasureattendant upon apupil's surpassing his own achievement rate adds zest to his learning experiences. (55) The concept of generalization, though it grew from that In discussing success and recognition relationships, Gordon of associative thinking, applies also to cognitive learning. Allport says that not only does human learning proceed Past experiences largely influence patterns of perceptual faster when extrinsically motivated by the incentives of learning, which is concerned with discriminating objects, praise and other recognition, but also the individual's time, space, and motion. Inductive reasoning involves the capacity for learning seems actually to expand. Knowledge perception of the logical relationships of significant parts of of progress, praise, understanding, and other such factors all a concept so that certain likenesses upon which to base tend to reinforce prior learning and to motivate further generalizations are discerned. effort. (47) Learned modes of thinking, feeling, and acting tend to become habitual; thus the student forms habits which are Effects of Self-structure on Learning Processes persistent, uniform, and automatic. A skill is a capability for any type of expert performance requiring continual Generally speaking, the child's self-structure determines practice to maintain it. Learning may also be manifested in whether heperceivesthelearningsituationas being the form of coordinated movements resulting from certain unimportant or significant and whether he regards educa- stimuli, which may betactile,visual, or kinesthetic. tion as posing a threat or a challenge. Arthur Combs writes Learning processes normally promote the selection of that a student engages readily in those learning tasks in certain acts to the exclusion or inhibition of others. which he feels competent and which satisfy his needs and B. F. Skinner recommends the use of programmed materials purposes; conversely, he shuns those tasks that make him in presenting basic elements of course material, inasmuch as feel inadequate. (48) Whatever devices produce a feeling of that technique requires the rapid repetition of simple adequacy promote learning. (57) responses. (59)

A major determinantof man's perceptionishis self-concept. In order to promote the level of learning, teachers must study the child's perception of himself, of his The Transfer Principle immediate environment, and of the world. A student's level of aspiration should be realistic: if that level be too high, it Whether in motor or in verbal learning, "transfer" will lead to failure and self-deprecation; if too low, it will springs from noting a similarity in contents, techniques, lead to wasted opportunities and loss of personal resources. principles, or a combination thereof. Perhaps the most common form of learning transfer is generalization, which By establishing attainable goals, the student develops an is an always deliberate process of observing relationships active mental set and obtains confidence in his abilities to between learning patterns. To foster appropriate learning achieve his objectives. To a greater degree than most, gifted transfers, educators should encourage students to look for pupils possess those personal resources that promote a good general principles, study their range of application, seek mental set; for example, specialized talents, the ability to their relatedness, and organize them into a coherent, concentrate, proper study habits, good health, a high level consistent frame of reference. 23

Task Elements of Import to Learning Kohler (54) and Arthur Gates (49) warn that the method's success depends upon the logical organization of the Factors important to the relative difficulty of per- learning content and the pupil's awareness of the related- forming a task and achieving other types of learning are the ness existing in that content. following: clarity, primacy, recency, contiguity, vividness or intensity, size, complexity, and familiarity. The clarity of a problem partly determines the amount of effort The Principle of Frequency required to solve it. Primacy influences learning because of the novelty inherent in first experiences. Recent exper- The principle of exercise or frequency dictates that the iences are more vivid than prior ones. Contiguity associates student must respond repeatedly to the stimuli presented in the stimulus with its required response. When motivational order to increase his proficiency; hence the desirability of a or other conditions are intense, learning tends to be firmly certain amount of drill in memorizing such material as fixed, although too much emotion may interfere with the multiplicationtablesorforeign language vocabularies. acquisition of complex skills. The smaller the amount of Retention of the information can be improved with the material to be absorbed, the easier it is learned. If the repeated practice, the amount of which depends upon the learner is generally familiar with the subject matter, the nature of the task, the degree of overlearning desired, and complexity of a task or problem may be offset corre- the intelligence and the memory of the learner. To a large spondingly. degree, mastery also rests on the data's meaningfulness to the student and on his motivation; if these factors are lacking, repetition is to no avail. Principles of Effect and Belonging

According to the principle of effect, the student tends to The Principle of Distributed Exercise retain those responses that satisfy his needs and to reject unsuccessful responses. Situations eliciting positive reac- Adequate use or distributed exercise of a newly acquired tions generally produce a continuance of those reactions. response pattern is essential to its permanent retention. This principle, which applies chiefly to learning skills that The "belonging" principle was formulated on the basis require practice, depends for its effectiveness on the proper of verbal learning by Edward L. Thorndike, who pointed spacing of practice periods and on obtaining the appro- out the significance of repetition when the instructor is priate degree of concentration. The optimum length of the presenting conjointly various related facts. Thus the prin- lessons varies with the age, interest, strength, freshness, and ciple of belonging resembles that of effect, which depends stability of the pupils, as well as with the character of the upon therelevanceof stimuli to needs. "Belonging" practice involved. By being alert for indications of boredom depends primarily upon attitudes developed from past or fatigue, the teacher may terminate a lesson when it experience; for example, one expects a second name to ceases to be fruitful. follow the first. The principles of both effect and belonging emphasize the inadequacies of sheer contiguity and repeti- Theprincipleofdistributedexerciseposestwo tion. (60) problems: the optimal length for particular practice periods and the most economic interval between practices of a given length. Jost's law reads to the effect that, given The Principle of Relativity associations of equal strength but different length, further practice strengthens the older more than the newer; this law Gestalt psychologists support the thesis of the principle means that additional practice would be more advantageous of relativity that learning in context facilitates psychologi- instrengtheningthefixationof a learner's week-old cal assimilation of information, whereas learning isolated association than of his day-old one. The most appropriate facts is much more difficult. The more related the learner's distribution of effort varies with the learning situation at experiences,the more readilyaretheyretained and hand. incorporated into his behavior patterns. The studies of both George Katona (52) and J. P. Guilford (50) indicate the rapidity with which a series of items may be memorized if The Principle of Self-involvement that series be organized around some general principle, in contrast to the difficulty inherent in trying to learn Another general educational principle is that pupils learn unrelatedfacts. The "whole" method of teaching is only from their own responses and not from those of especially profitable to superior pupils, who are capable of others. One learns to think by thinking. In performing his grasping the total pattern. While agreeing on the superiority assignments, the pupil should engage in self-activity and ofthewhole-partmethod of instruction,Wolfgang maintain an active attitude. 24

The Plateau Principle only briefly, instead of with real changes, which are difficult of measurement. The order of forgetting, which A plateau, or period of no apparent progress, sometimes seems fairly well-established, decreasesin the following occurs in the learning curve. Factors that mightcontribute order: (a) nonsense or meaningless material; (b)meaningful to a plateau include failure to use the most efficient data; and (c) motor learning, which persists in the memory methods, fatigue,lossof interest, or discouragement. the longest. Two types of inhibitionretroactive and Plateaus typically occur in those types of learning that associative interfere with previously learned concepts. involve considerable insight or the formation of large Retroactiveinhibition refers to the tendency of new response patterns. Plateaus may succeed and precede a learning to block the old and prevent its recall. The more period of rapid progress in the skill or learning portrayed in firmly the original learning responses were entrenched, the the curve. less the retroaction. Similar to retroactive inhibition is associative inhibition, in which certain concepts formed earlier interfere with ones developed later. Although learn- The Environmental Principle ing itself can be improved, the power of retention cannot. True learning, which implies real growth change in the The learning process is rendered more difficult by such pupil, is always permanent. Refer to Figure 1, page 21,for factors as social disapproval, unfavorable conditions for a graphic presentation of theseveral steps to such learning study, lack of essential tools or resources, time restrictions, and its concomitant behavioral changes. and distractions caused by other demands of life, such as the necessity to earn money. A proper environment for learning should include: (a) adequately defined roles to A Resume of Learning Principles inform the pupils what is expected of them; (b) proper methodology to encourage desired behavior; (c) realistic The following general learning principles influenced the goals appropriate to the pupils' respective age groups, planning of both subject matter content and teaching needs, and abilities; and (d) instruction designed to present procedures used in the enrichment program at the Los information, stimulate thought, guide experiences, and Angeles Demonstration Center: identify relationships. To develop his full potential, the child requires an environment that both stimulates and Learning is chiefly a conscious process; the learner rewards his assimilation of learning. should be aware that he has learned.

Faulty techniques and characteristics of the instructor Thechangescausedbytruelearning become that may compound learning difficulties include the fol- functioning aspects of a developing personality. lowing: the failure to utilize existing motivation or to increase it; the failure to understand the learner's attitude, Learning responses involve basic human activity that viewpoint, ideals, and native capacities; the failure to grasp includes thinking, feeling, and strivingor more clearly the teaching objectives of lesson planssuch failure technically, the cognitive, affective, and conative possibly leading to unproductive assignments or "busy dimensions of human behavior. work"; ignorance of the learning principles involved; lack of scholarship, which might entail inadequate leadership and Recognition of and provision for the individual possibly also factual errors. Pupil interest in learning may capacities of learners arecrucial to the learning be incited by adjusting materials to his abilities, choosing process because effective learningimplies integrated attractive content, and using a variety of audio-visual aids. progress toward fulfillment of those capacities. A vital facet of the classroom environment is the instructor himself, whose optimism, encouragement, and assistance Adequate motivation impels, sustains, and directs tend to increase both the effectiveness and permanence of learning. learning. The learner's self-structure affects his learning ability. Personal resources that encourage an active mental set The Principle of Permanency are the ability to recognize and to organize relationships, good study habits, good health, a high energy A final, significant principle is that learning may be level, specialized talents, and the time and concentra- considered permanent although the following two qualifica- tion necessary for mastering a particular task. tions should be borne in mind: (a) a distinction must be made between genuine learning as opposed to the acquisi- The two types of learning are associative and cognition of only temporary mental content; and (b) most tests tive, both of which are necessary to shape the course deal with temporary information, which is remembered of human growth. 25

Transfer of learning is occasioned by similarity of A study on the levels of intellectual functioningof gifted contents, of techniques, of principles,or by a pupils enrolled in the Los Angeles enrichment program combination thereof. facilitated the work of the staff of the demonstration center there in choosing that content and inproviding those Meaningful learning enables the pupil to integrate the experiences that would best promote the thinkingabilities various fields of his knowledge. Relatedlearning and other skills of their students. This study wasbased on experiences are retained longer and are incorporated the three cognitive patterns delineated in thefollowing into the learner's behavior more firmlythan are works: The Structure of Intellect Model by J. P.Guilford unrelated ones. and P. R. Merrifield (75); The Process ofEducation by Jerome Bruner (63); and Taxonomy of Educational Objec- The following factors affect the quality of learning: tives, edited by Benjamin S. Bloom (76). Therefollows a clarity, primacy, recency, contiguity, intensity, size, discussion of the three basic patterns of cognition and their complexity, and familiarity of the learning task. significance in developing an enrichment program Several of these conditions may coexist in a particular learning situation. According to the principle of effect, a student tends to retain the responses that satisfy his needsand to reject those that do not. Units The more frequently a certain response is repeated in a learning situation, the greaterthe likelihood that Classes the same response will be evoked by the same Relations situation in the future. Systems 0 Adequate use or distributed exercise of a newly 1111011.!1 acquired pattern of response is essential to make that Transformations learning permanent. Learning is more effective when Implications practice periods are properly spacedneither overly concentrated nor too infrequent. h44.00 44b, 7480 Self-activity promotes the learning process. 44000Ike 4bei;14:°4 .2 4,e 4.4'e 00 40Coe 043, ?toy The learning curve may contain a plateau, or period E t >, 4g iv °Q4c, 01? 1 itiod? of no observable progress. rn g o 464el/ 0 ci t. Learning is facilitated in an educational environment O *'' conducive to the pupil's maximum effectiveness an ',44) CONTENTS 0 environment that stimulates and rewards learning.

Figure 2. Theorotical Model for the Complete"Structure of LEVELS OF INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING Intellect," Department of Psychology, University of South- ern California To develop fully the many capacities of the gifted, the teacher should be able accurately to predict thechanges in pupil behavior that will result from enrichment experiences. Classification of the intellectual Factors An awareness of the range and the hierarchy of intellectual functions enhances the teacher's skill in measuringthe Figure 2 depicts the three-dimensional modelevolved by theory on the intellectual dimensions of his pupils and in specifyingthe J. P. Guilford to present in a single system a exact intellectual behaviors to be evokedby his teaching. organization of the various componentsof the intel- By directing his classroom presentations towardparticular lect. (32) Called "Structure of Intellect,"this morpho- modes of intellectual functioning, the teacher can more logical model visually represents theclassification of the confidently estimate the fruits of his endeavors and can various intellectual factors into one ofthree major headings alter his methodology, course content, andeducational entitled operations, contents, and products.Each dimen- materials in accordance with his varying objectives. sion of the model demonstrates theseveral modes of 26

variationinvolvedinthoseprimaryintellectualcate- interactions involving empathy or awareness of the atti- gories. (67, 71, 72, 73, 74) Guilford developed his theory tudes, needs, desires, moods, intentions, perceptions, and on the components of human intelligence through applying thoughts of other persons and of ourselves. factor analysis to the intercorrelations of many test scores. Although intellectual factors consist of unique abilities, The ability to cognize figural units may be tested by they may be classified according to certain resemblances requesting the student to recognize figures or pictures of occurring among them. (75) Guilford found five funda- objects, parts of which have been blotted out, as in the mental factors of operations, four factors of contents, and Street Gestalt completion test. The ability to cognize six factors of products; these he grouped around three symbolic units is measured by having the student replace dimensions of his model, as shown in Figure 2. the vowels in words as in the "Disemvoweled Words" test or to rearrange jumbled letters to form a word as in the By "operations" Guilford means basic intellectual activi- "Scrambled Words" test. A straight vocabulary examination ties or functions. He defines cognition as "discovery, best rates the factor of verbal comprehension, which rediscovery, or recognition of information." The cognitive represents the ability to cognize semantic units. This ability abilities are basic, providing information without which to acquire verbal concepts usually dominates the IQ test for intellectual performance is impossible. Cognition includes verbal intelligence and correlates highly with academic the ability to perform the following: perceive problems and grades. In measuring a student's ability to cognize classes of possess a sensitivity to them; know facts and concepts; figures, symbols, and meanings, the tester presents a series understand ideas and information; and acquire knowledge. of four figures, letter groups, or names of objects, lespec- The cognitive factors of intellect include most of the tively, and requests the pupil to indicate which particular components scored by IQ tests, which normally measure unit in each series is not a member of the class. Factors in but little ability for divergent thinking or transformation. the other types of intellectual operations besides cognition But learning without retention is useless. Memory, or the may also be categorized as being figural, symbolic, or retention of that which has been cognized, requires the semantic. ability to recall facts, detect meaning and reapply facts, and remember and assimilate any given information. When one of the five kinds of operations is applied to a Two types of productive thinking generate new informa- certain type of content, the resulting product must emerge tion from old: divergent and convergent thought. Creativity as one of six general classifications (70), as shown in Figure is largely based on divergent thinking operations, which 2.Unitsconsistof relativelycircumscribed items of involve the production of original responses; elaboration on information, which may be grouped together in sets of data ideas by adding details; foresight; supposition; speculation according to their common properties to provide certain on alternative approaches; and the fluent and flexible conceptions or classes. Relations are recognized connec- generation of ideas. Convergent thinking, on the other tions among units of information containing common hand, leads to obtaining a single correct answer or best variables or points of contact. Systems are composed of solution,determininglogicalinevitability,formulating structured or organized aggregates of data. Guilford termed ideas, redefining thoughts by regrouping familiar ideas, and transformations as various changes in known information or assuming correct attitudes. Transmission of the cultural in its use. Implications are comprised of extrapolations of heritage, based as it is on providing conventional answers to information in the form of predictions, consequences, or problems, requires thinking of the convergent type. By expectancies. evaluation is meant those thought processes that lead to decisions regarding the correctness, aptness, adequacy, or Intheopinion of such an authorityas Maurice excellence of the conclusions derived from information Freehill (65), Guilford's work in defining intellectual com- recalled or produced by other intellectual operations. (66, ponents, selecting test forms related to each component, 68) The self-criticism essential to the creative thinker and organizing the components into a theoretical structure requires evaluative abilities of a high order. descriptive of levels should lead to improved educational practices. A second method of classifying or grouping intellectual factors is according to the respective content or materials Guilford points out that each intellectual factor in his involved (69), as indicated in Figure 2. Figural material, model provides a particular educational goal. Each such which includes things heard, felt, or seen, has various goal, as defined by a certain combination of content, properties of size, shape, color, texture, and location. operation, and product, requires a certain kind of practice. Letters, digits, and other such conventional signs comprise For example, classroom lessons devoted to increasing symbolic content, whereas semantic content is presented in knowledge and understanding develop the learner's cogni- the form of verbal ideas or meanings. Essentially nonverbal tive ability; lessons requiring recall improve his memory; in nature, behavioral content is concerned with human lessons challenging the pupil to synthesize develop his 27

convergent thinking ability; lessons stimulating the forma- When thinking intuitively, the learner arrives at an answer tion of original responses and speculations promote diver- with little or no awareness of the thought processes in gent thinking; and lessons demanding judgments based on a which he is engaged. Usually, therefore, intuition occurs sense of values require evaluative types of thought. (77) only when the learner is familiar with the general area and structure of the subject content concerned. The develop- The model of the "Structure of Intellect" challenges ment of intellectual self-confidence in the pupil encourages educators soto organize their curriculum and so to him to think intuitively. differentiate their methodology as to develop each intellectual factor, at least to some extent, in each of their Bruner states that the best single stimulus to learning is students. the interest inherent in the subject matter. Such interest is engendered as pupils expand their knowledge of course content,clarifyit,and giveitpersonalsignificance. Significance of Bruner's Observations on the Although direct experiences may develop interest, vicarious Stages of Learning experiences, provided through use of such devices as models, automation, and dramatization, are also valu- To comprehend the structure of a subject is to under- able. (62) stand it in relation to other subjects, according to Jerome Bruner (63); therefore understanding structure forms the A learner's intellectual power is enhanced by organizing core of the transfer of learning. Bruner regards transfer as isolated information gained from a series of episodes into a the first objective of any educational activity, because he systematicframeworkofknowledge,accordingto feels that any learning should be useful in the future Bruner. (61) Intellectual growth also depends upon two through its specific applicability to similar tasks. Through other forms of competence, representation and integration. the transfer of principles and attitudes, too, all subject Representation involves the ability to record the many matter should be applicable to material yet to be learned. recurring regularities in the environment; and integration represents the ability to transcend momentary events by Bruner indicates that the act of learning seems to involve linking the past and present with the future. Bruner three almost simultaneous processes: acquisition, trans- comments that intellectual growth is irregular, moving in formation, and evaluation of subject content. In acquiring spurts with the adoption of different ways of responding, new informatiOn, the pupil may learn facts that contradict looking, and translating into language the various aspects of or replace material previously derived from persons, books, the environment. (63) films, records, or personal observation. During this stage the learner may accurately and systematically refine facts, truths, and principles earlier acquired and may accumulate Bloom's Classification of Educational Aims details in depth and breadth. During this stage, too, the pupil comprehends the relation of facts to other learnings. IneditinghisTaxonomy of Educational Objec- tivesHandbook I: Cognitive Domain, Benjamin S. Bloom The second stage of learningtransformation com- uses the term "cognition" in a much broader sense than prisesthe methods with which the pupils deal with Guilford to include the processes of creating, remembering, information in order to transcend it. Such methods may thinking, and problem solving. As treated by Bloom, the include interpreting, translating, composing, interpolating, "cognitive domain" deals with the development of intel- extrapolating, remembering, transferring, changing, organi- lectual abilities arranged in a hierarchy, with each classifi- zing, manipulating, applying, and analyzing. cation of skills demanding a mastery of those in the level below. (76) Evaluation or critical thinking involves the formation of value judgments by assessing, selecting, deciding, com- The particular significance of Bloom's Taxonomy to the paring, contrasting, and appraising. Bruner theorizes that enrichment program evolved in Los Angeles lay inits the proper assimilation of any subject is usually accom- adaptability to the objectives of intellectual functioning in panied by a series of episodes, each of which utilizes all the scientificarea. In planning the levels of learning three processes of acquiring, transforming, and evaluating opportunities in their unit on scientific discovery, method- knowledge. ology, and investigation, staff members of the demonstration center utilized the six major classes of the Taxonomy: Intuition may be equated with the intellectual technique knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, of reaching plausible but tentative conclusions without first and evaluation. (For a discussion of these classes, the reader analyzing the validity of the formulations from which those is referred to the condensed version of the Taxonomy of conclusions were derived. Intuitive thought thus involves Educational Objectives included as an appendix to Hand- hunches, guesses, hypotheses, and leaps to conclusions. book I.) The Taxonomy outlines the progression of thought 28

processes and clarifies the definitions of intellectual func- One reason for the current trend to examine closely the tions, thus aiding the teacher in selecting specific learning content and structure of subject matter fields is that the experiences for his pupils. recent fantastic growth in many areas of knowledge renders impossible the task of assimilating all pertinent informa- William Connell suggests specific uses for the levels of tion; hence teachers must confine course content to intellectual functioning in constructing a school syllabus or identifying basic principles. Another reason for this trend is test from the definitions, descriptions, and illustrations therecent sharpening of concern with creativity and contained in the Taxonomy. He says that instruction and productive thinking, which development has stimulated examination procedures have heretofore emphasized the teachers so to present their lessons as to promote advanced first three levels of educational objectivesknowledge, thought processes in their classes. Teachers cannot encour- comprehension, and applicationat the expense of the age increased creativity in the classroom withoutthemselves latter three levels, and that educators have yet to exploit increasing their concern for the structure of the subject properly the methods of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. matter content. (83) Theselatterintellectualabilitiesdistinguishatruly educated man from one who is merely knowledgeable, Besides the immediate satisfaction to the learner, the according to Connell, who says that the possession of these first object of any study is to accelerate future learning. three skills represents the beginning of wisdom. (64) Lesson activities should be planned in such a manner that they arespecificallyapplicable to similar tasks to be Knowledge of the classifications of educational objec- presentedlaterindirectextensionofhabitsand tives aids in preparing long-range curriculum plans as well as associations; those activities should also provide for indirect in formulating objectives for specific lessons. Decision or nonspecific transfer of training, which usually does not makers at the Los Angeles center ct nsidered the levels of involve a skill but rather a generality that may serve as a intellectual functions in curriculum building, specifying basis for recognizing subsequent solutions to problems. The different levels of thinking in daily lessons, observing mastery of basic principles deepens the student's knowledge classroom activities, and evaluating pupil attainment. of how best to approach subsequent learning assignments. According to Jerome Bruner, the following four advantages adhere to the teaching of a subject's fundamental THE LOGIC AND SEQUENCE OF SUBJECT MATTER structure:

A consideration of the logic and sequence of subject A subject is more comprehensible when fundamentals matter is vital to assist eticators in choosing objectives, are understood. organizing learning experiences, selecting materials, and planning course content for both the gifted in enrichment Details are more easily remembered when they are classes and their instructors in teacher education programs. placed into a structural pattern. An understanding of information presented as an Importance of Structuring Course Content example of a generality provides a model for understanding similar instances in the future. In discussing curricular needs, George Denemark encourages educators to focus upon identifying thefundamental The continual reexamination of material taught to ideas, concepts, and principles afforded by the different determineitsfundamental character enables the subject matter areas. (79) He agrees with Harold Shane (81) student to narrow the gap in progressive stages of and Ralph Tyler (84) on the significance of curriculum learning. planning based on theinterrelationships between the various fields of knowledge. In a foreword on children's Bruner concludes that courses of study should be based on literature, Shane says that this field requires a specialized, theunderlyingprinciplesthatgivestructuretoa encyclopedic knowledge, because literature is interrelated subject. (78) to the many areas of sciences, social sciences, mathematics, and languagearts. (81) John Goodlad advocates that instead of concentrating upon definite curricular content, Selection of Subject Matter for Enrichment teachers should identify the generalizations, principles, and theories around which to organize specific content. (80) Contracts negotiated with the Cooperative Research Philip Phenix writes that the good instructor deliberately Branch of the Office of Education, U.S. Department of highlights certain basic concepts distinctive to the discipline Health, Education and Welfare, provided for enrichment under consideration. (82) opportunities for gifted pupils of the Los Angeles school

t,A system in the areas of creative expression, critical apprecia- 2.Drummond, Harold D. "Growing Up in America," tion, and scientific investigation. Chapter IV of this publica- Educational Leadership, XXI (April, 1964), 419.22, tion describes the particular subject matter selected for the 455. program. Inorganizing appropriatecoursesof study, educators of the demonstration center considered the fund 3. Miller, Richard I. "Education in a Changing Society," of organized knowledge in their respective fields as well as in Profect on the Instructional Program of the Public the other factors discussed in this chapter. Subject area Schools.Washington,D.C.:NationalEducation specialists assisted in selecting learning experiences, which Association [1964]. were based on levels of difficulty, as well as on spatial, chronological, and psychological factors. Curriculum planners emphasized the structure, form, and sequence of Sociopsychological Implications of Enrichment subject matter.

4.Ambrose, Edna, and Alice Miel. Children's Social SUMMARY Learning; Implications of Research and Expert Study. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and This chapter considers the significant sources of data Curriculum Development, 1958. which serve as a foundation for building any curricular program and which proved especially helpful to authorities S. Bonsai', Marcella Ryser. "The Significance of the concerned with enrichment for the gifted. A consideration Gifted Child in the Elementary School," in The of the nature of societyissignificant in formulating Gifted Child in the Elementary School. Twenty-sixth enrichment programs in that educational objectives should Yearbook of theCaliforniaElementary School reflect both the needs of the gifted individual and the Administrators Association. Edited by E. Polhemus. society in which he lives. A knowledge of the functions of Oakland,Calif,:CaliforniaElementarySchool the school as a social agency and of the universal needs of Administrators Association, F. B. Zimmerman, and the citizenry who established the school is essential to Tompkins School, 1954. fulfilling those needs. The fields of sociology and psychology contribute information necessary to planning for both 6. Bruner, J. S., and Leo Postman. "Symbolic Value as individual and group instruction. an Organizing Factor in Perception," Journal of Social Psychology, XXVII (1948), 203-8. The gifted learners themselves afford a valuable source of data, because educators must consider their pupils' wide 7.A Conference on Research on the Education of variances in individual characteristics if those pupils' capaci- Gifted Children. Compiled by James J. Gallagher. ties are to be fully realized. Another sine qua non to Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois, 1963. enrichment planners is a knowledge of the general educational principles underlying the intelligent guidance of all classroom work. Levels of intellectual functioning are also 8.Flanders, Ned. "Teacher and Classroom Influences significant for enrichment, because courses offered to the and Individual Learning," in Nurturing Individual gifted must challenge all intellectual dimensions. Finally, Potential. Curriculum Research Institute, 1961-62. curriculum planners are enabled to structure their courses Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and logically by a thorough knowledge of the particular subject Curriculum Development [1964]. matter involved. Thus the task of educators in planning enrichment on a rational basis is facilitated by consulting all 9. Fromm, Erich. The Sane Society. New York: Holt, appropriate data sources. Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955.

10. Getzels,Jacob."SocialValuesandIndividual Motives: The Dilemma of the Gifted," in Psychology Selected References and Education of the Gifted. Edited by Walter B. Barbe. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965.

The Nature of the Environment 11. Getzels, Jacob, and Herbert Thelon. "The Classroom Group as a Unique Social System," in The Dynamics 1. The Changing American School. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of Instructional Groups: Sociopsychological Aspects of the National Society for the Study of Education, of Teaching and Learning. Fifty-ninth Yearbook, Part Part II. Edited by John 1. Goodlad. Chicago: Univer- II. Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: National sity of Chicago Press, 1966. Society for the Study of Education, 1960. 30

12.Giles, H. Harry. Human Dynamics and Human Rela- 24. Man, RobertF., and RobertJ.Havighurst. tions Education. New York: New York University Educating Gifted Children. Chicago: University of Press, 1954. Chicago Press, 1961.

13.Guilford, J. P. A Revised Structure of Intellect: 25.Drews, Elizabeth. "Are Intelligence and Talent the Studies of Aptitudes of High-Level Personnel. Same?" NEA Journal, L (January, 1961), 4041. Reports from the Psychological Laboratory, No. 19. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1957. 26.Education of the Gifted. Educational Policies Com- mission.Washington,D.C.:NationalEducation 14.Individualizing Instruction. Yearbook, 1964. Edited Association and the American Association of School by Ronald C. Doll. Washington, D.C.: Association for Administrators, 1950. SupervisionandCurriculumDevelopmentand National Education Association, 1964. 27.Educag9n of Intellectually Gifted Pupils in Los Angeles City Schools. Committee on Education Of 15.Kelley, Earl C., and Marie I. Rasey. Education and Intellectually Gifted Pupils. Los Angeles: Los Angeles the Nature of Man. New York: Harper & Brothers, Unified School District, May, 1962. 1952. 28.Gallagher, James J. The Gifted Child in the Elemen- 16.Kneller, George F. Existentialism and Education. tary School. Department of Classroom Teachers, New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1958. American Educational Research Association, NEA. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 17.Nurturing Individual Potential. Edited by A. Harry 1959. Passow. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super- vision and Curriculum Development, 1964. 29.The Gifted Child. American Association for Gifted Children. Edited by Paul Witty. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1951. 18.Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming: A New Focus for Education. Yearbook, 1962. Edited by Arthur W. Combs. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super- 30.Guidance in the Curriculum. Yearbook, 1955. Pre- vision and Curriculum Development and the National pared by C. M. Low. Washington, D.C.: Association Education Association, 1962. for Supervision and Curriculum Development and National Education Association, 1955. 19. Rogers, Carl R. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of of Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 31.Guidance of Gifted Pupils. Division of Elementary Co., 1961. Education, Guidance and Counseling Section. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School. District, May, 1961. 20.Toward a General Theory of Action.Edited by Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils. Cambridge, Guilford, J. P. "Creativity," American Psychologist, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951. 32. V (September, 1950), 444-54.

21.Trow, William C., and Others, "Psychology of Group 32a. Guilford, J.P."Creativity: Its Measurement and Behavior: The Class as a Group," Journal of Educa- Development." Address presented in Sacramento to tional Psychology, XLI (1950), 322-38. educators of Sacramento County, January 20, 1959. Sacramento: Office of the Sacramento County Super- intendent of Schools. Characteristics of Gifted Learners 32b. Guilford, J. P. Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959. 22.Barclay, Dorothy. "Child-Watching for Child Under- standing," The New York Times Magazine (March 22, 33.Heyl, Helen. "Learning Characteristics and Problems 1959), 56. of Gifted Children," in Educating the Academically Able: A Book of Readings. Edited by Lester D. Crow 23.Brown, Spencer. "How Educate the Gifted Child?" and Alice Crow. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., Commentary Magazine, XXI (June, 1956), 53241. 1963. 31

34,Hildreth, Gertrude."Characteristics of Young Gifted General Principles of Learning Children," Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of GeneticPsychology,LIII(December,1938), 47.Allport, Gordon W. "The Ego in Contemporary 287-311. Psychology," Psychological Review, L (September, 1943), 451-78. 35,Identification Case Study. California Project Talent. Sacramento: California State Department of Educa- 48.Combs, Arthur. "Intelligence from a Perceptual Point tion, 1964. of View," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVII (1952), 662-73. 36.Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row Pubs., 1954. 49.Gates, Arthur I., and Others. Educational Psychology. New York: Macmillan Co., 1942. 37.Meier, Norman. Art in Human Affairs: An Introduc- tiontothePsychologyof Art.New York: 50.Guilford, J. P. "The Role of Form in Learning," McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1942, Journal of Experimental Psychology, X (1927 415-23. 38.Pressey, Sidney. "Concerning the Nature and Nurture of Genius," The Scientific Monthly, LXXXI (Sep- 51.Hildreth, Gertrude. Child Growth Through Educa- tember, 1955), 123-29. tion: Effective Teaching in the Modern School. New York: Ronald Press Company, 1948. 39,Rogers, Carl R. See entry number 19. 52.Katona, George. Organizing and Memorizing; Studies 40.The School Psychologist and the Education of Gifted in the Psychology of Learning and Teaching. New Children. Gifted Child Committee of the California York: Columbia University Press, 1940. Association of School Psychologists and Psychome- trists. Sacramento: California State Department of 53.Klein, G. S. "The Personal World Through Percep- Education, 1962. tion," in Perception: An Approach to Personality, by R. R. Blake and Others. New York: Ronald Press 41.Strang, Ruth M. Helping Your Gifted Child. New Company, 1951. York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1960. 54.Kohler, Wolfgang."Gestalt.Psychology Today," 42.Terman, L. M., and M. Oden. The Gifted Child Grows American Psychologist, XIV (1959), 727-34. Up: Twenty-five Years' Follow-up of a Superior Group. Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 55.Lewin, Kurt. "Field Theory and Learning," in The 1947. Psychology of Learning. Forty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. 43.Terman, L. M., and M. Oden. "The Stanford Studies Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942. of the Gifted," in The Gifted Child. Edited by Paul A. Witty. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1951. 56.Osier, Sonia F., and Myrna W. Fivel. "Concept Attainment: I, The Role of Age and Intelligence in 44,Ward, Virgil. Educating the Gifted: An Axiomatic Concept Attainment by Induction," Journal of Approach. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Experimental Psychology, LXIII (1961), 1-8. Inc., 1961. 57.Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming: A New Focus for 45.Witty,Paul. Helping the Gifted Child.Chicago: Education. See entry number 18. SOA.nce Research Associates, 1952. 58."The Psychological Significance of Styles of Concep- 46.Witty, Paul. "Who Are the Gifted?" in Education for tualization," in Basic Cognitive Processes in Children. the Gifted.Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the National Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Edited Development. Edited by Jerome Kagan and Others. by N. B. Henry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Lafayette,Ind.:Child Development Publications, 1958. 1963. 32

59.Skinner, B. F."The Science of Learning and the Art 72.Guilford, J. P. "The Structure of Intellect," Psycho- of Teaching," Harvard Educational Review, XXIV logical Bulletin, LIII (1956), 267-93. (1954), 86.97. 73.Guilford, J. P. "Three Faces of Intellect," American 60.Thorndike, E. L. Fundamentals of Learning. New Psychologist, XIV (August, 1959), 469-79. York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1932. 74.Guilford, J. P. "Traits of Creativity," in Creativity and Its Cultivation. Edited by H. H. Anderson. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959.

Levels of Intellectual Functioning 75.Guilford, J. P., and P. R. Merrifield. The Structure of Intellect Model: Its Uses and Implications. Reports from the Psychological Laboratory, No. 24. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1960. 61.Bruner, Jerome S. "The Act of Discovery," Harvard The material in this work is amplified and extended Educational Review, XXXI (Winter, 1961), 21-32. in J. P. Guilford's The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. 62.Bruner,JeromeS."TheCourseof Cognitive Growth," American Psychologist, XIX (January, 76.Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classifi- 1964), 1-15. cation of Educational Goals - Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. Edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. New York: 63.Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. Cam- David McKay Co., Inc., 1956. bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960. Also, paperback - New York: Vintage Books, 1963. 77.Teaching Gifted Students: A Book of Readings. Edited by James J.Gallagher. Boston: Allyn & Connell, William. "Excellence in General Education," 64. Bacon, Inc., 1965. School Review, LXVII (Winter, 1959), 375-86.

65.Freehill, Maurice F. Gifted Children: Their Psychol- ogy and Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1961. The Logic and Sequence of Subject Matter

66.Guilford, J. P. "Basic Conceptual Problems in the Psychology of Thinking," Annals of the New York 78.Bruner, Jerome S. See entry number 63. Academy of Sciences, XCI (December, 1960), 6-21. 79.Denemark, George. "The Curriculum Challenge of Our Times," NEA Journal, L (December, 1961), 67.Guilford, J.P. "Creative Abilitiesin the Arts," 12-14. Psychological Review, LXIV (1957), 110-18. 80.Goodlad, John I. "Changing Curriculum of America's 68.Guilford, J. P. "Factorial Angles to Psychology," Schools,"SaturdayReview,XLVI(November Psychological Review, LXVHI (1961), 1-20. 16,1963), 65-67.

69.Guilford, J. P."Human Abilities in Education," 81.Huck, Charlotte S., and Doris A. Young. Children's California Journal for Instructional Improvement, 1 Literature in the Elementary School. New York: (December, 1958), 3-7. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1961. (Foreword by Harold Shane.)

70.Guilford, J. P. "The Relation of Intellectual Factors 82.Phenix, Philip H. Realms of Meaning: A Philosophy to Creative Thinking in Science," in Research Con- of the Curriculum for General Education. New York: ference on the Identification of Creative Scientific McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964. Talent. Principal investigator, Calvin W. Taylor. Salt Lake City: University of Utah, 1956. 83.Teaching Gifted Students: A Book of Readings. See entry number 77. 71.Guilford, J. P. "Some Recent Findings on Thinking Abilities and Their Implications," Bulletin of the 84.Tyler, Ralph. "The Interrelationship of Knowledge," National Association of Secondary-School Principals, The National Elementary Principal, XLIII (February, XXXVII (November, 1953), 1-13. 1964), 13-21. ChapterIII Objectives of Enrichment

The ultimate aim of all education is to endow the matter specialists in determining objectives. Besides serving student with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills requisite as resource persons, specialists also contribute information to enable him to achieve personal satisfaction and to from their respective fields. (10) function in the various areas of his life to the fullest extent of his ability. That broad framework presents a spectrum of E. Paul Torrance urges that teaching goals be revised to possibilities from which to select more specific objectives; it include fuller emphasis on thinking processes and their also complicates the problem of the enrichment specialist in effect on creativity. He lists the following types of thinking choosing appropriate goals. as essential to creativity: critical, constructive,independent, logical, liberal, and analytical thought. (14) As early as 1924, Henry S. Pritchett also stressed the value of thinking GUIDEUNES FOR IDENTIFYING OBJECTIVES ability when he wrote that teachers involved in liberal education were unduly devoted to imparting knowledge at In formulating enrichment aims, educators should be the expense of training the mind. Considering the school guided by studies of the characteristics of the learners primarily as an intellectual agency, Pritchett said that its involved and the trends in contemporary society, both of teachings best serve society when they inculcate the ability which factors indicate possible directions and emphases for to reason logically. (12) the statement of objectives. Goals are more readily defined when planners are properly informed of the interests and To assist educators in delineating their instructional concerns of the gifted. In identifying appropriate objec- purposes, Ralph Tyler poses three questions:(a) How may tives, personnel who use such data sources as the student such objectives be identified? (b) How can a teacher make and his environment should make painstaking analyses and appropriate choices from among the many possible objec- careful interpretations, according to Ralph W. Tyler. He tives?and(c) Whoisresponsibleforformulating says that such information helps to formulateobjectives objectives? (2) only when planners extract present societal conditions for comparison with the more favorable conditions projected In formulating the aims of its program, the staff of the for the future. (15)1 Enrichment Demonstration Center of Los Angeles concerned itself first with determining the sources from which Also germane to establishing objectives are the following to elect objectives; second, with choosing those objectives; factors: the varied nature of the school population, the and third, with validating the objectives in terms of their availability of learning opportunities outside the school, applicability in fulfilling the fundamental needs of its gifted societalpressures affecting the school, and the socio- pupils.Influencing the staff's decisions at each stage of the economic differences manifest within and among the planning were the twin considerations of feasibility and communities concerned. (6) desirability of enrichment goals for every age level represented in the school population. Ruth Cunningham and others mention the importance of group dynamics in choosing educational aims. Because The basic purpose of the Enrichment Demonstration instruction normally occurs ina group setting, which Center was to develop completely each pupil's potential. strongly affects learning, educators should study the charac- Sources of data used to select particular goals from the teristics of classroom groups for information on which to plethora of possible ones included the fund of organized base their specific instructional goals. (4) knowledge, the principles of learning, and the levels of intellectual functioning. In summarizing a report on outcomes in elementary education, Nolan C. Kearney discusses the role of subject To match their aims with the needs of their students, educators of the Los Angeles center considered both the maturity levels of the gifted children involved and the 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. major psychological precepts relating to growth sequence

33 34

and learning readiness. The resulting objectives portrayed Inanalyzingthedevelopmental tasksmasteredat both the behavioral changes desired and the course content progressive stages of maturity, Robert Havighurst illustrates chosen to elicit those changes in order to guide teachers in how the child's motivations and maturation combine with planning and to aid in evaluating. the demands of society to set tasks that may properly be termed educational objectives. Based both on the learner's growth patterns and on environmental factors, developmental tasks arise at a specific period in life. When success- SELECTION OF OBJECTIVES fully completed, they lead to personal happiness and to future success with similar tasks; conversely, failure to Meetingin1960,thePresident'sCommission on accomplish developmental tasks at the proper time leads to National Goals identified 15 major problems to be solved in individual unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty the following decade. Central to all those problems was.the with later tasks. An example of such a task is learning to single objective of the optimal development of the individ- talk. When speech habits are not successfully initiated at ual. The introduction to the Commission's report began: the usual age of between one and two years, the child has "The paramount goal of the United States was set long ago. difficulty in learning to speak later in life; indeed, he may It is to guard the rights of the individual, to ensure his never properly master the art of speech. (7) development, and toenlarge his opportunity." (3) In discussing that report, Francis S. Chase also advocates Havighurst's concept of developmental tasks helps to objectives committed to the maximum development of establish objectives because such tasks, set by society and each pupil. Educational objectives should include provisions accomplished largely through the school, aid the pupil in for imparting a large body of organized knowledge in each achieving some of his personal goals. The concept also of the major disciplines, together with motivation for the stresses the proper timing of educational efforts to corre- continuance of learning. In Chase's opinion, teachers should spond to the child's maturational level. According to provide sufficient differentiation in approaches to learning Havighurst, the teachable moment for a particular topic has to correspond to individual differences in ability, values, come when the physical organism is prepared to master it, and motivations. Learning should be paced by allotting when social pressures require its introduction, and when the time for individual learning through reading, through the child is properly motivated. (8) use of self-teaching devices, and through participation in self-directed activities in laboratories or workshops. Chase Although the prime objectives for educating gifted also believes that the teacher should inculcate the talented pupils roughly correspond to those for other children, student with the social obligation to contribute to the certain specific goals pertain largely to the gifted. A report welfare of mankind. (3) of a conference held in 1961 on the Project on the Academically Talented Student recognized the following Basic to determining educational goals are the following six objectives as being peculiarly appropriate to teachers of value assumptions: (a) respect for the worth of the individ- gifted children: (a) encouraging independent study; (b) pro- ual; (b) equality of opportunity; (c) acceptance of varia- viding efficient learning techniques; (c) orienting pupils in bility;(d) faithinman's abilitytoreasonlogically; methods of research and problem solving; (d) developing (e) sharedresponsibilityforthe common good; and special tal,,,its; (e) encouraging creativity and concern for (1) respect for spiritual values and ethical standards. (13) humanity; and (f) developing communication skills. (5)

Francis Horn enumerates four long-range instructional Listed as pupil objectives of enrichment were: (a) devel- aims: (a) teaching the child to accept change as normal and oping intellectual curiosity by searching for new relation- inevitable and easing his adaptation to change without fear ships rather than by acquiring mere factual knowledge; or frustration; (b) inculcating in the child a sense of (b) performing research properly; (c) applyinga wide range independence on which to build a firm educational founda- of facts and principles in solving life's problems; (d) gaining tion together with an enthusiasm for further learning; skillinobjective self-evaluation; (e) developing critical (c) implanting in the child a respect for the intellectual life thinking, a feeling for truth, and open-mindedness by and an appreciation of the role of knowledge in illuminat- suspending judgment; (f) realizing the responsibilitiesas ing and enriching his life; and (d) instilling in the child well as the power of knowledge; (g) developing leadership enduring values. Perhaps to a greater extent than any other by gaining poise, respect for others, and skill ingroup does the educational profession offer its practitioners the dynamics; (h) encouraging creativity; (i) sensing the impli- opportunity to contribute significantly to the individual cations of change; (j) perfecting skills in communication; and to society, according to Horn. He adds that those and (k) developing an awareness of the realities of the teachers who best visualize the significance of their long- present, the heritage from the past, and a vision of the range objectives derive the most satisfaction from their future from which to synthesize an overview of the work. (9) continuing stream of man's ideas and aspirations. (1) 35

In formulating objectives, enrichment planners should Kincaid concludedthatthe objectives rated as of consider the needs both of society and of the individual. greatest import to the gifted are generally most difficult to Involving pupils in determining possible enrichment aims attain, involving as they do the ability to reason both may provide teachers with insights into their pupils' value inductively and deductively. He therefore recommended: systems; joint planning of instructional purposes may also (a) instructional materials for enrichment should promote improve pupil motivation and assist teachers in lesson rational thought; (b) objectives for all educational programs planning. should be stated specifically in behavioral terms to facilitate planning; and (c) evaluative procedures should be planned A statement of long-range objectives should precede that concurrently with the objectives and the instructional of immediate objectives relatedspecifically to subject practices proposed for their implementation. (11) matter. All objectives should reflect the changes sought in terms of cognitive, affective, and conative behavior.

EVALUATION OF OBJECTIVES

VALIDITY OF OBJECTIVES The two major purposes of a statement of objectives are (a) to aid in selecting and organizing learning opportunities; In analyzing educational objectives for the gifted in and (b) to appraise the effectiveness of instruction. Long- California's elementary schools, Donald J. Kincaid evalu- range objectives should be scrutinized to determine their ated the goals of enrichment. Kincaid based his study on validity; short-term objectives should be checked for levels questionnaires submitted to 635 elementary school districts of content and behavior required to fulfill the demands of inCalifornia, of which 39 districts conducted special the resulting curriculum. Applicable both to general and to programs for the gifted. He queried six groups of persons: specific objectives are these criteria: olidity, appropriate- elementary school principals, teachers, and supervisors; the ness, feasibility, precision, consistency, and comprehensive- guidance directors of Los Angeles County; parents of gifted ness. To be valid, objectives should accurately reflect the children; and gifted high school students. His statewide intentions of the controlling agency. The appropriateness of sampling indicated that the administrators, teachers, and the goals is determined in relation to the age group and counselors surveyed generally agreed with the parents and intellectual capacities of the pupils. Also significant are students on the following points: (a) the goals for the gifted philosophical values as to what the pupil should learn about do not differ materially from those of average pupils; the nature of man, of knowledge, and of truth. Planners (b) gifted children customarily attain most educational should aim for consistency in the statements of the various objectives at an age earlier than average; and (c) gifted goals. The proper choice of objectives provides a framework children attain most objectives to a greater extent than on which to baseappropriatelearning opportunities, average. (11) teaching procedures Ind materials, and the evaluation of pupil progress through the various levels of intellectual From a total of 119 specific educational objectives functioning. classified in 12 broad areas, Kincaid's study adjudged five areas as being particularly significant for gifted children: citizenship, basicskills, understanding of environment, effective thinking, and international understanding. Three other areas productive of objectives deemed especially Selected References significant for the gifted were found to be appreciation of art and music, character development and human relations, 1. Administration: Procedures and School Practices for and vocational competence, Kincaid's study indicated that the Academically Talented Talented Student in the no appreciable difference between objectives of the gifted Secondary School.Project on the Academically and those of average childrenexistsinthe areas of TalentedStudentandNationalAssociationof leisure-time activities, health and safety measures, family Secondary- SchoolPrincipals.Washington,D.C.: living, and consumer effectiveness. Of the five school staff National Education Association, 1960. groups of raters, the guidance directors considered more of the 119 specific objectives as having greater import for 2.Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. (Sylla- gifted children than for average ones. But exceeding even bus for Education 360). Prepared by Ralph W. Tyler. the directors in singling out more objectives as pertaining Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950. primarily to enrichment programs were the gifted students themselves. As a group, the supervisors listed fewer objec- 3.Chase, Francis S. "Excellence and Equality: Can Both tives as having prime significance for the gifted than did the Claims Be Honored inEducation?" Educational others interviewed. (11) Horizons, XLII (Spring, 1964). 36

4.Cunningham,Ruth,andOthers.Understanding in Elementary Education. New York: Russell Sage Group Behavior of Boys and Girls. New York: Foundation, 1953. Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1952. 11. Kincaid, Donald J. Objectives of Education for Gifted 5. Guidance for the Academically Talented Student. Children in California Elementary Schools. No. 2 of a Report of a conference sponsored jointly by the seriesapproved by the Committee on Research American Personnel and Guidance Association and Studies. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School the National Education Association Project on the District, April, 1956. Academically Talented Student, Edited by Elizabeth M. Drews. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association and American Personnel and Guidance 12.Pritchett, Henry Smith. Nineteenth Annual Report. Association, 1961. New York:The CarnegieFoundationforthe Advancement of Teaching, 1924. 6.Guidance in the Curriculum, Yearbook 1955. Pre- pared by C. M. Low. Washington, D.C.: Association 13.Role of Supervisor and Curriculum Director in a for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Climate of Change. Edited by Robert R. Leeper. National Education Association, 1955. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1965. 7. Havighurst, Robert J. Developmental Tasks and Edu- cation. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1962. 14.Torrance, E. Paul. Education and the Creative Poten- 8.Havighurst, Robert J. Human Development and Edu- tial.Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, cation. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1953. 1963.

9.Horn, Francis H. "The Ends for Which We Educate," 15. Tyler, Ralph W. "Translating Youth Needs into The Educational Forum, XXVIII (January, 1964), Teaching Goals," in Adapting the Secondary School 133-43. Program to the Needs of Youth. Fifty-second Year- book of the National Society for the Study of 10. Kearney, Nolan C. Elementary School Objectives. Education, PartI.Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Report of the Mid-Century Committee on Outcomes Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953. ChapterIV The Provision of an Enriched Curriculum

This chapter discusses the three-pronged curriculum his own particular style and operating level in all three offered to academically gifted children at the California areas. The educator should so select and organize learning Project Talent Demonstration Center, which operated in opportunities as to contribute to the formation of the the Los Angeles Unified School District from 1963 through child's value concepts in accordance with the value system 1966. Also considered are the values reflected by the underlying the school program. If the school staff values selection and organization of learning opportunities offered personal independence, for example, pupils will be taught in the enriched curriculum. to study independently, to share in planning the school program, and to evaluate the result of their planning. In The staff of the demonstration center devised courses of such a situation, teachers should set limits for the growing studyappropriate to produce thespecific, permanent independence of their charges and support them when they changes desiredinthelearners'behavior patterns as make mistakes. (12)1 determined by the demands of society and the interests of the 750 pupils themselves. Certain courses were provided Warranting a place in the curriculum are those learning for all the children; others were offered only to children at opportunities that have a utilitarian, cultural, or disciplin- a particular developmental level; still other learning oppor- ary value, or any combination thereof. A subject area may tunities served to meet only the needs of individual pupils. be chosenforitsutilitarianvalueinfurthering the individual purposes of the pupil, in forming habits and The term "learning opportunity" is used in preference to skills, or in awakening the learner's interest. A subject area the more usual "learning experience" in recognition of the of cultural value may be chosen because it helps to acquaint factthat each individual internalizes learning activities the child with exalted ideas expressed through the arts, to differently according to his previous experience and his implant ethical ideals, or to inspire him to realize moral physiological, social, emotional, and intellectual character- ideals. A subject area of disciplinary value may be chosen istics. The teacher provides the opportunities that are because it develops the qualities of precision, tolerance, converted intoexperiences by thepupils. A learning purpose, appreciation, or self-expression. If the appropriate experience thus results from the reaction of a student to an use of leisure time be valued by our society, the school environmental situation; that reaction is affected by his curriculum should provide opportunities for the pupil to mental set, which is derived from his knowledge, feelings, engage in leisure activities. Ernest Havemann says that the memories, attitudes, drives, and capabilities. The mental set only way to evaluate a leisure-time activity is in terms of inturn profoundly influences the particular student's the pleasure it provides for its participants. (11) acceptance of the values and objectives of the school program. To expend his best efforts, a gifted pupil must be According to most authorities, the schools should aim to convinced of thesignificanceto himself and of the develop an educated man at once compassionate, rational, applicability to his own life of the values underlying and probinga man suspicious of oversimplification, curriculum selections; i.e., he must be properly motivated. respectful of the past, tolerant of ambiguity, and dedicated to the pursuit of truth and wisdom. (8)

VALUES UNDERLYING CURRICULAR PLANNING SELECTION OF CURRICULAR CONTENT The values acquired through developmental tasks are the concern of Robert Havighurst, who says that theperiod of middle childhood from the ages of about six to twelve years A review of the professional literature aids in enriching is characterized by three outward thrusts. The child is the curriculum in depth as well as in breadth. pushed from the home to association with his peers; to games and work requiring neuromuscularskills; and to the world of concepts, logic, symbolism, and communication. 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected By the end of middle childhood, the pupil has developed References" at the end of this chapter.

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Fourfactors common toallsubjectfields to be Philip Phenix believes that, in order to economize considered in curriculum building are: (a) language pro- learning effort, the curriculum of the various disciplines cesses related to communication, clarification of under- should be organized around the representative ideas charac- standings, personal and social roles, and organization of terizing the structure of each subject. Representative ideas operations; (b) thought processes concerned with validating of academic subjects constitute the elements of their data, generalizing, inferring, and predicting consequences; essential content; hence a thorough understanding of these (c) social processes that progressively clarify self-concepts ideasisequivalenttoaknowledgeof theentire and promote effectiveinterpersonal relationships; and subject. (17) (d) the abilities required to use educational resources such as persons, library materials, and audio-visual aids. (14) Jerome Bruner also advocates building curriculums from the most basic understanding afforded by the structure of a The development of rational thought is the central particular subject. He writes: "...at the heart of the purpoSe of American education, according to the Educa- educational process is the continual broadening and deepen- tionalPolicies Commission. That Commission's report ing of knowledge in terms of basic and general ideas." (2) states that the abilities essential to perceiving patterns Bruner adduces four advantages to the teaching of struc- among abstract data are also essential to analyzing, deduct- ture: (a) an understanding of fundamentals aids comprehen- ing, or inferring. Such abilities may be developed through sion; (b) human memory requires ordered details for recall; mathematics as well as through aesthetic, humanistic, and (c) an understanding of a subject's fundamentals aids in the practical fields involving perception of form and design. transfer of knowledge; and (d) reexamination by secondary Experiences in music, literature, and the other arts may school students of materials previously learned narrows the contribute more extensively to abstract thinking than do gap between advanced and elementary knowledge. (2) The the subject fields normally assumed to promote logical concept of structureisuseful, too,in providing for thought. All the higher mental processes require more than economy in learning, stimulating thought, and pointing up a mere awareness of facts; they also demand originality and relationships in knowledge. (1) creativity in speculating, hypothesizing, and conceptual- izing. (5) The importance of critical thinking is also stressed The concepts identified with a particular discipline also ina statement of the New Jersey Secondary School serve as a foundation upon which to erect a course of Teachers Association. (6) study, according to J. Frances Huey. Requiring the ability to recognize a common factor or set of factors in a group of Specialists inallfields should be educated in broad complex experiences, concept formation is an abstraction principles that may be used in many ways, because the process that represents a type of perception. Concept uncertainty of future developments in the physical and formation and language development are mutually inter- social sciences requires the ability to think and to express dependent because every word except a proper noun oneself. Edward Carlin considers that a general education represents a concept. Concept learning begins with a word should also provide pupils with motivation for continued itself and proceeds inductively toitsdefinitions. The learning. (3) Francis Horn isconcerned with planning framework proposed by Huey assigns the following func- curriculums to inspire both intellectual curiosity and a tions to teachers of enrichment: (a) arrange for abundant heuristic desire for continued learning. (15) sensory experiences to promote discrimination learnings and manifold associations; (b) provide experimental and Two modes of knowledge, analogical and digital, are manipulative opportunitiesforpupil-selected activities; described by Lawrence K. Frank. Analogy is the type of (c) encourage pupils to symbolize their experiences through knowledge that involves the discovery of similarities, that play, art, language, and other such activities; (d) extend uses figures of speech, and that relies uponsymbols, images, recent experiences through the use of books, pictures, and pictures, models, and diagrams. Illustrative of the analogical audio-visual materials; and (e) pace learning opportunities approach are music, art, and poetry, which combine form to help the child form clear images and reinforce new and feeling in perceptional patterns infused with emotion. concepts without overstimulating him. (16) The digital mode, on the contrary, is a sequential process utilized in learning language, logic, and arithmetic. Digital In scheduling learning opportunities, the teacher should thinking is used in gradually formulating a logical conclu- consider the intelligence of his pupils and their level of sion and in analyzing the components of an entity. The intellectual functioning. Thomas Gladwin predicts that curriculumshouldinclude both analogical and digital further attention to the relationship of teaching to intellec- operations, which are complementary. Artists and scientists tual development will lead to more effective curriculum begin with an analogue expressed as an idea or a concept planning. (10) that is manipulated digitally to produce a refined version, which isagain treated digitally to produce the finished Teachers who are involved in curricular planning should analogue in the form of a composition, poem, equation, or thoughtfully consider responses to the following questions diagram. (9) posed by Ralph Tyler (20): 39

Is the particular learning opportunity based upon the increasing rigor of the intellectual processes required. bodies of organized knowledge? The usual pattern of curricular content is. to concentrate first on facts and to postpone the explorations that lead to Does the learning consist of complex, difficult com- abstractions. This sequence has resulted in an overemphasis ponents, requiring the organization of experienceand in grade school classes on factual as opposed toideational, the distribution of practice over protracted time theoretical, or abstract knowledge. In deploration of that periods? tendency, Taba remarks that present data on the structure of thinking would indicate that the capacity for abstract Must the learning of essential concepts be brought thinking develops at an age considerably earlier than has specifically to the student's attention? previously been supposed. Modern educators have largely abandoned the practice of teaching a succession of factual Can the experience be provided in extracurricular details in the various subject areas in favor of presenting a activities? continuity of information leading toward the formationof ideas and the use of cognitive processes on increasingly Does the learning require structured experience? difficult intellectual levels. (19) Does the learning demand the interpretation of Fundamental to curriculum planning are organizini experience? elements and organizing centers. An organizing element is a facet of the subject matter that provides continuity or Tyler believes that the curriculum should be evaluated in relationship. An organizing center, which might be a terms of the answers to these queries. generalization, concept, principle, or mode of inquiry, provides for a range of learning opportunities. In order to reach all levels of ability in the classroom, a teacher might ORGANIZATION OF LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES plan three different organizing centers, each of which relates to the others by the topic or organizing element. After choosing learning opportunities for enrichment, the educator should structure them sequentially. The In an NEA report completed in 1962, John Goodlad Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools, suggests that the organizing center may be so narrow as to NEA, has stressed the need to establish priorities and to encompass only elements within a singlediscipline or so maintain balance in the curriculum, which maybe orga- broad as to cut across various subject fields. (18) Virgil nized in different ways. Some principles of organization are Herrick defines the organizing center as any object, idea, levels of difficulty in content; chronological sequencesof person, question, or instructional materialemployed to historical events; spatial subdivisions of geography; and focus the thinking and relateitto the action of an various psychological areas of interest. Besides those orga- individual or of a group. He says that organizing centers, nizational principles, the curriculum may be planned to which can be better described by their function than by focus on one of the following factors:(a) the subject their nature, consist of those curricular elements that matter, such as an academic discipline;(b) the integration demand the thought, generalization, and activity of both of broad fields, such as natural or social sciences and art; pupil and teacher. For example, a picture may serve as an (c) the core curriculum, revolving around basic social issues; organizing center of instruction when the pupils focus their (d) persistentlifesituations; and (e) the child-centered thoughts on it and relate their learning behavior to it. In curriculum. (7) order to meet individual needs, an organizing center should include more than one child, provide for several levels of Virgil Ward urges educators to construct units of study contribution, permit movement in different directions, and appropriate to the various learning levels of thegifted. promote the exploration of numerous relationships. (13) Threebasicelementsofcurriculumconstruction sequence, scope, organizingelements and centers govern Learning opportunities should be organized to engender the organization of units of study. Sequenceprovides knowledge of three types: cognitive, affective, and cona- depth; scope provides breadth; and organizing elementsand tive, or psychomotor. The educational process consists of centers provide chronological sequence. Thehierarchy of channeling the energy drives of pupils into units of work difficulty of subject matter should dictate the organization that promote growth in all three intellectual domains. of content levels. Intellectual behavior, which shouldbe organized sequentially on varying levels, may serve to The interrelationships among various forms of knowl- indicate the validity of educational objectives. (22) edge should be exploited in the classroom because pupils have different kinds of knowledge as a result of their Hilda Taba discusses the sequence of learning in termsof individually different experiences, purposes, and methods the order of its complexity, the abstractness ofideas, and of obtaining information. The various areas of knowledge 40

arerelated inthat theyallcontribute to the child's provided opportunities forits pupils to study various cognitive, affective, and conative abilities. Ralph Tyler literary forms as a basis for preparing their own literary recommends that teachers enlist the aid of scientists and works; to develop their imagination through expressing scholars of the various disciplines in developing instruc- themselves creatively both in oral and written work; and to tional procedures and materials. He further recommends develop leisure-time activities in the language arts field. that teachers study the learning processes the better to present theinterrelationships among thebranches of The nine objectives of the language arts curriculum in knowledge. (21) developing creative expression follow:

Marjorie Carpenter also urges that pupils be exposed to largeareas of interrelated knowledge. She claims that Cognitive Goals understanding the implications of interrelated facts poses a challenge to the intellect that demands the insight derived To appreciate literary forms and elements of style in from several academic disciplines. A student who solves a reading and to use them in writing problem in one subject through the use of viewpoints acquired from another tends thereby to examine all facets To read with speed and comprehension and to speak of the matter and to suspend judgment until he has learned and write grammatically all the facts involved. Leonard Bernstein cites the example of Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed each of his nine To improve perceptual skills through observing, lis- symphonies around an original musical theme, upon which tening, interpreting, experimenting, and evaluating he then embroidered by weaving strains of melody and harmony with all the resources of the orchestra. In like To learn new concepts and to perceive new relation- vein, Carpenter challenges teachers to recall the principles ships through reading, discussing, and creating of the creative artist in magnifying the essence of subject content until it too acquires three-dimensional depth and Affective Goals significant development. (4) Giving depth to enrichment, the study of interrelated subjects is especially valuable to To promote aesthetic appreciation and discrimination gifted children, who are capable both of grasping the through listening, reading, interpreting, and evalu- significant implications of the relationships presented and ating of discovering new ones. To develop literary taste and critical ability with which to evaluate the writing of others CURRICULUM OF THE ENRICHMENT CENTER To release emotion through creative expression, both The California Project Talent contract with the Office of oral and written Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,specifiedthat the Enrichment Demonstration Conative Goals Center, Los Angeles Unified School District, would offer enrichment in three different areas. Creative expression was To acquire the self-discipline required for creativity to be developed through the language arts; critical apprecia- through involvement in the creative process and tion,through thefinearts; and scientific discovery, production of creative writing methodology, and investigation, through mathematics and the social and natural sciences. Within those broad guide- To develop manual skills, such as typing and hand- lines, the demonstration center staff determined the speci- writing, that are needed in creative writing fic subject matter to be enriched on the basis of the program's objectives and the principles of curriculum In achieving those three types of goals, pupils at the organization as previously outlined. enrichment center were encouraged to express themselves creatively by first studying literature and composition. The course outline contained provisions for developing skills in PROMOTION CF CREATIVE EXPRESSION vocabulary building, studying, and reading. Reading skills were improved through emphasis on evaluation, inference, Although the California Project Talent contract dictated interpretation, denotation, connotation, and diction. Forms the general field of language arts as the principal mode for of literature considered were the short story, essay, novel, promoting creative expression, creativityalso was fre- drama, poetry, fantasy, mythology, animal and adventure quently expressed in classes devoted to art, the sciences, stories, historical fiction, folk tales, legends, fables, and and mathematics. The center's language arts program biography. 41

In studyingaparticularliteraryform, the classes PROMOTION OF THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH demonstrated imaginative ideas through painting as well as writing,after being given background information and Enrichment in scientific discovery, methodology, and examp'es of the form involved. In presenting fantasy as a investigation was provided atthe Los Angeles center type of children's literature, for example, the instructor through courses in social sciences, in natural sciences, and utilized a collection of library books, art prints, and other in mathematics. forms of realia related to fantasy as a prelude to releasing the children's creative capacity in their own original stories. The science and mathematics offerings were designed to The class also prepared a chart summarizing the criteria for encourage pupils to pursue their interests in depth, to fantasy and discussed such questions as "How do authors or develop intellectual curiosity, to make accurate observa- painters create fantasy?" Art and music were integrated in tions and to report them accurately, to employ scientific oralpresentations of prose and poetry. The students methods in solving problems, to make quantitative analyses, improvedtheir command of the language by studying and to understand the world in which they live and the grammar, usage,style, spelling, diction, and figures of persons with whom they live. speech in connection with their writing. Cognitive goals of the science program were to equip the PROMOTION OF CRITICAL APPRECIATION pupils (a) to utilize the scientific approach in identifying problems, analyzing hypotheses, experimenting, proposing In improving critical appreciation of the fine arts, the and verifying solutions, validating data summarizing, gen- demonstration center staff provided opportunities for the eralizing,andevaluating;(b) toapplythescientific gifted children to appreciate artistic accomplishments, to approach in solving problems; and (c) to employ properly understand the cultural contributions of lir. arts, and to such means of problem solving as logic, semantics, and enrich their leisure-time activities through their knowledge group techniques. of the arts and artists. While the contract with the Office of Education for California Project Talent stipulated the arts Affective goals were provided for the pupils to attain as the prime means for developing appreciation, the faculty increasing awareness and appreciation of the contributions observed an increase incriticalabilities as a subsidiary and methodologies of mathematicians, natural scientists, outcome of courses devoted to other subjects as well. and social scientists, together with a knowledge of common difficulties in problem solving by learning to avoid faulty Cognitive goals of the program were to sharpen the assumptions, reasoning, and attitudes; rigid mental sets; perceptions of the pupils and to teach them the elements defensive orientation; and oversimplification. and structures of art forms and their historical development. Affective goals included improving the pupils' aes- Conative goals were to endow the pupils with the thetic judgment, discrimination, and appreciation of the organizationalskillsrequisiteto preparing reports; the creativity required for artistic achievement. Conative goals, laboratory skills requisite to perform experiments; and the which were sought through experimenting with various techniquesof historical,descriptive, and experimental media and styles, were to teach pupils artistic techniques, research. to provide them with a degree of proficiency in using tools of theseveral art forms, and to inform them of the The science course outline encompassed the following principal characteristics of art produced in different histori- subjects: cal periods.

In implementing those goals, the enrichment center staff Astronomy: the universe, the solar system, man-made prepared curriculums for art and music courses. The music satellites, and space travel curriculum covered the following subjects: the functions of orchestras; the elements of music; musical structure and Geography: identification of geographical elements texture; the fundamental forms of music; and the history of and the unit areas formed by them; areal differentia- music. tion of the earth's surface

Includedinthepictorialartcurriculum were the Mathematics: structure of number, synthesis, analy- following: periods in art history; types of themes, like the sis, comparison, fractions, and approximate numbers; pastoral, which are treated in different art forms; the geometric structure lines, segments, angles, figures, artistic elements of color, line, form, chiaroscuro, and numerical properties of figures; descriptive statistics texture; and the artistic principles, including dominance frequency distributions, graphic representations, and subordination, proportion, balance, oppostion, transi- percentiles, measures of central tendency, and variation, rhythm, and repetition. bility 42

Mathematical and astronomical geography: planetary (Association for Higher Education, National Educa- relationships of the Earth to the solar system; figure, tion Association, Washington, D. C.) magnitude, and motions of the Earth; the celestial sphere and theequator; the ecliptic plane; the 5.The Central Purpose of American Education. Educ- terrestrial and celestial poles; the horizon, zenith, and ationalPoliciesCommission.Washington,D.C.: nadir National Education Association, 1961.

Research methods: methods of historical, descriptive, 6.CriticalThinking.Plainfield,N.J.:New Jersey and experimental research Secondary School Teachers Association, 1963.

Logic: inductive and deductive reasoning, sentences 7.Deckling What to Teach [writer: Dorothy M. Fraser]. and statements, tautologies, testing and validity of Project on the Instructional Program of the Public statements, quantifiers, and sources of error Schools- Center for the Study of Instruction. Wash- ington, D.C..: National Education Association, 1963. Also in paperback. Filmstrip is available. SUMMARY 8.The Educated Man: Studies in the History of Educa- Curriculum specialists recommended that the following tional Thought. Edited by Paul Nash and Others. New factors be considered in establishing course content for York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965. enrichment: mental, lingual, and social processes; potential for inspiring future, investigation and learning; structure of 9.Frank, Lawrence K. "Four Ways to Look at Poten- subject fields; and representative ideas from the various tialities,"in New Insights and the Curriculum. disciplines. Yearbook, 1963. Edited by A. Frazier. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum The curriculum may be organized around one of five Development, National Education Association, 1963. factors: subject matter, broad fields, core, persistent life situations, or the child hhnself. Four elements of curricu- 10.Gladwin, Thomas. "The Need: Better Ways of Teach- lum construction govern the organization of enrichment ing Children to Think," in Freeing Capacity to Lem:. units: sequence, scope, organizing elements, and organizing Edited by A. Frazier. Washington, D.C.: Associt .on centers. Enrichment units should include content levels forSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment, organized from the hierarchy of difficulty of subject National Education Association, 1960. matter. These units should specify particular levels of intellectual behavior and should be organized sequentially. 11. Havemann, Ernest. "Leisure, the Great New Chal- To develop each child's maximum potential, the course lenge, "Life, LVI (February 14 and 21, 1964), 76-80 content should provide opportunities to interrelate infor- and 84-86. mation provided from the different disciplines. 12. Havighurst, RobertJ. Developmental Tasks and Education. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1952. Selected References 13. Herrick, Virgil E. "Curriculum Decisions and Provi- 1. Bruner, Jerome S. "Needed: A Theory of Instruc- sionfor Individual Differences," The Elementary tion,"Educational Leadership, XX (May, 1963), School Journal, LXII (March, 1962), 313-20. 523-27. 14. Herrick, Virgil E. "Sources of Curriculum Develop- 2.Bruner,JeromeS.The Process of Education. me n t ,"inWhat AretheSourcesofthe Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962. Curriculum?A Symposium.Washington,D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- 3.Carlin,Edward A. "General Educationforthe ment, National Education Association, 1962. Future,"College andUniversity Bulletin,XVII (January, 1965), 2. (Association for Higher Educa- 15. Horn, Francis H. "The Ends for Which We Educate," tion, National Education Association, Washington, The Educational Forum, XXVIII (January, 1964), D.C.) 133-43.

4.Carpenter, Marjorie. "Depth: Third Dimension in 16. Huey, J. Frances. "Learning Potential of the Young Le: ning - PotentialitiesinGeneralEducation,". Child," Educational Leadership, XXIII (November, College and University Bulletin, XV (April 15, 1963). 1965), 117-20. 43

17. Phenix, Philip H. Realms of Meaning: A Philosophy 20.Tyler, Ralph W. "Emphasize Tasks Appropriate for of the Curriculum for General Education. New York: the School," Phi Delta Kappa'', XL (November, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964, 1958), 72-74.

18. "The Scholars Look at the Schools," in Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools: A Report of the Disciplines Seminar Convened at the 21.Tyler,RalphW."TheInterrelationshipof NEA Center, June 15-17, 1961. A working paper Knowledge," The National Elementary Principal, prepared for the Project on the Instructional Program XLIII (February, 1964), 13-21. of the Public Schools. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1962.

19. Taba, Hilda. Curriculum Development: Theory and 22.Ward, Virgil. Educating the Gifted: An Axiomatic Practice, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., Approach. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1962. Inc., 1961. Chapter V Enrichment Resourcesin Personnel andMaterials

To implement enrichment in the classroom,teachers at guiding group discussions, and organizing time schedules to the Los Angeles center enlisted the aidof persons having allow for individual study and pupil-teacherconferences. special competencies and utilized a varietyof educational materials. While some teachers possessed thecompetencies requisite for presenting an enriched curriculum,other The Specialist in Educational Media teachers were aided by resource persons. The role of the media specialist was toplan for the use of many available teaching tools, whichincluded recording THE ROLES OF RESOURCE PERSONNEL and playing machines, radios,television sets, projectors, films and filmstrips, laboratory equipment,models, text- In developing the enrichment program for thegifted in books, manuals, reference and librarybooks, information Los Angeles, the consultant of thedemonstration center storage and retrieval systems, andteaching machines. (6)1 there utilized the services of specialists infour fields: Media specialists also contributed tothe enrichment pro- subject matter, guidance, methodology, andinstructional gram by advising onthe choice of books, pictures, slides, and transcriptions. media. kits, exhibits, records, motion pictures, Objectives of suchmaterials were fivefold:to create interest, to clarify content, tospeed learning, to supply The Subject Matter Specialist concrete examples, and to increaseretention.

Teachers at the Los Angeles center receivedassistance from specialists of the different disciplines inthe following The Education Research Consultant tothe Program areas: (a) subject matter;(b) recent trends in the field; termination in 1966, (c) levelsof difficultyinsubject content; (d) learning From its inception in 1963 until its materials; and (e) speculation regardingfuture develop- the Enrichment DemonstrationCenter in the Los Angeles by the author, Mary P. ments. Unified School District was directed Broderick. As the education researchconsultant assigned to the enrichment center of CaliforniaProject Talent, Miss and resources and The Guidance Specialist Broderick selected the curricular content wrote curricular materialsfor the program. This consultant The threefold contribution of guidancespecialists to the also planned and conducted theteacher-education program. the Los Angeles enrichment programincluded: (a) measuring describedinChapter VI. That program included intelligence levels of pupils to determinetheir eligibility for following six types of activities:observation lessons; indi- conferences with teach- enrichment; (b) providing information onindividual pupils' vidual teacher conferences; group gifted children ers, administrators, andother educators; regular inservice aptitudes; and (c) individual counseling with all-day workshops to meet special and with their parents. meetings; periodic interests; and discussions of filmedobservation lessons. consultant to an enrich- The Specialist in Methodology The author maintained that a ment program shouldrecognizeindividualdifferences among teachers inorder to individualize programs and to Skilled in organizing course contentand in choosing instructional materials, educationalmethodologists assisted the enrichment center staff in pacinglessons, directing 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected independent study, introducing new learningmaterials, References" at the end of this chapter.

44 4S

focus on persons rather than on competencies. To release way"; help pupils to attain that degree of achievement the creative potentials of teachers the consultant should be commensurate with their abilities; provide freedom for flexible while retaining the perspective necessary to direct exploring and expressing ideas; and develop intrinsic (as the entire enrichment program. opposed to extrinsic) motivation. (1)

In reviewing research on teaching practices, Arthur The Bask Role of the Teacher Combs notes that no common denominator identifies good teachers except their high degree of individuality and The cornerstone of the enrichment center was the originality. The very failure of research to indicate a classroom teacher, upon whose efforts the success of the commonality in characteristics would demonstrate that a program depended. John Brademas observesthat high- teacher is primarily a unique personality who uses his own quality teaching is also the foundation of the educational talents and his classroom environment to aid both his pupils system of the country as a whole. (2) Although no single and himself to achieve satisfaction. (5) personality configuration characterizes good teachers, the California Teachers Association has listed the following personality traits as essential to a teacher: enthusiasm, While collaboration is essential to modern society, large, interest in students and their activities, cheerfulness and impressive, and impersonal institutions are no more creative optimism, poise, willingness to admit errors, fairness and orpurposeful thanthepersons operating them. The impartiality, patience, understanding, and sympathy. (9) individual behind the corporate facade should not lose his According to Joyce Cary, the sine qua non of good teaching identity in corporate enterprises, however impressive they isaforcefulness combined of confidence, enthusiasm, may be. A free society can best ensure its own invigoration strong feelings, and clear ideas. (3) throughitseducational system,itspublic and private institutional practices, and its attitude toward the creative Teachers of the gifted should rank among the best in the person. (7) It is therefore incumbent upon administrators profession, in the opinion of Virgil Ward, who says that all tofoster individual differences among teachers and to such teachers need to acquire those insights that are encourage them to be creative and resourceful in guiding essential for a philosophical perspective of human issues. their pupils. Their personality traits should be adaptable to the many demands placed upon the teacher by children of marked The experience of the staff members at the Enrichment talent, initiative, interest, and intelligence. (10) Creative Demonstration Center indicated that teachers of the gifted children deserve to be taught by equally able instructors. should possess four qualities: a desire to teach, enjoyment in working with children, cooperative attitudes toward their Ability in performing the following functions may serve colleagues, and an interest in furthering their own knowl- as criteria for evaluating teachers: explaining, informing, edge. illustrating;initiating,directing, administering; unifying groups; giving security; clarifying attitudes,beliefs, problems; diagnosing learning problems; making curriculum materials; evaluating, recording, and reporting; organizing a THE USE OF RESOURCE MATERIALS classroom; and participating in school, civic, and professional activities. (8) A variety of educational materials serves to awaken the The unique educational needs of gifted children place interest of the pupils and to render more effective the work additional responsibilities on their teachers. To a greater of the teacher. The materials for the Los Angeles enrich- extent than average ones, enriched curriculums demand ment program were chosen to meet the following five that teachers foster the integration of knowledge, regardless criteria: (a) the provision of vital experiences and a stimu- of specialinterests; develop the pupils' broad cultural lating environment; (b) the strengthening of basic skills; background; recognize indications of intelligence and their (c) increased understanding and appreciation; (d) stimu- implications for teaching; understand the special method- lation of creative activity; and (e) encouragement of self- ology of enrichment, including problem-centered teaching expression and active participation. (4) A list of equipment andpupil-teacherplanningtothe exclusion of more requiredto use the varied materials selectedfor the traditionalpatterns; recognize the unique qualities of Enrichment Demonstration Center follows the references giftedness and understand the child who possesses them; for this chapter, together with listings of audio-visual aids realize the guidance needs posed by the gifted; provide and library books provided for the 750 gifted pupils varied learning activities to achieve higher levels of experi- enrolled in the center. Materials for specific lessons are ence and to transmit a love of learning; gainskillin included with the course outlines and lesson plans in later knowing when to guide, to direct, or to "get out of the chapters of this work. SUMMARY 8.Rath; Louis. "What Is a Good Teacher?" Childhood Education, XL (May, 1964), 451-56. The development of a practical enrichment program is facilitated by the use of appropriate resources of personnel 9."Traits of a Good Teacher," CTA Action, November and materials. Teachers, who represent the foundation of 20, 1964, p.7. (California Teachers Association news- the program, may need the help of other persons with paper, published semimonthly, Burlingame,Calif.) special competencies in the use of equipment, materials, methods, and procedures. Resource specialists in the areas 10.Ward, Virgil. Educating the Gifted, an Axiomatic of subject matter, guidance, methods, and media may be Approach. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, useful in planning enrichment and in making it operational. Inc., 1961.

When the program for the Los Angeles Demonstration Center was planned, resource persons and materials were Literature carefully chosen. As the cornerstone of the program, teachers should enjoy teaching and working with children, Adventure Stories be cooperative toward their colleagues, and wish to further their own learning. In addition to the teacher, specialists in Aiken, Joan. The Wolves of Willoughby Chase. Garden City, subject matter, guidance, methods, and media are helpful in N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1963. guiding the program. Battle Stations: True Stories of Men in War. Edited by Margaret C. Scoggin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1953. Selected References Hewes, Agnes. Spice Ho! A Story of Discovery. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1947. General Professional Materials Muhlenweg, Fritz. Big Tiger and Christian. New York: 1.Administration: Procedures and School Practices for Pantheon Books, Inc., 1964. the Academically Talented Student in the Secondary School. Washington., D.C.: National Education Asso- ciation, 1960. Animal Stories

2.Brademas, John. "The Foundation of Our Educa- Adamson, Joy. Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds. New tional SystemTeachers of High Quality," NEA York: Pantheon Books, Inc., 1960. Journal, LV (December, 1965), 17. Animals. Edited by Stanley Kegler. New York: Scholastic 3.Cary, Joyce. Art and Reality: Ways of the Creative Book Services, 1961 (paperback). Process. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. Meek, Sterner P. Omar: A State Police Dog. New York: 4.Catalog of Audio-Visual Materials for Fifth and Sixth Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1964. Grades. Publication No. EG211. Los Angeles: Divi- sion of Instructional Services, Audio-Visual Section, Sewell, Anna. Black Beauty. New York: Dell Publishing Los Angeles Unified School District, 1962. Company, Inc., 1963.

5.Combs, Arthur. "The Personal Approach to Good Teaching," Educational Leadership, XXI (March, Biography 1964), 369-76, 399. Founders of America. EBF FILMSTRIP SERIES NO. 8910. 6.Organizing for Improved Instruction.American Wilmette, Ill.: Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc. Association of School Administrators and Association [n.d.].Six filmstrips. for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1963. THE GREAT LIVES SERIES (92 volumes). New York: Macmillan Co., 1933-1950. 7.The Pursuit of Excellence: Manpower and Education. Rockefeller Brothers Fund. New York: Doubleday & Kunitz, S. J. Junior Book of Authors. New York: H. W. Company, Inc., 1958. Wilson Co., 1962. 47

Profiles in Courage. Sets I,II, III; 26 films. New York: Hunt, Irene. Across Five Aprils. Chicago: Follett Publishing Robert Saudck Associates[n.dj, Films, 16mm., Company, 1964. sound, 48 min.; teacher's guide to each film; based on book by John F. Kennedy and prepared as television Jones, Ruth F. Boy of the Pyramids. New York: Random series by National Broadcasting Company. House, Inc., 1952.

Draina Wilder, Laura Ingalls. By the Shores of Silver Lake. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953. Drama I.Compiled by Marjorie Barrows. LITERARY HERITAGE SERIES. New York: Macmillan Co., Modern American Fiction 1962. Beim, Jerrold, and Lorraine Beim. Two Is a Team. New Lamb, Charles, and Mary Lamb. Tales From Shakespeare. York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1945. New York: Macmillan Co., 1950. DeJong, Meindert. The Wheel on the School. New York: Wright, Louis B. "The Britain That Shakespeare Knew." Harper & Brothers, 1954. National Geographic, CXXV (May, 1964), 613-67. Taylor, Sydney. All-of-a-Kind Family. Chicago: Wilcox and Essays Follett Publishing Company, 1951. Myths American Essays. Edited by Charles B. Shaw. New York: New American Library, Inc. [1963] (paperback). Bulfinch, Thomas. Mythology. Volume I: The Age of Fable. New York: New American Library, Inc., 1964. Britishand AmericanEssays.Compiled by CarlL. Anderson and George W. Williams. New York: Holt, Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. New Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1959. York: New American Library, Inc., 1964.

McClay, HarrietL.,and Helen Judson.Story Essays Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Golden Touch. New York: (Revisededition).New York:HenryHolt & McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966. Company, Inc., 1947. Novels NonfictionI.Edited by JarvisE. Bush. LITERARY HERITAGE SERIES. New York: Macmillan Co., Dickens, Charles. A Christmas Carol. New York: Dell 1963. Publishing Company, In;., 1964 (paperback). Melville, Herman. Moby Dick. New York: Dell Publishing Fantasy Company, Inc., 1961 (paperback).

Du Bois, William Pane. The Twenty-One Balloons. New Verne, Jules. Around the World in Eighty Days. New York: York: Viking Press, Inc., 1947. Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1961 (paperback).

Grahame, Kenneth. The Wind in the Willows. New York: Poetry Heritage Press, 1959. Arbuthnot, May. Time for Poetry. New York: William R. L'Engle, Madeleine. A Wrinkle in Time. New York: Farrar, Scott, Inc., 1961. Straus and Cudahy, Inc., 1962. Ciardi, John. John J. Plenty and Fiddler Dan. New York: J. Folk Tales B. Lippincott Company, 1963.

Aesop's Fables.Edited by Louis Untermeyer. Wayne, Understanding Poetry. Six color filmstrips. New York: NJ.: Golden Press, Inc.1965. McGraw-Hill Text-Films, 1966.

Historical Fiction Short Stories

Brink, Carol R. Caddie Woodlawn. New York: Macmillan Golden Tales of the Far West. Edited by May L. Becker . Co., 1952. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1935. 48

Short Stories f, Compiled by Virginia Alwin. LITERARY Corbin, Richard K., and Others. Guide to ModernEnglish. HERITAGE SERIES. New York: Macmillan Co., Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1960. 1962. Crank, Doris H., and Others. Words:Spelling, Pronuncia- A Treasury of Sea Stories. Compiled by Gordon Aymar. tion,Definition,and Application.New York: New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., Inc., 1948. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962. Reading. Books 1 Other Subject Areas Gainsburg, Joseph C. Advanced Skills in and 2. New York: Macmillan Co.,1962. Art Nathan, Norman. The Right Word,Boston: Houghton Borea, Evelina. The High Renaissance Italian Painting. Mifflin Co., 1962. Book, 24 color slides, viewer. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1963. Geography Bouleau, Charles. The Painter's Secret Geometry, a Study of Composition. New York; Harcourt, Brace & Adler, Irving. Rocks and Minerals; and the StoriesThey World, Inc 1963. Tell, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1956.

Ch5telet, Albert. Impressionist Painting, Book, 24 color Beiser, Arthur, and the editors of Life. The Earth.New slides,viewer.New York:McGraw-Hill Book York: Time, Inc., 1962. Company 1962. Carson, Rachel L. The Sea Around Us. New York:New Encyclopedia of World Art. New York: McGraw-Hill Book American Library, Inc., 1963. Company, 1959-1965. Gaskell, Thomas F. World Beneath the Oceans:the Story of Fine Art Reproductions (Fifth edition). Edited by Anton Oceanography. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Schutz.Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Company, Inc., 1964. Society Publishers, Ltd., 1965. Gettings, Fred. The Meaning and Wonder of Art New Logic York: Golden Press, Inc., 1964. Allen, Layman E. WFF'N PROOF: TheGame of Modern Logic. New Haven, Conn.: AutotelicInstructional Werner, Alfred. Painting by the Post-Impressionists. Book Materials Publishers, 1962 (programmed material). and 24 color slides. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964. Brant, Vincent, and Mervin L. Keedy. ElementaryLogic for Astronomy Lecondary Schools. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1962. Allen, Richard. Cryogenics. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1964. Lasker, Emanuel. How to Play Chess. New York:Crown Publishers, Inc., 1964. The Astronomer at Work. One filmstrip. NewYork: Audio-Visual Division, Popular Science Publishing Co. Suppes, Patrick, and Shirley Hill. First Course inMathe- [n.d.). matical Logic. Waltham, Mass.: Blaisde1il Publishing Co., Inc., 1964. Baker, Robert H. Introduction to Astronomy.Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1960. Mathematics Hall, Donald A. Elements of Astronomy and Physical Geography. Saginaw, Mich.: Trippensee Planetarium Adler, Irving. The Giant Golden Book of Mathematics: Exploring the World of Numbers and Space. New Co., 1963. York: Golden Press, Inc., 1962. Communication Skills Altick, Richard D. Preface to CriticalReading (Fourth Bendick, Jeanne, and Marcia Levin. Mathematics Illustrated edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,Inc., Dictionary. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1960. 1965. Bergamini, David, and the editors of Life.Mathematics. Hanson, Howard. The Composer and His Orchestra.Vol. III New York: Time, Inc., 1963. (one record, 50357). The Eastman-Rochester Orches- tra. New York: Mercury Records. Davis, Robert B. Discovery in Mathematics, Student Discus- sionGuide.Reading,Mass:Addison-Wesley Instruments of the Orchestra. Album, Records, Ltd.: Publishing Co., Inc., 1964. HMV, mono 7 eg 8672-5; stero GES 5820-3. Accom- panying book, Instruments of the Orchestra, by John Hogben, Lancelot Thomas. The Wonderful World of Mathe- Hosier. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1961. matics. Grades five through nine. Garden City,N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1955. KeyboardJunior.NewHaven,Conn.:Keyboard Publications, Inc. (monthly magazine). Mathematics. Grade five, Part I, and grade five, Part II. School Mathematics Study Group. New Haven, Music Lovers Encyclopedia. Compiled by Rur it Hughes Conn.: Yale University Press, 1960. and revised and edited by Deems Taylor and Russell Kerr. New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1939. Mathematics. Grade six, Part I, and grade six, Part II. School Mathematics Study Group. New Haven, The Science of Sound. One album and onebook (FX Conn.: Yale University Press, 1960. 6007). New York: Folkways Records & Service Corp.

Mathematics. Set 1 six filmstrips. New York: McGraw- Tovey, Donald Francis. Essays in Musical Analysis.Vols. Hill Text-Films, 1966. 1-VI.New York :OxfordUniversityPress, 1935-1939. Mathematics for Junior High School. Vols. I and II. School Mathematics Study Group. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Reference Works University Press, 1960. Encyclopaedia Britannica (24 volumes). Chicago: Encyclo- O'Malley,RichardH.EnrichmentTopicsinBasic paedia Britannica, Inc., 1964. Mathematics. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub- lishing Co., Inc., 1963 (a programmed text). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Unabridged. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1961. Spooner, George, and Others. Mathematics Enrichment. Program A (1962); Program B (1962); Program C Science (1963). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. Asimov, Isaac. Words of Science and the History Behind Music Them. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1959.

The Art of the Prima Ballerina. Richard Bonynge, London Beauchamp, Wilbur L., and Others. Science Is Explaining. Symphony Orchestra. Two records with booklet Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1963. (Lon., mono 7213; stereo 2213). WilburL.,andOthersScienceIs Three Beauchamp, Baldwin,Lillian.Music for Young Listeners. Understanding.Glenview, Ill.:Scott, Foresman & volumesThe Green Book, The Crimson Book, and Co., 1964. The Blue Book. New York: Silver Burdett Company, 1951. Compton's Illustrated Science Dictionary.Editor-in-Chief, Charles A. Ford. Chicago: F. E. ComptonCo., 1963. Bernstein, Leonard.Leonard Bernstein's Young People's Concerts for Reading and Listening. Five records and one book. New York: Simon andSchuster, Inc., Watson, Jane Werner. The Sciences of Mankind.New York: 1962. Golden Press, Inc., 1960.

Copland, Aaron. Music and Imagination. New York: New American Library, Inc., 1959. Statistics Copland, Aaron. What to Listen For in Music(Revised Underwood, Benton J., and Others. Alternate Workbook to edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Accompany ElementaryStatistics.New York: 1957. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. 50

Underwood, Benton J., and Others Elementary Statistics. Oriental abacus New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. Overhead projector and intermediate starter kit Plane and solid geometric forms Recommended Equipment Resonator bells Slide and filmstrip projectors Headset for listening post Tape recorder Motion picture projectors Transcription machine Part Two The Teacher Training Program ChapterVI Inservice Teacher Training

Throughout the three-year period of the program's In planning inservice training, the consultant considered operations, teachers at the Los AngelesDemonstration each of Chase's suggestions. Center of California Project Talent were given inservice training sessions for one day each semester andfor two hours at biweekly intervals. The project consultant, MaryP. DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS Broderick, directed the sessions with the help of educational specialists from various fields. The United States Commissioner of Education, Harold Howe II, says that the function of the teacher is to translate the theorist's concepts, the researcher's evaluations,and the ACTIVATING CHANGE businessman's products into better schooling. The teacher must convert educational planning into reality,for without Like other educational innovations, the inauguration of successfulimplementationinthe classroom, any new the enrichment program required initiative, self-confidence, educational idea or technique will fail. (3) and faith in other persons. In discussing resistance to change in the classroom, Francis Chase(1)1 makes the following seven points: Frank Wilson observes that the first step in training teachers of enriched curriculums should be to inform them Either the new knowledge should be adapted to of those characteristics of gifted pupils that are not shared existingpatterns orolder knowledge should be by theaveragechild.Citing opinions obtained from reformulated to accommodate the new. "superior" teachers of the gifted, Wilson's study lists the following functions (6) as being particularly important in Statements of new relationships should be scrutinized teaching the gifted child: by specialists as well as by members of the wider academic community. To foster a sense of social responsibility, a desire to serve society, and a recognition of theworth of other The significance of the new knowledge should be persons disseminated through a series of interpretations. To create an environment in which the gifted can The knowledge and its implications should be built participate efficiently in group discussions in whole- into new instructional materials sufficiently diverse to some social relations meet the needs of all learners. To develop a classroom atmosphere conducive to Teachers should be aided inassimilating the new good mental health generalizations and in understanding the supportive evidence and how it was acquired. To teach the gifted to use problem-solving methods in research and independent study and to evaluate their Teachers should also be aided in determiningmethods own progress of presenting the knowledge. To understand the social and emotional problems Teachers should be ingenious in adapting their own that might accompany a high mentality behavior to the new knowledge. To develop a flexible, individualized, and enriched rxiculum that meets the pupils' needs and that 1Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. as identical, stereotypeddemands

53 Teaching as an Art Guiding pupils to discover order, pattern, andmean- ing in their work Teaching isan art which, like otherarts, requires dedication, perception, humor, training, and hard work. Stimulatingaffectiveresponses and psychomotor William James says that the artist-teacherutilizeshis skills and observing their relevance to intellectual knowledge of thescienceof learning to teach with development ingenuity and originality. (4) Gilbert Highet notes that unlike inducing a chemical reaction, teaching does not Supporting experimentation consist of applying formulas. (2) The teacher's art rather resembles that of a painter or music composer than that of Stretching the minds and abilities of the pupils the laboratory researcher, because teaching cannot proceed through creative expression, critical appreciation, and mechanically by rote or by rule. According to George scientific discovery Stern, teaching is an artistic craft in the broad meaning of thatterm, whichsuggests acarefully developedskill directed toward an aesthetic or applied end. (5) PROCEDURES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION Stern adds that since techniques constitute the vehicle The project consultant to the demonstration center fortheteacher's communication, the study of those scheduled meetings to coincide with the interests and needs techniques is as relevant to preparing programmedcommu- of the teachers, supervisors, and administrators concerned nication for teaching machines as itis to teaching by with enrichment. The consultant conferred withmany persons. But teaching also involves spontaneous communi- different educators in establishing the program. Confer- cation, which is a form of self-expression requiring genuine ences served to clarify needs and problems and to facilitate creativity. The product of this creation has no tangible classroom work, including methods of instructing small shape, nor is it ever repeated. (5) groups.

Ways of Releasing Potentials Inservice Meetings

At the Los Angeles Demonstration Center, the teachers Biweekly inservice training meetings were held from sought, tested, and refined different methods of releasing 3:45 to 5:45 p.m. in the central administrative offices of potentials. These methods, which were discussed in training the Los Angeles Unified School District. The two-hour classes, demonstrated in classrooms, and improved through sessions were devoted to presentations of problems, discus- practice, included the following measures: sions of new content to be introduced for specific pupilsor classes, planning of innovations, listing of instructional materials, and identification of problemareas for future Observing and listening to pupils attentively study. The number of participants at the meetings increased from eight persons during the first year to 16 the second Freely communicating with pupils to improve inter- year and to 25 the next year. Interest in the program also action attracted many visitors to the sessions.

Differentiating responses to pupils according to their The inservice class sessions were ordered in psychological individual needs sequence according to the same pattern as this book. The definition of enrichment and its philosophy introduced the Regarding the development of the pupil as the chief training course, after which the rest of the firstsemester goal in teaching subject content was devoted to the topics summarized in Chapter II of this work. The teachers also discussed the rationale for curric- Maintaining a school environment thatencourages ulum building described in Chapter III and the presentation empathy and cooperation of learning opportunities portrayed in Chapter IV.

Placing learners in various roles As the program became operational in the classrooms, instructional materials were chosen and tested. Chapter V Permitting pupils to discover and to exercise their provides lists of materials that proved useful and describes own resources the services of resource persons who offered specialized help on specific problems at the training sessions. The Questioning pupils skillfully at identifiable levels of teachers studied the content of the various subjectmatter thinking fields used to develop creative expression, critical appreci- 55

ation, and scientific methodology as. part of their inservice perform; he is threatened by a task that he considers as training; this subject content is depicted in chapters VII, being beyond his capabilities. When training courses are so VIII, and IX, respectively. paced as to promote his professional growth, the teacher becomes committed to his work. The emphasis upon levels of thinking and upon the stages of learning has implica- Workshops tions for teacher training, which should be continual to provide proper pacing. The teacher should be cognizant of Workshops varying in duration from a day to a week also his own learning process, the better to guide that of his contributed to inservice training. A day per semester was pupils. Inservice training can be of real assistance in helping utilizedtostudy problems of common concern, and the teacher to assess his performance and to increase his occasionally workshops were scheduled on a Saturday to creativity in the classroom. provide a two-day sequence. During he summer week-long workshops were held. SUMMARY The format for one workshop provided for the teachers to identify a particular problem for submission to a Inservice training for teachers results in improved school- specialist by the project consultant. The specialist provided ing for pupils. The staff of the Los Angeles Enrichment certain instructional materials for use by the teachers on an Center developed promising methods of releasing pupil experimental basis and then gave a demonstration lesson potential to serve as models for future programs for the based on those materials and other related ones. At other gifted. Teaching procedures practiced at the center have workshops the consultant also presented demonstration been described, demonstrated, and filmed for use in lessons inservice training. In planning classes for teachers, educators shoald consider their individual readiness, motivation, and levels of thinking, together with the pertinent theories of Observation Lessons leaning.

Inservice training provided for teachers at the enrichment Selected References center also included planned observation lessons of classes in session. About 125 demonstration lessons were presented 1. Chase, Francis. "School Change in Perspective," in during the course of the three-year project in the kinder- The Changing American School. Sixty-fifth Yearbook garten and in grades one through six. Chapters XII, XIII, of the National Society for the Study of Education, and XIV contain examples of the course outlines, lesson Part II. Edited by John I. Goodlad. Chicago: Univer- plans, and descriptions of the learning centers used in the sity of Chicago Press, 1966. demonstrations. Before visiting the classes, the observers were oriented by the consultant and the school principal 2. Highet, Gilbert. The Art of Teaching. New York: and provided with a copy of the lesson plan to be used. Alfred Knopf, Inc., 1950. Each observation period was followed by a discussion led by the consultant, who answered questions pertaining to 3.Howe, Harold. "Tolstoi and Teachers," NEA Journal, the program. LV (May, 1966), 19.

A total of 14 demonstration lessons were filmed for the 4.James, William. Talks to Teachers on Psychology and purpose of training teachers and disseminating information to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. New York: W. on enrichment. Chapter XV presents a detailed discussion W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1958. of the films, together with information on their distribution. Also useful in the teacher training session were the 5.Stern, George. "Measuring Noncognitive Variables in many photographs taken of classes in session and a colored Research on Teaching." Handbook of Research on filmstrip, phonograph record, and guide entitled "Enrich- Teaching: A Project of the American Educational ment Programs for Intellectually Gifted Students" dis- Research Association. Edited by N. L. Gage. Chicago: cussed in Chapter X. Rand McNally & Co., 1963.

6.Wilson, Frank. "The Preparation of Teachers for the PURPOSE OF TEACHER TRAINING Education of Gifted Children," in Education for the Gifted. Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the National Soci- A recurrent problem in teacher training is how to ety for the Study of Education, Part II. Edited by challenge teachers without threatening them. The teacher Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: University of Chicago feels challenged when confronting a task which he can Press, 1958. ChapterVII The Development of Creative Expression

As indicated in Chapter IV, one of the three general according to Donald MacKinnon. MacKinnon writes that a areas chosen for enrichment at the Los Angeles Demonstra- creative person is one who is interested, curious, receptive tion Center of Project Talent was the development of and open to new experiencesindeed, one who actively creativeexpressionthroughathreefoldlanguage arts pursues those experiences that lead to the fullest possible curriculum in reading improvement, literature, and com- life. (7) Such a one might say with Ulysses in words municativeskills, oral and written. To extend creative ascribed to him by Tennyson: capacities of children, teachers and other educators should be aware of both the characteristics of creative persons and I cannot rest from travel. I will drink the nature of creative processes. Through studying creative Life to the lees.,. .I am become a name; action, teachers become increasingly adept at stimulating For always roaming with a hungry heart creativityin an environment conducive to its nurture. Much I have seen and known;. Because of his significant role in inspiring creative talent, I am a part of all that I have met; the teacher should develop strong, reciprocal rapport with Yet all experience is an arch wherethrough his pupils, according to E. Paul Torrance. (14)1 Gleams that untraveled world, whose margin fades Forever and forever when I move. How dull it is to pause, to make an end, To rust unburnished, not to shine in use! NATURE OF THE CREATIVE PERSON As though to breathe were life. Life piled on life Were all too little... And this gray spirit yearning in desire The term creative connotes much more than "being To follow knowledge like a sinking star, possessed of a high degree of intelligence, competence, or Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. skillfulness." The dictionary defines creative as "having the power or quality of presenting a new conception in an The legendary Ulysses or Odysseus, as portrayed by Homer, artistic embodiment." The essential word in that definition is "new," for to be creative is to be unique or at least Tennyson, and other writers, was shown as being highly original: "to create" means to originate, to discover, or to creative in that he was at once sensitively aware of his environment, invent something new. open to novelexperiences, and keenly perceptive. Teachers striving to encourage creativity in their David Ausubel says that to be truly creative, a person classes should promote a similar awareness and openness to experience. must discover something original not only in terms of his own experience but also in terms of human experience. (1) The following personality traits are listed as distinguish- Other writers on the subject list numerous components ingcreativepersons:being independent of judgment, of creativity that the teacher should identify and develop in questioning of authority, and intrinsically motivated; acting his pupils. Calvin Taylor describes a creative person as able on whim and impulse; possessing a lively sense of humor; to define problems, to sense ambiguities, to test hunches, to being concerned with problem formulation; and being alert predict consequences, to infer causes, to evaluate revisions, to scan alternatives. (4) and to "brainstorm," which involvestossing his ideas uncritically into an arena of group thinking to solve a The ten components of creativity as enumerated by problem or to perform a task. (12) The broad range of Ruth Strang and reported by Louis Fliegler (5) are the attributes ascribed to creative persons would imply a following: multiplicity of creative talents to be promoted in the classroom. Perceptivityiscloselyrelated to creativity, Sensitivity to the worlds of nature and of man and to the problems therein

'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected Keenperceptionofsignificantdetailsinthe References" at the end of this chapter. environment

56 57

Ability to observe relationships betweenperceptions characteristicsthat mark creative persons. Rollo May andideas and to combine them intooriginal, defines creativity as the result of an intensively conscious coh rent patterns person's encounter with his world. (8) Carl Rogersdescribes it as an awareness of the feelings and reactionsdiscovered Abi1ty to perceive and to express the uncommon within one's self coupled with a sensitivity to all persons and experiences offered by the environment.(11) As Fluency of ideas previously mentioned, the personage of Ulysses depicted in the innumerable sagas that he inspired well typifiesthose Acceptance of the discipline necessary to masterthe descriptions of creativity. Another literaryfigure who techniques for expressing ideas finally achieves that awareness and openness that arethe hallmark of the creative person is Emily Webb (Gibbs) in Flexibility in modifying ideas or patterns Thornton Wilder's Our Town. In Act III of the play,after her death, she says: "We don't have time to look at one Capacityforwholeheartedattentionand another...Oh, earth, you're too wonderful for anybody concentration to realize you. Do any human beings everrealize life while they live it?every, every minute?" The stage manager Objectivity in evaluating one's products tells her that saints and poets perhaps dorealize such awareness, implying that fewother persons do. Thornton Satisfaction in the creative process Wilder himself', as a novelist, playwright, scholar, critic,and lecturer, displayed a great deal of highly versatile creativity. That appreciation for the creative works ofanother itself requires creativity and that creativity in one person may well engender it in another are illustrated byJohn Keats in NATURE OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS his sonnet, "On First Looking into Chapman'sHomer." That poem effectively distills the sense of raptureimplicit The complex process of creativity is not yetthoroughly in the moment of creative discoverywhether the dis- understood; however, the consensus of many psychologists covery be made by a poet, anastronomer, or an explorer. appears to agree inidentifying fivestages in creative Like Tennyson, Keatsis indebted to Homer for his production: inspiration. Both English poets also exemplifythe criteria specified in the preceding paragraph. The Keats sonnet a. Orientation, whenthe problem is defined reads: b. Preparation, when the mind is saturatedwith all Much have I travelled in the realms of gold available data And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been, c. Incubation, when theconscious mind rests while the Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. unconscious probes the problem Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne: thinker Yet did I never breathe its pure serene d. Illumination, when the solution occurs to the Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold; Then felt I like some watcher of the skies e. Verification, when acritical, often scientific, evalua- When a new planet swims into his ken; tion occurs Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes He stared at the Pacificand all his men Looked at each other with a wild surmise The preparatory stage is the time when the ideasfor the Silent, upon a peak in Darien. painting, song, or story are collected formulling over during the incubation period to emerge as afull-fledged In presenting this sonnet to his class, theunimaginative product during the illuminatory stage. (5) James Coleman English teacher would probably content himself withthe remarks that though a moment of sudden inspiration or comment that it was Balboa and not "stoutCortez" who illumination can clarify a problem, that moment usually discovered the Pacific, that the poem is rich insimile and represents the culmination of painstaking, meticulous work metaphor, and that "some watcher of the skies"is a previously labored over at length. (3) Colemanwould thus circumlocution for an astronomer; but to thecreative agree with Thomas A.Edison's oft-quoted observations that teacher the poem presents a world of possibilitiesfor "Genius is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percentperspira- awakening creativity and appreciation in his pupils. tion" and "There is no substitute for hard work."

As has been indicated, many researchershave identified J.P.Guilford has contributedsignificantly to an an openness to new experiences as oneof the most striking understanding of the creative processes through his work on 58

the intellect's structure, which is summarizedin Chapter II. impulse to exploit an idea; internal drama, which results in Teachers interested in developing theirpupils' creative the resolution of conflict and the coalition of the setof potentials will also profit from readingGuilford's publica- identities comprising the person; and individual abilities, tions listed in the bibliographical entries toChapter II, which include such personal characteristics as energy level, which reproduces his model of the structure ofintellect. intelligence, endurance, alertness, and perseverance. (2)

Of the five types of intellectual operationsshown on The theory of synectics is concerned with thegrowth in that model, divergent thinking is the mostimportant for creative capacity through insight into thefree associatory creative potential. Guilford's factor-analyticst-ldies verified concepts in man's preconscious mind.Synectic theory the accuracy of previously positedhypotheses as to the holds that an increase in creative efficiency maybe effected components of creativity, as well as toother intellectual through understanding the psychological processes under- qualities. By intercorrelating test scores compiledfrom a lying behavior and through a recognition of therole of the number of examinees, Guilfordisolated four distinct emotional component in the creative process. Thetheory factors of creativity fluency and flexibility of thought, implies that teachers should become aware oftheir own originality, and elaboration allof whichfallinthe stages of creative development inteaching and synchronize category of divergent-thinking.Of the six kinds of intel- their lessons with the recognized stages of thecreative lectual products, the most significant for creativityis process. (6) transformation, because much creative effort requires transforming something known into a statement notpreviously Many creative persons have described the joythey cognized. derived from their work and the compulsion theyfelt to express themselves. In a symposiumrecorded in the book, Despite the preponderance of factors relating to cre- The Creative Process, 38 outstanding persons inthe fields ativity found in divergent thinking processeswith transfor- of art, literature, and science described in their ownwords mations as products, Guilford found that manyother how they chose their particular forms of expressionand abilities also contribute to creative performance.One of mastered the necessary techniques for their work. (4a) One these is sensitivity to problemsan ability which is an such contributor was Thomas Wolfe, who described in an evaluative operation listed under semantic content.Another excerpt from his work, The Story of a Novel,the intensity type of creative thought, redefinition, isclassified in the with which he approached Of Time and theRiver. Wolfe category of transformations as aconvergent-thinking factor; said: redefinitions may be semantic, symbolic, or figuralin content. . ..Never in my whole life have I lived so fully, have I shared so richly in the common life of man as Idid during these three Guilford's factor analyses did not isolate a unitary years when I was struggling with the giant problemof my own ability to analyze or to synthesize; he thereforeconcludes work. that such ability depends on general aptitudes,which differ synthesis For one thing, my whole sensory and creative equipment, my according to the particular task of analysis or powers of feeling and reflection ...had reached the greatest involved. Basic to creativity, as to all intellectualfunction- degree of sharpness that they had ever known ...(4a) ing, are cognition, memory, and evaluation. A review of Guilford's work is helpful indeveloping Henry James also analyzed in detail his own powersof pupils' thinking abilities in many areas besidesthe creative inventionintheprefacestoThe Ambassadors, The one. Chapter XII ofthis publication presents outlines of American, and other novels from his pen. lesson plans and course contents thatdemonstrate the application of Guilford's theoretical structure tothe prac- In his introduction to The Creative Process,the editor, tical realm of the classroom. Brewster Ghiselin,echoed the sentiments of JamesColeman in emphasizing the necessity for hardwork in order to Jerome Bruiler believes that the inquiry into creativity produce creations of merit. (4a) Ghiselin writes: may be equated withthe search for excellence by mankind and that such inquiry may bring a new dignity tohumanity. Even the most energetic and original mind, in order to Seven conditions of creativity listed by Bruner are:effec- reorganize or extend human insight in any valuable way, must tive surprise, which creates new perspectives;detachment have attained more than ordinary mastery of the field inwhich it from the is to act, a strong sense of what needs to be done, and skill in the and commitment, which include a departure appropriate means of expression. It seems certain that no obvious; passion and decorum, which demand awillingness significant expansion of insight can be produced otherwise, to free one's impulses in one's workand which imply a whether the activity is thought of as work or not. Often an respect for form and materials;freedom to be dominated untutored beauty appears in the drawings of children, and we by the object; deferral and immediacy, whichinclude the rightly prize the best of them .. .,but they have scarcely the 59

power to open the future for us. For that, the artist must labor they are individually capable. To utilize one's capacities is to the limit of human development and then take a step beyond. to enhance them. The same is true for every sort of crevtive worker. That step beyond is stimulated by labor upon the limits of attainment. THE CONTRIBUTION OF BACKGROUND INFORMATION TO CREATIVITY

Although not a guarantee of creative expression, the NATURE OF AN ENVIRONMENT accumulation of a broad background of knowledge sets the CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVITY stage for creative processes and is essential as a preparatory step. A popular misconception about creativityis that An environment conducive to creativity stimulates posi- somehow productions and inventions may occur like a bolt tive though intangible attitudes, reactions, and interactions. from the blue, springing unbidden from an intellectual Such an atmosphere provides freedom for children to err in vacuum. Such is obviously not the case, however. The trying new ideas; a plethora of materials available for incubation and insight steps in the creative cycle do not instant use; a classroom schedule permitting the pursuit of proceed miraculously or spontaneously from a mental void, individualinterests and independent study; long-range for lacunas in the mind are not noted for their productivity. planning; and cooperativ,e relationships among teachers and Karl Pribram says that inventions spring from previous pupils. knowledge of the discoverers, who transfer old facts to new interpretations and then test the validity of these new theories against the familiar tenets. Pribram cites as an E. Paul Torrance describes teacher-pupil relationships example the composer following familiar structure and that inspire creativity as those in which the teacher relates form as a basis for creating a new composition. The poet to his pupils as persons in their own right and in which the also may use traditional forms within which to fashion teachercoexperiences ideas and events with hisclass original concepts in his own style. (10) members. (14) Without creative teachers, creative talent will remain for the most part unrecognized and undevel- The Enrichment Demonstration Center at Los Angeles oped. Torrance recommends six guidance procedures to the provided broad background knowledge in the language arts teacher who would develop creativity in a gifted pupil: for the pupils as a basis on which to develop creative provide a "refuge" for the thinker; be his "sponsor"or expression. This chapter outlines for the use of teachers the patron; help him understand his divergence from the norm; materialpresentedincriticalreading,literature, and encourage him to communicate his ideas; and assist his communication curriculums. parents and friends to understand him and to recognize his creativetalents. (15) Torrance also believes that gifted pupils should be encouraged to work out the full implica- READING SKILLS tions of their ideas. Often original thinkers fail to fulfill their potential because they do not follow through on their The enriched reading program encompassed the teaching thinking sufficiently to make an important discovery, to of skills in critical reading, study habits, and vocabulary reach a logical conclusion, or to completea creative building. All aspects of reading should concern teachers of production. (13) the gifted child, who usually enjoys reading and instructs himself to a degree. The teacher should concentrate on refining those skills involving evaluation, interpretation, and Hughes Mearns writes of the psychological significance diction. While many pupils read extensively and understand of self-discovery in creative performance. He relates his own individual word meanings, they need professional help in experiences as an English teacher at the Lincoln School of such areas as thinking critically, making valid inferences, Columbia University, where he freed his students to express and appreciating the full significance and style of literary themselves originally by implanting in them a faith in their works. Especially important to gifted pupils, too, is the individual ability. Even these students, who gave small ability to locate and organize information. The "Selected outward indications of being creative, responded to that References" of this chapter list under the heading of approach. (9) "Reading Skills" some of the books used at the Los Angeles center. In order to further the growth of creativity in the classroom,manyeducatorshaveurgedteachersto The following schema indicates the type of information encourage gifted pupils to stretch their minds to the utmost that was used to enrich the curriculum of the gifted in in attaining the highest standards of performance of which reading, studying, and vocabulary building. 60

modern American fiction wasemphasized. The thorough OUTLINE OF INFORMATIONRELATED TO promoted invention in READING SKILLS study of a single literary category that form on the part of thepupils. I. Reading Comprehension The following material presentssamples of the types of information used and theliterary elements considered at Evaluation: Judgment and comparison the demonstration centerin studying all of theliterary Inference and Implication:Deductiveand inductive forms identified in the foregoing. reasoning

Interpretation: Critical analysisof the thought and mood The Study of Fantasy the teachers considered the Denotation and Connotation:Dictionary definitions and In presenting fantasies, following usual topics: suggested meanings

Diction: Word choice and artof vocal expression Theme

II. Study Skills Choice of subject

Location: Skimming; scanning;signal words; use of text- Plot book, reference works, cardcatalog, graphs, maps, tables, charts; and use of files Characterization

Organization: Precis writing,summarizing, outlining, note- Style taking, and classifying Setting III. Vocabulary Building Mood Word Structure: Roots andaffixes; syllabification; pronunciation; inflected forms The Study of HistoricalFiction PhoneticSymbols:Speechsoundsasanaidto Choice of subject pronunciation Life of an age, period, or momentfrom the past Context: Clues to particular meanings Historical events Invented occurrences value writtenas accountsof Figurative Language andImagery:Figures of speech, Stories of historical comparisons, and sound effects contemporary life

Derivations: Words derived fromthe Germanic, Latin, Plot Greek, and Romance languages Well defined; lively Reconstructed life of a previousgeneration Real happenings or fictitiousplots WordCategories:Synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, Descriptive style homographs, colloquialisms Characterization Characters from the past LITERATURE Hero or heroine a believable person Portrayal of the hearts and mindsof the people of the Creative expression was alsoencouraged at the Los of historical period Angeles center through a studyof the various categories combination of with the following more Utilization of either real personages or a children's literature, together both real and fictitious persons advanced literary forms: fantasy;historical fiction; poetry; mythology; folk tales, legends,and fables; biography; adventure and animal stories;short stories; essays; the Authenticity novel; and drama. To providethe gifted pupil with an Historical accuracy Realistic situations understanding of himself andother persons, the teachingof 61

Feeling of the everyday life of the time Personal relationships Clear sense of history in the presentation of eventsof Growth of abilities the pciiod Feelings of accomplishment Innate desire to retain individuality Setting Stability of own personality Previous generations Family life Atmosphere, spirit, and excitement another period Favorite persons, places, things Physical environment and feelings of the age Mood Satisfactions Adventurous Rhythmresponse to a measured beat Mysterious Rhyme and auditory response Exciting Sounds and arrangements of words Inspiring Language patterns of lines Thoughtful Imagery Stimulation of responses of sight, touch, taste, and Theme smell Joys and hardships of a previous generation The beauty of the commonplace Issues of the time Vivid, fresh pictures painted in words Universal theme; i.e., growth and maturation Heightened emotional response Necessary requisites to life Increased sensitivity to an idea or mood (sadness, Appreciation of an inspiring heritage remorse,gaiety,exhilaration,anticipation, Importance of the past as retained in the present wonder, excitement, fear of danger) Enjoyment of the story element in poetry: mystery, romance, conflict, adventure, humor The Study of Poetry

Definition Forms Crystallization of experience in musical words Ballad Communication of human thought and feeling through The earliest poems; originally, the literature of the sensory images and emotional responses people Elusive combination of ideas and emotions Short narrative poems adapted for singing or lyrical Content effect Adventure and accomplishment Popular ballads handed down from one generation to Historical events the next Deeds of ordinary men, of great men Literary ballads with known authors Biographical accounts Stories of heroic deeds, romance, feuds, tragedies Achievements of the human spirit Narrative verse Statements of ideals Relates a particular event, episode, or story Everyday happenings May utilize lyrical, descriptive, or free verse Recall of a familiar experience in an original way Limerick Weather and the seasons Five-line nonsense verse with the first and second The loveliness of the revolving seasons lines rhyming, the third and fourth lines rhyming, Wonder of effective contrasts in nature and the fifth line usually ending in a .surprise or Humor humorous statement Nonsense rhymes Unusual spelling, oddities, humorous twists Amazing animals Lyrical verse Descriptions of funny, eccentric characters Usually personal or descriptive poetry with no par- Amusing situations ticular length or structure Fantasy Derived from the word "lyre," refers to poetry that Magical, mysterious happenings sings Imaginative persons and places Free verse Other creatures, neither animal nor human Descriptive, unrhymed prose-poetry Animals Depends on rhythm or cadence for its poetic form Comical or real May use some rhyme, alliteration, and pattern Domestic pets Though looking different on a page, sounds much like Farm, zoo, or wild animals other poetry when read aloud 62

Etiological myths The Study of Myths Stories of events describing origins of ritesand customs Definition An imaginary story dealing with godsand goddesses or beings conceived as divine The Study of Folklore (Folk Tales, Legends,Fables) A story of forgotten origin whoseplot relates historical events explaining a natural phenomenon,institution, Definition practice, or belief Accounts of an event or events that areactual, legendary, or fictitious Origin Explanations of the earth, sky, and humanbehavior by Imaginative compositions intended to entertain primitive man who related events toforces: (a) as a Unusual or incredible narratives concept of a power in human formwho controlled the phenomena of nature; (b) as a complexsystem of Origin gods who represented such virtues aswisdom, purity, Imaginative expressions of events in human life of worship in an organized Accounts of customs, taboos, rules, andbeliefs or love; and (c) as a stage long form Tales told by one storyteller to another over Desire to propitiate mysterious forces periods of time Variations in stories told long before beingwritten down Ancestor worship Common reactions of man to phenomena and events Fear and wonder Tales originating in India and spreading to Europe Necessity of explaining customs the Human tendency to clothe thought infigurative lan- Similar stories originating in many regions relating to historical development of societies guage African, Ice- Astral, mythological theory of origin of the moonand Greek, Roman, Norse, Chinese, Japanese, (every natural phenome-. landic, North American Indian, and MayanIndian sun, night and day, seasons non stimulated mythicalexplanations) stories Expression through dreams or unconscious drivesof personalityemotional needs, frustrations, wishes Characterization of cul, Immortal gods who possessed supernatural powersin Relation of folklore to anthropological studies human form tures People of the past or of other places Gods who controlled the forces of natureand the Themes destiny of man Enchantment Expression through the charm of tinypeople, the Themes long sleep, bewitchment, and magic powers Emotions, including love, hate, jealousy, and envy Magic Creation of the earth and people Description through objects such as rings,flying_ Customs, seasons, and movements of the sunand moon ships, tablecloths, harps, lamps Relationships among the gods and between thegods and Transformation of persons to animals or vice versa men Tasks and trials Foolish wishes or moralizations Style Trickery of animals and persons Short story construction Explanation of land formations, day and night, seasons, Allegory animal behavior Realistic conversation Characterization Classes Monumental odds overcome by the hero inattaining Culture myths wealth or position Stories in which a hero in the form of a man,god, or Possession of human or superhuman characteristicsby animal imparts the arts of life to man animals Nature myths Development of unique heroes who help create a inwhich' the phenomena of nature are country Stories bombastic, described Portrayal of heroes as boasting, exaggerating, Theogonic myths comic, or poetic individuals Stories which narrate the origin of gods Few but well-defined characters 63

Style Action Descriptive prose Conflict Broad exaggeration Dialect and conversations Characterization Figurative expressions (simile, metaphor, onomatopoeia, Heroes with admirable skills, personalities, and relation- alliteration) ships Idiomatic expressions Authentic backgrounds of persons Immediate involvement of the reader in the introduction Defined conflict developed with vitality Setting Abrupt conclusions (e.g., "which was probably just as Vivid portrayal of ways of living well") Authentic regional or historical backgrounds

Mood Style Humorous feelings Descriptive prose Happenings described in gay conversation Exciting situations Clever wit of a central character Antics of fools and simpletons Themes Frontier spirit Conflict of man against nature Consistent perseverance Appreciation of others National loyalty Struggle for survival or for triumph over persons, places, Regional pride things Realistic misfortunes of a hard life The Study of Biographies The Study of Animal Stories Choice of subject Events and persons worthy of emulation Choice of Subject Life cycle stories of animals seeking survival Characterization Realistic stories portraying actual animal behavior Persons presented as human beings with shortcomings and virtues Character Development Worthy subjects that come alive Animal characters created as being consistent with their Background of lives truthfully presented species, yet imbued with human qualities such as Character revealed through actions, conversations, and courage, loyalty, endurance, pride, and love thoughts Qualitiessuchaspatience,curiosity,andskill emphasized Style Predominance of animals over persons Narrative approach Dramatized events and personalized subjects in fiction- Themes alized biography Love of nature Invented dialogue and subjects' unspoken thoughts The struggle of living things based on research Lessons of such virtues as loyalty, kindness, fortitude, and compassion Theme Cruelty of humans toward animals Author's interpretations of the multidimensional facets Suffering as a result of loving of the subject's life Style Authenticity Brief introduction usually leading to quick action Development of suspense in well-paced stories Insight into the character of the subject Relationship of present incidents to preceding events in Accuracy of historical detail a series of stories Respect for verifiable reporting Simple, exciting plots with authentic information about animals The Study of Adventure Stories Setting Elements of Adventure Sights, sounds, smells of the locale vividly described Suspense Feeling of the region reflected by the use of dialect [WV

Mood A personal reminiscence or account focused on an Personal kindness experiencesometimes in the form of a journal, a Tender care diary, or a letter Sorrowful feelings An account in which the author's interpretation or Humorous situations re-creation of a personal experience is as important as Emotional warmth the event described Dramatic, noble dignity Distinguished from a treatise or dissertation by being less formal and systematic Distinguished from a history or biography by treating a The Study of the Short Story single aspect of a subject rather than its whole scope

Plot Purposes Outcome probable without the use of chance, coinci- Revelation of the author's feelings about his subject dence, or deus ex machina An appeal to the reader's feelings through expressionof Events interrelated with originality and ingenuity the author's feelings Dramatic sequence of happenings Vicarious participation by the reader in the recounted Suspense, conflict, and foreshadowing events

Characterization Tone Believable characters revealed through what they say and Varied (e.g., whimsical, satirical, sentimental, humorous) do and what others say about them Means by which the author communicates his feelings People individualized through specific details Dialogue interesting and natural Style and Technique Dialect when appropriate Narrative prose styleconversational, humorous, or poetic Setting Use of language that is moving, stimulating, and pleasing Time and place of the action Suspense and dramatic intensity developed by a recount- Essentials ing of incidents Is vital to the story Specific, meaningful settings created in vivid detail Influences characters Closenesstothe events expressed through realistic Contributes to mood and atmosphere dialogue

Theme FORMAL ESSAY Central concept of story Truth or observation about life and people Definition Significant idea A literary composition analytical in nature, such as a magazine article Mood An account explaining a process or idea, interpreting Atmosphere of setting facts, or analyzing reasons State of mind A factualnarration of a subject chosen to inform, Tone of feeling instruct, or persuade

Style and Technique Vivid narrative Purposes Concrete detail Attention to the special significance of a subject Figurative language Reflection on a previously neglected idea Portrayal of rapidly moving events Recommendation of a course of action or a way of life Specific wording with exactness of usage Presentation of developmentsinscience, medicine, politics, or other areas of human endeavor Satisfaction of the needs for enjoyment, adventure, The Study of the Essay knowledge of the world, and understanding of human problems INFORMAL OR PERSONAL ESSAY Information about people or events in the present and in the past Definition Information regarding how things are done and made A literary composition of an interpretive nature Speculation about the future 65

Tone Style and Technique Serious because of important or significant facts and Provocative topics included to arouse interest experiences Suspense created and maintained effectively Intellectual in appeal rather than emotional Skillful use of literary aids; e,g., imagery, rhythm, dialogue Style and Technique Artful simplicity Narrative prose style Realism or impressionism as appropriate Direct and logical presentation of material Limited or personal viewpoint Considerable freedom of style and method, but not The Study of Modem American Fiction looseness A brief account or a long account (in most instances, of Purposes substantial length) Unify group feeling May take the form of a systematic classification of Develop relationships among children several parts of the subject under a series of headings Create atmosphere of friendliness and acceptance Build concept of self by response to questions: The Study of the Novel What kind of a person am I? What are my roles in society to be? Definition What do others think of me? Fictitious prose narrative portraying realistic characters Relieve tension and natural actions in a plot Mirror interactions with people, places, and things Wide assortment of works including the following: Gainfeelingsofworthiness,successfulness, imaginative,fancifultales;slightlyfictionalized acceptance biographies approachinghistoricalfact; literature Learn about adult roles illustrating historical, social, or psychological truths Choose a vocation Lengthy tale that may exceed a half million words, Accept responsibilities although the average is closer to a hundred thousand Develop character words Expand inner-directed behavior as a life force Narration that includes a diversity of impressions and Unfold other-directed behavior with sensitivity to events problems and expectations of others Plot A sequence of incidents leading to a climax Subjects Involved conflicts Problems of personal development Maturation of social values Characterization Conformity of peer-group relations Insights into human behavior Expectations of life Numerous persons described in detail Forces impinging upon persons Realistic delineations of people and their traits Information about the world and people Communication of facts Settings Interpretation of social relationships Time usually in a specific period of the past; often in Growth in understanding of self and others the present (contemporary) Placementcan vary from a few to many places Themes Growth Theme Feelingsaboutone's own sizeor about one's Historical, believable pictures of a period, of events, and self-concept of people Evolvement of maturation process Modern topical problems; for example, automation, Development of family relationships as an aid to the crowded conditions,racial integration, the young individual who is wholesomely nurtured or as a executive, lawlessness, family problems barrier to the person who is deprived Message of general, abiding interest Importance of courage to meet life's demands Mood Understanding Vivid, realistic pictures of the life and culture of the Causes of behavior (e.g., need for friends or status) setting Basic needs for achievement, recognition, respect, Wide range of atmosphere love 66

combines skills of writing,speech, problems (e.g., fear of new An art form that Similarities of human movement, and staging situations, preparation for newexperiences, values A literary type designed tobe performed by actors on a of honesty and responsibility,insecurities and joys expectations of society, stage of growing and adjusting, includes the following: importance of fair play andgood sportsmanship, A literary form that Tragedy, with an inevitabledisaster resulting from the reactions to emotions) protagonist's defeat because of(a) his own weakness; disabilities Learning to live with physical or (b) anexternal force Physical handicaps as barriers toself-realization Comedy, with a happyending resulting from the the family Importance of the faith of protagonist's victory over opposingforces Value of independence Melodrama, with focus on actionand suspense Tensions created by groups Farce, with high humor anddramatic effect achieved Possessive friendships by the absurd and thefar-fetched Anxiety from insecurity A play written forthe purpose of entertainment,with Desire to make impressions story appeal for peopleof different times and places, Facing strange situations that give insight into and a set of values with recognizable situations Development of conscience human nature, and with ideasand attitudes that are Emergence of adulthood of universal significance Development of individuality divided into acts and scenes independence A literary composition Manifestations of increasing indicated by curtain falls orchanges in the time or Expansion of resourcefulness Challenges of recognizing andaccepting the needs of place of the action others Acceptance of differences Elements and Structui^ Plot Understanding the values ofheterogeneity events that comprise Acceptance of differentethnic, religious, and racial Includes a series of incidents or the action of the story groups which indicates prior Awareness of certain likenessesin all persons Begins with the exposition, action. The present stateof affairs, major characters, and situationsthat will lead to conflict Characterization Develops with complicationsthrough a series of Persons of vitality and sincerity episodes related to the basicconflict Absence of sentimentalism of people and human Reaches the major climaxand minor crises as the Natural, realistic descriptions protagonist attempts to resolvethe internal or conduct external conflict and succeeds orfails in a sig- nificantdecision,criticaldiscovery,orvital Style ofdidacticism,whichcouldhinder encounter Avoidance Continues with denouement asthe dramatic action understanding situations, falling patches revealsthe outcome of the Avoidance of cliches or purple action as no new peaks ofinterest occur, and final Economic use of literary devices of language resolution Achievement of a natural flow Contains the element ofconflict as a struggle between Directness, simplicity two opposingforces, ideas, or beliefs that maybe Use of realism or impressionism asappropriate to reflect deep and internal (e.g., struggleto overcome some weakness Ability to mirror human nature, external (e.g., between theprotag- universal values (ideas and conceptsthat are common in character) or onist and nature, society, orother persons) not only to Americansbut to people of other lands Includes subplots which,interwoven with the main and cultures as well) plot, may help or hinderthe protagonist

Characterization The Study of Drama Main character, the protagonist,who is opposed by the antagonist Definition is presented in prose or verse, Major characters usuallyrevealed through actions A composition that requiring a change in personality,behavior, or arranged for enactment bydialogue or pantomime, conflicts or as a human life or behavior or attitude as a result of internal and intended to portray result of external forces overwhich he has no simply to tell a story; usuallywritten in prose and most commonly set upfor dialogue control 67

Minorcharactersusuallystaticoroccasionally Subtle outcomes revealed through actions and dialogue stereotyped that imply but do not state Dialogue Use of devices such as hyperbole, parody, irony, Reveals the character and makes him credible inference, caricature, allusion Advances the plot Development of plot through external action (e.g., Contains occasionally a particularly eloquentspeech physical movements, gestures, facial expressions, on- or monologue or off-stage happenings) or internal action(e.g., Sometimes includes ideas of significance beyond the thoughts, feelings, mental or emotional conflict) plot Development of a character by what lie says, how he Stage Directions swis it, how he reacts to people and situations Instructionsprintedinitalicsand enclosedin Creating suspense by inducing uncertainty and anxiety parentheses as to the outcome Indications of what is occurring on stage or how the characters feel, react, or think Comments on a character role or a situation COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS Suggestions regarding a particular mood Ideas for sound effects Among the communicative skills taught at the Enrich- Clues to interpretations ment Demonstration Center werelistening,speaking, Setting discussing, reading, dramatizing, grammar, punctuation, Background of time and place appropriate to the word usage, spelling, and composition. To instill intheir the action gifted pupils an appreciation of language, teachers at Locale that contributes atmosphere and mood center were well grounded in the fundamentalsof English Description of scenes appropriate to the plot composition and usage. The following material presents a Detailed account if the setting is unusual or is of sampling of the information provided in classes in commun- major importance to the story icative skills at the demonstration center. Reference works Setting identified only briefly if typical or the same that were used appear at the end of this chapter. throughout the play Limited number of places, since each change of scene interrupts the story and adds to the expense of Elements of Oral Communication production Theme Philosophic conclusion Listening Skills Natural outgrowth of the action Learning through records, tapes, speeches, lectures, and Seriousstatementsaboutpeopleinfamiliar discussions objectivelyand experiences Interpretingandevaluatingideas Commentaries on human behavior through the char- critically acters, their problems, and their solutions tothe Extending vocabulary problems Acquiring a basis for creative expression through litera- Problems of thepracticalversustheromantic ture and the arts approach to life Responding to literature and the arts as a basis for Views of life's tensions, dilemmas,conflicts, deci- critical appreciation sions, joys, or sorrows Organizing significant ideas Techniques Illusion of reality through scenes, properties,illustra- Speaking Skills tions, stage directions, and characters' use of scenery Achieving proper vocalqualities with attention to and properties volume, tempo, pitch, and tone Dramatic movements with entrances, exits, and curtains Acquiringthepropervocal techniques for public Contrasts in lighting and sound effects speaking Minor climaxes Acquring clear enunciation and correct pronunciation Elements designed for audience empathy with sentimen- Presenting ideas logically and clearly tal appeal of positive and negative characters Evaluating speeches to improve their presentation and Exaggeration of banter with short, crisp conversational content remarks Thorough denouement with an unraveling of complica- tions,accountingof plotthreads,resolving of Discussion Skills problems Gathering information on which to base discussion 68

discussions Composition Skills Participating intelligently in Objectives in writing opinions Distinguishing facts from Analysis and organizationof topic Learning to lead discussions Transitions Summarizing to concludediscussions kinds of discussions,including Mechanics Participating in special Considerations in writingsentences and paragraphs and round-tablediscussions, forums, dialogues, panel Unity and coherence symposiums Outlining ideas and collectingmaterial The first draft andrevisions .Reading Skills Using vocal skillseffectively while readingaloud poetry, literature, creative writing,plays, summaries, direc- SUMMARY tions, reports, minutes,and articles The enriched offeringsin creative expressionresulted from effective teachertraining in the language arts,includ- Dramatizing Skills of language. effectiveness assignedroles and ing literature andthe structure and form Reciting with dramatic particular facet of subjectcontent dialogues Ample knowledge of a frees the learner torelease his creative impulseswithin that in area. Thestaff of the Los Angeles centerwere effective potentials of their pupilsin both Elements of WrittenCommunication developing the creative oral and written expression. Grammatical Skills Types of sentences sentences Sentence fragments and run-on Selected References Parts of a sentence,including subjects,predicates, objects, and complements Clauses and phrases Creativity The eight parts of speech The ten most commongrammatical errors to beavoided, 1. Ausubel, David. ThePsychology of Meaningful Ver- including incorrectformation of plural nouns, pro- York: Grune & Stratton,Inc., verb disagreement,incomplete con- bal Learning. New noun reference, of 1963. structions, danglingmodifiers, ambiguities, overuse superlatives, shift inpoint-of-view in 2.Bruner, Jerome S. "TheConditions of Creativity," Contemporary Approaches toCreative Thinking. Punctuation Skills Edited by H. E. Gruberand Others. EnglewoodCliffs, mark to Use of period, questionmark, and exclamation N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1963. conclude sentences clauses and Dynamics and Effective Use of comma andsemicolon to separate 3.Coleman, James. Personality items in a series Behavior. Glenview,Ill.:Scott, Foresman & Co., Other uses of comma 1960. Avoidance of unnecessarypunctuation cr colon, dash, brackets, andquotation Use of parentheses, 4.The Creative Organization.Edited by Gary Steiner. marks Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1965. Skills in Word Usage andSpelling Process: A Symposium.Edited by abstract words 4a. The Creative Use of concrete and Brewster Ghiselin. NewYork: New AmericanLibrary Descriptive words (Mentor paperback).Reprint of hardbackedition Denotation and connotation published by the Universityof California Press,1952. Synonyms and antonyms Contextual meanings ofwords the Gifted. Edited byLouis to name, to assert, tomodify, 5.Curriculum Planning for Four word functions Fliegler. EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,Inc., and to connect 1961. Idiomatic usage Use of dictionary todetermine word meaning,pronunci- Evanston, Ill.: Harper & derivatives, and the like 6.Gordon, William. Synectics. ation, spelling, etymology, Row Pubs., 1961. Spelling rules 69

7.MacKinnon, Donald. "What Makes a Person Cre- Getzels, Jacob W. and Philip W. Jackson. Creativity and ative?" Saturday Review, XLV (February 10, 1962), Intelligence: Explorations with Gifted Students. New 15-17. York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962.

May, Rollo. "The Nature of Creativity," in Creativity Guilford, J.P., Paul R. Christensen, and Robert C. Wilson. A and Its Cultivation. Edited by H. Anderson. New Bibliography of Thinking, Including Creative Think- York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1959. ing,Reasoning,Evaluation,andPlanning.Los Angeles: University of Southern California (Depart- 9.Mearns, Hughes. Creative Power: The Education of ment of Psychology), July, 1953. Youth in the Creative Arts (Second revised edition). New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1958 (paperback). Productive Thinking in Education. Edited by Mary Jane Aschner and Charles E. Bish. The National Education 10.Pribram, Karl. "Neurological Notes on the Art of Association and the Carnegie Corporation of New Education," in Theories of Learning and Instruction. York. Washington, D. C.: The National Education The Sixty-third Yearbook of the National Society for Association, 1965. the Study of Education, Part 1, pp. 78-110. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Scientific Creativity: Its Recognition and Development. Edited by Calvin W. Taylor and Frank Barron. New 11. Rogers, Carl. "Toward Becoming a Fully Functioning York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963. Person," in Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming. 1962 Yearbook, Association for Supervision and Curri- Whiting, Charles S. Creative Thinking. REINHOLD MAN- culum Development. Washington, D.C.:National AGEMENT SCIENCE SERIES. New York: Reinhold Education Association, 1962. Publishing Corporation, 1958.

12. Taylor, Calvin. "A Tentative Description of the Creative Individual," in A Source Book for Creative Literature Thinking. Edited by Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. (See also the materials listed under "Literature" at the end of Chapter V.) 13. Torrance,E.Paul."Creative Thinking Through School Experiences," in A Source Book for Creative American Essays. Edited by Charles B. Shaw. New York: Thinking. Edited by Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. New American Library, Inc., 1963. Harding. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. Arbuthnot, May Hill. Children and Books (Revised edition). 14. Torrance, E. Paul. Education and the Creative Poten- Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1957. tial. No. 5 of THE MODERN SCHOOL PRACTICES SERIES, College of Education, University of Minne- Arbuthnot, May Hill. Time for Fairy Tales Old and New. sota, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1952. 1963.

15. Torrance, E. Paul. Guiding Creative Talent. Engle- Arnstein, Flora J. Adventure into Poetry. Stanford, Calif.: wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Stanford University Press, 1951. A Basic Book Collection for the Elementary Grades. Prepared by the American Library Association. Chi- Additional References on Creativity cago: American Library Association, 1960.

Creativity: Progress and Potential. Edited by Calvin W. Bement, Douglas. Weaving the Short Story. New York: Ray Taylor. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Long and Richard R. Smith, Inc., 1931. 1964. Caldecott Medal Books: 1938-1957. Edited by Bertha Creativity and its Cultivation: Addresses Presented at the Mahony Miller and Elinor W. Field. Boston: The - Interdisciplinary Symposia on Creativity [at] Mich- Horn Book, Inc., 1957. igan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Edited by Harold H. Anderson. New York: Harper & Dobler World Directory of Youth Periodicals. Edited by Brothers Publishers, 1959. (Cited under entry number Lavinia G. Dobler. New York: Schulte Publishing 8.) Company (published irregularly). 70

Others. "Developing a Senseof Dramatic Writing. New York:Simon Schindler, Alvin W., and Egri, Lajos. The Art of Time and Chronology,"in Skills in Social Studies. and Schuster, Inc., 1960. Twenty-fourth Yearbook.Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies,1953. Eight Great Comedies.Edited by Sylvan Barnetand Others. Library, Inc., 1963. New York: New American Sheridan, Marion C., andOthers. The Motion Pictureand English. New York:Appleton- Edited by Sylvan Barnet andOthers. the Teaching of Eight Great Tragedies. Century Crofts, 1965. New York: New AmericanLibrary, Inc., 1963. Years; a Critical Ladders for Smith,LillianH. The Unreluctant Heaton, Margaret, andHelen B. Lewis. Reading Literature. Chicago: Ameri- (Revised edition). Washington, Approach to Children's Human Relations can LibraryAssociation, 1953. D.C.: American Council onEducation, 1955.

Huck, Charlotte, andDoris A. Young. Children'sLiterature Oral and WrittenCommunication in the Elementary School.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1963. (See also the materialslisted under "CommunicationSkills" at the end ofChapter V.) Illustrators of Children'sBooks, 1744-1945.Edited by Others. Boston: The Horn Bertha E. Mahoney and Altick, Richard D.Preface to Critical Reading(Fourth Book, Inc., 1947. edition). New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1960. Illustrators of Children'sBooks, 1946-1956.Edited by Ruth. H. Viguers and Others.Boston: The Horn Book, Burriss, Eli E., andLionel Casson. Latin andGreek in Inc., 1958. Current Use. New York:Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1945. Teaching Composition and Meckel, Henry C. "Research on Corbin, Richard K., andOthers. Guide to ModernEnglish. Literature," in Handbookof Research on Teaching. Grades nine throughtwelve. Glenview, Ill.:Scott, Edited by N. L. Gage. Chicago:Rand McNally & Co., Foresman & Co., 1960. 1963. Diederich, Paul B., andOsmond E. Palmer. CriticalThink- Newbery Medal Books:1922-1955. Edited byBertha Writing. New York: Holt,Rine- Field. Boston: The Horn ing in Reading and Mahony and Elinor W. hart & Winston, Inc.,1955. Book, Inc., 1955. Talented Student in the by Margaret English for the Academically Plot Outlines of 101Best Novels. Edited Education Association Noble, Secondary School. National Gillett and E. A. Grozier.New York: Barnes & Project on theAcademically Talented Student. Inc., 1962. Edited by Arno Jewett.Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1960. Promoting Personal andSocial DevelopmentThrough Reading. Proceedings of theAnnual Conference on Correctness and Precision in and edited by William S. Grant, Phil S., and Others. Reading, 1947. Compiled Writing. Boston: HoughtonMifflin Co., 1953. Gray. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1947. Spelling. New York: Holt, Delight. New York: Pantheon Hildreth, Gertrude. Teaching Read, Herbert. This Way, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955. Books, Inc., 1956. Word. Boston: Houghton World Literature. Edited by Nathan, Norman. The Right The Reader's Companion to Mifflin Co., 1962. Lillian Hornstein and Others.New York: New Ameri- Inc., 1963. can Library, Parker, William Riley."The Case for Latin," PMLA, LXXIX, Part 2 (September,1964), 3 -10. Readings in Applied EnglishLinguistics (Second edition). Allen. New York: Appleton - Edited by Harold B. Roberts, Paul. The RobertsEnglish Series: A Linguistics Century- Crofts, 1958. Program. Textbook and teacher'sedition, workbook, recordings. New York: Harcourt, Moon. Grades fivethrough eight. tests, and two LP Sandburg, Carl. Early Brace & World, Inc., 1966. New York: Harcourt, Braceand Co., 1930. 71

York: Strickland,Ruth G. Language Arts in the Elementary Mathews, M. M. Words: How to Know Them. New School (Second edition). Boston: D. C. Heath &Co., Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1956. 1957. Morse, Horace T., and George H. McCune. Selected Items Warriner, John E., and Others. EnglishGrammar and for the Testing of Study Skills and Critical Thinking. Composition. New York: Harcaart, Brace &World, Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Inc., 1958. Studies, 1964.

Reading Skills Palmer, Osmond E., and Paul B. Diederich. Critical Think- ing in Reading and Writing. Text, pretest, posttest. Adventures in Modern Literature.Teacher's manual and New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955. reading tests. Edited by Robert Freier and Arrold L. York: Harcourt, Lazarus with Herbert Potell. New Reading Teacher. Newark, Del.:International Reading Brace & World, Inc., 1956. Assn. (published eight times a year). Altick, Richard D. Preface to CriticalReading (Fourth edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,Inc., 1960. Spelling Better Readers for Our Times.Vol.1.International ReadingAssociationConferenceProceedings. Anderson, Paul S. Resource Materials for Teachers of Edited by William S. Gray and Nancy Larrick. New Spelling. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1959. York: Scholastic Magazines, 1956. Emery, Donald W. Variant Spellings in Modern American Crank, Doris H., and Others. Words: Spelling,Pronuncia- Dictionaries. Champaign, Ill.:National Council of tion,Definition,and Application.New York: Teachers of English, 1958. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962. Fries, Charles. Linguistics: the Study of Langic Ie.New Gates, Arthur. A List of Spelling Difficulties in3876 York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1964. Words. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1937. Gainsburg, Joseph C. Advanced Skills in Reading. Books1 and2;teachers'annotated edition. New York: Macmillan Co., 1962. Greene, H. A. New Iowa Spelling Scale. Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa, 1954. Lamb, Marion M. Word Studies. Cincinnati:South-Western Pub. Co., 1963. Mersand, Joseph. Spelling Your Way to Success. Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1959. Madden,Richard,and ThorstenCarlson.Success in Spelling. Teacher's guide for grades one and two. Sacramento: California State Department of Educa- Rinsland, Harry D. A Basic Vocabulary of Elementary tion, 1959. School Children. New York: Macmillan Co., 1953. ChapterVIII The Developmentof CriticalAppreciation

and sculpture were Inspiration evolves from the creative useof the imagina- The areas of music, painting, tion, which in turn may bestimulated by music. As a enriched to develop critical appreciationof gifted pupils at Center. There the staff corollary, musical structure may befully comprehended the Los Angeles Demonstration Aaron Copland prepared guidelines to aid theteachers in presenting the only by giving free vent to the imagination. observes that music appreciation requiresthe listener to forms and structures of artisticcomposition. Teacher experience and to background information on the surrender himself completely to musical training programs provided William C. Hartshorn information is outlined in the pages evaluate that experience critically. (5) arts, and much of this says that the key toappreciating music is to recognize that follow. melodic or rhythmic patterns as repeatedin identical or in altered form. (10) Children learn toinvolve themselves in music from sequential lessons that encouragethem to listen, EXPRESSION ARTISTIC APPRECIATION AND to relate, and to respondcreatively. Numbered among the goals ofeducation is an under- NEA Project on the recorded in his art According to contributors to the standing of man's cultural heritage as Academically Talented Student, somegifted pupils require forms. Robert Reynolds writesthat the private nature of instruction in the arts every semester as abasis for future art contributes to personalitydevelopment by encouraging city planners, designers, musicians, aspirations, and ideas careers as architects, pupils to express the impulses, sculptors, or artists. Those students who arenot planning and relating to the springing from their own experiences such professional careers also requiredirect artistic experi- viewpoint reflects that of experiences of others. (13)1 This ences in order toenrich their lives and to become awareof Leonardo da Vinci, who wrote: "Agood painter is to paint the contributions of the arts totheir cultural heritage. (2) two main things, namely manand the working of man's mind." (8b) Of the subjects appropriatefor artists, the Spanish painter Francisco Goya said:"Painting, like poetry, THE STRUCTURE AND FORM selects from the universe what itconsiders best for its own OF ARTISTIC COMPOSITION end. It is able to concentratecircumstances and characteristics which nature scatters among acrowd of indivi- Gifted pupils require a knowledgeof the elements and painting, and sculpture duals." (15) organizational principles of music, in order to evaluate artisticproductions in those areas. A Children respond to art forms bothemotionally and committee formed in LosAngeles to suggest enriched intellectually. Experimentations withvarious types of musical activities stressed theschool's role in guiding the artistic endeavor enable pupils to expressthe particular musical development of giftedchildren. Significant creative artistic values of greatestsignificance to them. George activity may spring from theinsights acquired through Santayana says that everyone has a senseof beauty and a learning musical forms, elements, andcontent and through need for aesthetic experiences.(14) The human tendency studying musical theory. (7) to react to "the true, thegood, and the beautiful" indicates that the affective psychological processesof feeling, receiv- Inasmuch as the recognitionof pattern in a mass of ing, responding, and valuing require moreattention from abstract ideas involves theability to analyze and infer, the educators. The teacher also shouldrecognize the functional pupil increases his rational powersin learning to perceive interdependence of the cognitive andaffective domains and such patterns. By challengingthe listener to detect elements realize that the intellect can enrichthe emotions by of form within the abstract,the rendition of musical works directing their expression towardsappropriate goals that contributes to his skills ofanalysis and inference. (4) To emerge from thefusion of knowledge with culturalideals. become broadly educated, thechild should learn the major musical forms and experience thememotionally, according to the 1960 NEAProject on the AcademicallyTalented Student. Pupils should learn how theparticular musical idea 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of"Selected of form. (9) References" at the end of this chapter. of a composer dictates his choice

72 73

Before attempting to compose, the pupilshould acquire this type of training. Pragmatic instructors proposeto of an extensive ,knowledgeof musical elements, structure, and achieve creative expression by applying the theories form, in the opinion of Karl Pribram. Symphonicmusic learning, personality, and behavior in an attempt to avoid adheres to strict rules of theme, rhythm, anddynamics, the extremes of rigid discipline and completefreedom. The which must be mastered by the incipient composer.An resultant programs are partly eclectic in that theyinclude example given by Pribram isthe work of Ludwig van concepts and practices from all philosophiesof art educa- Beethoven, who carried musical discipline farbeyond its tion. (6) already complexly structured limits to add a newdimension to his orchestral works. Pribramconcludes that creativity Maxwell Anderson would have everyone participate in consists in imagination based on an awarenessof rules and some form of artistic endeavor, no matterhow minor his individual order. (12) role, because through the pursuit of art the communes with the highest andbest in the human spirit. Jerome S. Bruner, whose Processof Education was Through creative art the participant can enrich himself by discussed in Chapter II, says in that workthat a study of associating with the greatest minds of all ages.(1) structure lends permanent usefulness tolearning because of itstransfer potential and because of its promotionof Although systematic knowledge is a sine qua non for intuitive and analytic thinking.2 Accordingto Bruner, teachers, their sense of the wonder and significanceof intuitive thinking involves maneuversbased on an implicit phenomena is also essential. Rachel Carson says that for a perception of a total problem. Such thinkingresults from a child to keep intact his inborn sense of wonder, heneeds familiarity with a realm of knowledge and itsstructure that the companionship of at least one adultbe he parent or facilitates mental shortcuts; however, theconclusions of teacherwith whom to share the joy and excitement such thinking must be rechecked bydeductive or inductive implicit in the world around him. (3) analysis. The following material consists ofinformation that THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN PROMOTING teachers should find helpful in developing thecritical for ARTISTIC APPRECIATION appreciation of gifted children. Books appropriate teacher training are listed under "SupplementaryPublica- Coretta Mitchell urges elementary schoolteachers to tions" in the list of references at the end of thischapter. teach their pupils the structures basic to artbecause surveys Additional book titles may be found among the references indicate that elementary grade teachers have greaterinflu- to Chapter V. ence in promoting thechild's artistic conceptions than do art teachers. (11) Equalconsideration should be given to MUSIC for elegance structure of form and to meaning of content, Correlated Listening on Three Planes of form without content leads to industriallayout, while unhampered emotion leads to sentimentalism or towild Sensuous Plane generalities, according to Maurice Grosser. (8a) Sheer pleasure derived from the musical sound without philosophy, conscious thought Roy E. Dodson says that the art teacher's Appeal of the music as an escape or consolation whether consciously or unconsciously formed,determines the concepts, theory, and methods utilized in his instruc- Expressive Plane following four tion. The teacher may adopt any one of the Personal conception of the musical idea or picture naturalism, major philosophies or any combination thereof: Subtle shadings of different parts;e.g., serenity or idealism,realism, and pragmatism. As applied to art education, naturalism is usually exemplified by free expres- exuberance Meanings inexplicable in words sion, for the child is unrestricted in his choice ofsubject Expressive quality of a single theme or of anentire matter, medium, or style. The idealistadopts a model style or the work of aparticular artist for emulation by his selection pupils, under the assumption that a.pupil who is thoroughly Musical Plane grounded in art fundamentals can best learn bystudying the work of others. The realist believes that creativity can Listening to notes and how they are manipulated be promoted by conveying an idea through rearranging Awareness of musical elements visual forms, which are then reproduced asrealistically as Attention to musical form and structure possible. The acquisition of skill through drill characterizes Active Listening Involving Knowledge and Purpose 2See the Bruner citation in the unnumbered section, "Supple- Knowledge of musical elements, structure and form mentary Publications," under "SelectedReferences" at the end of Simultaneous attitudes of subjectivity and objectivity this chapter. 24\

Elements of Sound Resonator

Vibration Gives body and character to original vibrations Magnifies the sound and gives it beauty Cause of all sound; can sometimes be seen and felt Examples: Regular vibrationsproduce a note or musical sound Body of violin Irregular vibrationsproduce sonorous shocks or noise Wooden sounding board over which the strings are Musical soundsproduced by fundamental vibrations stretched in a piano ranging between 40 and 4,000 per second, embracing Spaces in the mouth and nose for a voice seven octaves: 261 vibrations a second, the soundof middle C; 522 vibrations a second, the C above middle C; 1,044 vibrations a second, the C two Sympathy Vibrations octaves above middle C; 130 vibrations a second, the Sympathetic resonance of certainthingsor places octave below middle C; 65 vibrations a second, the C independent of vibrations two octaves below middle C

Frequency Overtones

Changes in air pressure: repeated at least 20 times per Tone color given to an instrument by adding tones to second before the brain perceives them as sound the fundamental one The average human ear: incapable of hearing more than Mixture of sounds from vibrations to give quality 20,000 vibrations per second Faint notes heard as blends of sounds that give timbre Audible frequency range: varies with different people of Example: different ages Vibration of a string in several sections Along the whole of its free length Pitch In two halves In three thirds Concerns highness or lowness of notes Change according to fundamental note Depends on the number of vibrations per second More from some instruments than others Human beingsmay hear between 20 and 20,000 Different ones from different instruments vibrations per second High overtones"bright" instruments Childrenoften hear higher notes than adults Low overtones"mellow" instruments Dogs hear higher notes than children Variations of musical notes from vibrating strings depen- Pure Notes dent upon length, tension, and thickness of string Variations of musical notes from wind instruments Usually never heard on an instrument dependent upon air inside instrument tube (air called Sometimes heard on a recorder a "column") Occasionally low, soft notes heard on a flute Column in long wind instrumentsslower vibra- Produced on a tuning fork: length of a tube filled with tion (low notes) air and closed at one end which resounds to a tuning Column in short wind instrumentsfaster vibra- forkone fourth of the length of the sonorous wave tion (high notes) produced by the fork Strength of vibrations: loudness and softness of notes

Intensity Instruments of the Orchestra

An objective, physical characteristic STRINGS Determined by the pressure variation and velocity of air particles Number in a Modern Orchestra

Loudness 16 first violins 14 second violins Subjective, psychological impression experienced by a 12 violas listener 10 cellos Depends on intensity and frequency of sound vibrations 8 double basses 75

tapping of strings with the wooden part Violin Col legno of bow Most flexible of all instruments in range of expression Sul ponticelloweak sound with the bow on the Smallest member of orchestral string section string close to the bridge instead of about halfway Capable of playing the highest notes between the bridge and the finger board where the First and second violins:same instrument playing bow is usually placed different parts Tremoloshivering effect by making the bow quiver rapidly Construction Vibrato warm, rich tone effected bymaking every Length: approximately 2 feet note undulate Components: about 80 separate pieces Con sordinomuffled sound achieved by placing a Principal features mute on the bridge to deaden someof the Hollow wooden box with slender wooden neck or vibrations finger board Harmonicweak, ghostly sound produced by plac- Top of box usually made of pine ing a finger lightly halfway along the length of a Rest of box made of sycamore wood vibrating string and allowing only the two halves Strings to vibrate Four in number Pizzicato plucking the strings with the fingers Made of gut or wire Stretched across the hollow box Fixed at one end to the tailpiece; at the other Viola end, to the tuning pegs Tuned to G, D, A, E Slightly larger than the violin, with thicker,longer G string thickest of the four; E string thinnest strings Tuning pegs: help player to put strings under right Bow heavier than that of the violin tension to sound the four "open" notes Four strings tuned to C, G, D, A Bridge Tenor of the violin family Keeps strings from touching the body of the Noted for warm, dark tone instrument Conducts the vibrations from the strings to the Violoncello (Cello) box Sound Longer, thicker strings than the viola Vibrations induced by action of the bow, a wooden Used for playing lower notes stick along which horsehairs are stretched and are _Four strings tuned to C, G, D, A treated with resin so that the strings of theviolin Plays bass line to support the stringfamily as weir, as are caught and pulledby the hairs melodies Differentnotes (differentvibrations)caused by action of bow on different lengthsof the strings; lengths determined by points of contactwhere Double Bass fingers are depressed Route of string vibrations: from the bridge tothe end Sloping shoulders and flat back of the finger board to the belly of the violin tothe Four strings tuned to E, A, D, G back of the violin Shorter bow than that of other stringed instruments Interior vibrations: magnification of soundcaused by Usually plays the bass part an octave belowthe cellos vibrations inside the body of the violin Strong, vibrant pizzicato sound Makes The finest specimens made in Italyin the late WOODWINDS sixteenth century and during theseventeenth century by the Stradivari, Guarnieri,and Amati Instruments families Bowing techniques Tubes of wood or metal Spiccatoeach note short and crisp Air in tube: vibrates with the wind ofthe player's breath Saltallatobouncing bow up and down crisply on Long columns of airlow notes the strings Short columns of airhigh notes and Martellatoeach note played strongly with a very Player's use of tongueevery note a clear start short stroke finish; without tongue, smooth note-to-note sound 76

Flute Has expressive, melancholy voice Used for playing slow tunes A tube 2614 inches long, cylindrical in shape, with a mouth hole cut near one end and sealed with a Bassoon stopper Sound produced by stream of air directed by player with Bass of the woodwinds lips against the opposite edge of mouth hole, where Double-reed instrument with a conical tubeslightly over the stream of air is split 8 feet long Low notessoft and haunting Has wider double reed than the oboe Higher notes brilliant Double reed fixed into the end of a curvedmetal tube Fast notescrisp and clean called the "crook" Flute held sideways Supported by the player with a sling Upper register, expressive solos; lower register,gruff piccolo tones

Half the size of a flute Double Bassoon Plays an octave higher than the flute Plays the highest, shrillest notes in the orchestra Very flexible instrument Length: 16 feet, doubled on itself four times Clarinet Sound: octave lower than bassoon, deep voice Conical tube with double reed About 26 inches long and mainly cylindrical Used only in fairly large orchestra Vibration created by a reed, which is a flat piece of cane, scraped down until almost paper-thin at the endthat BRASS goes in the player's mouth Mouthpiececushioned between the lips of the player Number in an Orchestra Range of sound and effects Lowest hollow, rich Four horns Middle creamy, golden Two or three trumpets Highest shrill Two tenor trombones One bass trombone Bass Clarinet One tuba

Twice as long as the clarinet Construction and Operation Notes an octave lower than those of the clarinet Bell endmade of metal and curved upward Brass tubes Mouthpiece endbent round so that player reaches Air in tube caused to vibrate by actionof lips reed Notes of the harmonic series selected by player,with lips Looks like saxophone at appropriate tension Diffcrent lengths of tube provided by valve actionat the Oboe touch of a finger

Double-reed instrument with a 25-inch-long tube that is Trumpet conical (wider toward the bell) Metal tube finely constructed Cylindrical tube with cup-shaped mouthpiece Has beautiful, plaintive sound quality for melancholy or Usually 4 feet long if C is the fundamental note nostalgic tunes Measures 4'4 feet long if B flat is thefundamental note Ranks as one of the most expressive of all wind Has bright, ringing sound instruments Sometimes muted by a cone-shaped device(straight mute) or a cup-shaped mute or "wow-wow" mute Cor A nglais (popular music)

Large oboe with lower voice than that of oboe Cornet Conical tube with double reed Reed fitted into a curved metal mouthpiece about 9 Flexible and expressive inches long Same length as a B flat trumpet: 4h feet 7

Conical tubing with valves like those of a trumpet HARP Played with more vibrato than a trumpet A plucked string instrument Classified between the string family and percussion family Trombone Regular member of orchestra Strings cut to size (47, some colored) Three in orchestratwo tenors, one bass Long strings low notes: farther away from player Cylindrical tubing, quite straight, with deep, cup-shaped Short stringshigh notes: nearest to player mouthpiece Each string capable of producing three different notes Length of tube altered by player pushing in and out a by means of the pedals section of tubing called the "slide" The harpist: Tenor trombone9 feet Plays melodies Plays chords by quickly setting chord notes and playing them one after the other in "arpeggios" Bass Trombone Plays "glissando" by sweeping fingers over strings Plays "harmonies" as string is plucked and touched Larger than tenor trombone; plays lower notes halfway along its length with the side of the hand Equipped with handle on its side so that player can Creates a dry sound when the vibrating string is stopped reach it in the seventh position afteritis plucked (called "sons Stouffis," which Can be muted for certain effects means "smothered sounds") Occasionally slides from one note to the next in a Plays guitar-like sounds produced by plucking the string "glissando" near the sounding board

Horn Conical tube about 12 feet long, coiled in a circular PERCUSSION shape Tube widened toward the bell end Definition Length of tube column changed by valve action Supported by player's right hand resting in the bell Those instruments that are banged, tapped, or shaken to Higher notes easily attained create percussive sounds Muted sounds made by putting a mute into the Two main types instrument or putting hand into the bell and making Those that produce definite notes horn sound distant Those that are played rhythmically to add sensuous Brassy sound made by player pushing his hand well into or musical color the bell and blowing hard Normally a smooth, mellow tone that blends well Timpani (Kettledrums)

Usually three and sometimes four in an orchestra Tuba Each drum tuned to a different note Skin (often calf) stretched over top of copper bowls and Produces lowest notes in brass family made tight or slack by the taps around the side so Contains 12 feet of wide, conical tubing that the right notes are produced Produces its lowest natural note (fundamental note) Three drums different in size; largest drum lowest with ease notes Reinforces the bass instruments Different sticks used to produce varied tone quality some rather soft, some hard Saxophone Bass Drum Several varieties (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, sopra- nino, and bass) Large drum that stands on its side Vibrations produced by a single reed Sometimes has two drumheads Conical tube made of brass Played with single taps, or two sticks to get a roll Used in military bands and dance bands, not often in Often has the sound of thunder symphony orchestras Its sounds usually of indefinite pitch e.,,,4 pnr,7,511.6,ART,T.T171W ritIngmfmmompo

Side Drum (Snare Drum) Maracas Have appearance of rattle Two drum heads Upper drum head struck byplayer Create South American mood Lower headstringsof gutorspringymetal stretched across it (snares) Clayes hits top surface; each blow Procedure and effects: player together pushes skin; air ispushed inside the drum against Two wooden sticks clicked bottom skin; bottom skinpushes against snares to give rattling noise Bongo Drums Miniature timpani played withhands Cymbals Two thin plates of brass Celeste Player can: Clash them together loudly Miniature piano Sweep them along each otherwith a violent swish Silvery and delicate soundproduced from it as keys Gently brush them together toproduce soft brassy operate hammers thatstrike metal plates sounds Hold up one of the platesand hit it with a soft stick Xylophone Hang them on a svand andhit them with two sticks Contains strips of hardwood,each tuned to a note and Triangle laid out like a piano keyboard Wooden or rubber beaters ormallets used by player Metal rod in shape of atriangle with one corner open having the beater movedrapidly Can produce a roll by Glockenspiel up and down in one cornerof the triangle Made like a xylophone Gong Contains bars of solid metal Sounds like a celeste buthas a harder tone Large metal disc Played with single strokes orwith a roll Tubular Bells Tam-tam Metal tubes hung in a frame Bigger metal disc than a gong Sound like church bells Produces a crashing sound Top of each tube hit with awooden mallet

Tambourine Vibraphone Small drum with onedrumhead Large-size glockenspiel with two rowsof tuned metal disks on side that jinglewhen Equipped with small metal bars the drumhead is struck Under each bar, a tubethat acts as a resonator tothe bar Tiny fan in each tube drivenby electricity Castanets Musical process: Two hollowed-out piecesof hardwood clickedtogether Bar hit by player to create a Spanishmood Sound picked up by resonator fan In an orchestra, usuallymounted on a stick Throbbing effect produced by

Whip Growth of the Orchestra Two flat pieces of woodhinged together to produce noise like a crack of awhip String Family violins at the Chinese Wood Block During the late seventeenthcentury French court, then to England,then to rest of Europe Partly hollow block of wood Basic pattern of organizingthe string orchestra by 1700 Gives "tock" sound 79

First violins; second violins; violas; cellos; double Today's Orchestra basses (playing the same part as the cellos, an octave lower) Symphony orchestra60 to 90 players Early string orchestra Additional instruments brought in as "extras" when Grouped around a keyboard instrument, usually the needed harpsichord Percussion instruments, piano, and mandolin or guitar Keyboard instrument: leading the group and filling used by modern composers out the harmonies Size of orchestra dictated by style of music

Arrangement of Modern Orchestra The Classical Orchestra

To the end of the eighteenth century Composers musical servants in aristocratic house- holds At princely courts orchestras of 20 to 60 players Conductorplayed harpsichord or violin Instrumentsaccompanied singers Development of the symphony orchestra Orchestrasplayed on their own Famous largeorchestrain1777in Mannheim, Germany: ten violins, four violas, two oboes, two flutes, two clarinets, two horns, four cellos, four bassoons, four double basses, trumpets, and drums Famous orchestral music composers in eighteenth century: Mozart, Haydn Orchestra of Beethoven (1770-1827) More powerful for his strong, dramatic music More variety of tone color with trombones Piccolo and double bassoonwoodwind section Music Elements Hornsincreased to three or four Violins played higher RHYTHM Orchestras of Berlioz and Wagner Early Music Berlioz (1803-1869) in France Book on orchestration written Beating of rhythmthe beginning of music Wind instrumentsmutes added Savagetribesuse of bodily movement and basic Horns"stopped" effect created rhythms Wagner (1813.1883) Written music not at first measured into metrical units as Music for valved brass instruments emphasized in it now is The Ring (four music dramas) Measured music introduced into Western civilization Woodwind instruments about A.D. 1150 More expressive Until 1150, notated music intended to accompany prose Bass clarinet invented or poetry

Measured Metrical Units Conductors 2/4 time ONE - two,ONE - two Eighteenth century Directing done from a keyboard instrument Beating time accomplished with a long staff when conducting was done in churches or large places 3/4 time Nineteenth century ONE - two - three Orchestra led by chief violinist, who waved his bow occasionally to give players a lead From 1820 on orchestra led by conductor, who 4/4 time did not also play an instrument 2/4 time doubled 80

6/4time High and low points of interest 3/4time doubled Climactic moment usually near the end Stress Variety of notes avoiding unnecessary repetitions Accent marked Sensitive, rhythmic flow Normally falls on the first beat of each measure Expressive quality to arouse an emotional response in May be on the second or third beat of each the listener measure with irregular accents Resting points, or cadences, to divide the melodicline - two -three; or into more easily understood phrases Scale Systems

one - TWO - three; or Certain arrangement of a particular series of notesbased on a selected number of notesbetween a given tone and its octave one - two - THREE Four main systems of scale building: Oriental,Greek, ecclesiastical, and modern Modern scale system 12equal tones called semitones com- Note Values Octave span prising the chromatic scale the Whole note0.1 Half notej Most music not based on chromatic scale but on Quarter note Eighth note diatonic scale in the major mode (seven tones Sixteenth note Thirty-second note chosen from 12 chromatic ones arranged in an IP order: two whole tones followed by a half tone; Sixty-fourth note three whole tones followed by a half tone) 12different, but similarly constructed, Time Values A total of diatonic scales in the major mode Relatively fast or slow according to the tempo Seven tones of a scale(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) the position of tone 1 Equivalent values of notes Key position of the scale Whole note two half notes Example: If tone 1 is on the note B, then the scale is said Whole note four quarter notes to be in the key of B (major or minor) Whole note eight eighth notes Degrees of relationships among seven degrees ofthe Example: four-quarter time Four quarter notes in each measure scale The equivalent of four quarter notes in each measure First degreetonic, tone 1 Fifth degree dominant, tone5 subdominant, tone 4 Polyrhythms Fourth degree Octave span: Downbeats do not coincide C C I I Right hand 1-2-3 1-2.3 Example: Chromatic scale Left hand 1-2-3-4 1-2.3-4 CCODDOEF FOGGitAAOBC Types exemplified by: IL i 1 IIIII African drummers Diatonic scale Chinese or Hindu percussionists C D E F G A B C I Cuban rhumba bands I L English madrigal singers Jazz performers HARMONY Modern composers(e.g.,Gershwin,Stravinsky, Bartok, Milhaud) History

MELODY Unknown until about the ninth century Satisfying Proportions Three principal kinds of early harmonic writing Organumsingle melody with same melody repeated Sense of completion and inevitability in intervals of the fourth or fifth above, thirds and Long, flowing line sixths proscribed ,71,2 kriVA, 1,7101,, Ww,

Descant twoindependentmelodies movingin Single Tone Colors oppositedirections with no intervals between voices other than the permitted fifths, fourths, and String instruments octaves Violin (lyric, singing quality; pizzicato plucking Fauxbourdon (false bass)introduced the intervals guitar -like effect; harmonies created by lightly of the third and sixth touching the string to give a flute-like quality; muted to give veiled, sensitive sound) Chords Viola (contralto role in relation to violin's soprano; grave, expressive, sonorous, emotionalquality) Sounding together of separate tones Cello (badtone bass in relation to viola's contralto; Harmony study of chords and their relationship to sober,profound,serious,smooth,expressive one another sound) Building of chords Double bass (firm foundation for sounds of other From the lowest note upward in a series of intervals string instruments) of a third Woodwind instruments Example: A (as bottom note or root), then series of Flute (soft, cool, agile, feathery, liquid sound) chord A-C-E-G-B-D-F or thirds on this root Oboe (nasal-sounding) 1.3-5-7-9-11-13 Clarinet (smooth, hollow, haunting sound) Three tones: 1-3-5, called a triad Bassoon (plaintive in upper register; humorous stac- Other chords: seventh chord, 7-5.3-1; ninth chord, cato in lower register) 9.7-5-3-1; eleventh chord, 11-9.7-5-3-1; thirteenth Brass instruments chord, 13-11-9-7-5-3-1 Inversion of chords; for example, instead of the triad Horn or French horn (soft, fluid tone) Trumpet (sharp, commanding, brilliant sound) 1-3.5, such variations as 1-5-3, 5.1-3, or 3-1-5 Chord structure: the fact that chords built on the Trombone (noble, majestic sound) Tuba (spectacular sound of heavy quality to empha- tonic, dominant, and subdominant degrees have the same attraction to one another as the tonic, size bass effects) dominant, and subdominant tones taken alone; Percussion instruments also the fact that chords modulate, like single To sharpen rhythmic effects tones, when they move out of one key into To heighten sense of climax To add color to other instruments another Mixed Tone Colors TONE COLOR OR TIMBRE Customary combinations Definition Trioviolin, cello, piano Woodwind quintetflute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, Quality of sound the result of a particular medium of horn musical tone production Clarinet quintetflute, clarinet, and bassoon trio Subtle differences of some specific color in tone String quartet two violins, viola, cello Symphony orchestra Listening Objectives Jazz band (rhythmic background piano, banjo, Awareness of different instruments and their separate bass,percussion; harmonictexturetrumpet, tonal characteristics clarinet, saxophone, trombone; solo melodyany Appreciation of the composer's expressive purpose in one instrument) using any instrument or combination of instruments

Development in Music History Fundamental Forms

Invention of instruments SECTIONAL FORM Perfecting of instruments Technical mastery of new instruments by players Two-part Form

Limitations of Instruments Binary represented by A-B; B, a rearranged versionof A Range Used very little now, but used 1650-1750 for the Dynamics clavecin and dance forms (allemande, courante, sara- Execution and difficulties of execution band, gigue, gavotte, bourr(e, passepied, and loure) wnurkgyr.Trwfrirl

Bass theme heard from the startwith accompanying Examples:compositonsofFranioisCouperinor Domenico Scar latti harmonies Example: Brahms' Fourth Symphony Three-part Form Theme and Variations A-B-A Original theme or borrowed theme atthe beginning of Minuet Generic type form for nocturne,berceuse, reverie, composition etude, capriccio, impromptu, Five general types of variation:harmonic, melodic, ballade, elegy, waltz, of all four polonaise rhythmic, contrapuntal, combination intermezzo, mazurka, Example: Mozart's Piano Sonata in AMajor Examples: Haydn's "Minuet"from the String Quartet, Op. 17, No. 5 FUGAL FORM used when the Rondo All Types of the Fugal Form: counterpoint texture is polyphonic A-B-A-C-A-D-A Return to the principal themeafter every digression Imitation Usual type found as final movementof a sonata that is Only one melody One voice imitating another light and cheerful the same note with which Example: R. Strauss' TillEulenspiegel's Merry Pranks Not necessarily starting on the original voice begins Canon Free Sectional Form More elaborate imitation Imitation from beginning of piece toend Free arrangement of sectionswhich together make a coherent whole Inversion musical sense (A-B-B; A-B-C-A; Turning a melody upside down Any arrangement with Melody moving in opposite directionfrom the origi- A-B-A-C-A-B-A) example, the Example: Chopin's "Prelude in CMinor" nalversion of the melody; for original moving an actave upwardand the inversion an octave downward VARIATION FORM Augmentation literally translated, "obsti- Time value of notes doubled Basso Ostinato (ground bass Theme twice as slow as before;for example, a quarter nate bass") note becoming a half opposite of augmentation Easiest of variation forms torecognize Diminution and over in the bass part Halving note values Short phrase repeated over Theme moving twice as fast asoriginally while upper parts proceednormally Piano" Cancrizans type having crablike motion Example: Sibelius' "Pastorale for Melody reading backward; forexample, A-B-C-D becoming D-C-B-A The Passacaglia Rarely used Entire composition founded onrepeated bass part Ground bass a melodic phrase Fugue Slow and dignified in 3/4 time Written in three or four voices, onevoice predominating Begins with a statement ofthe theme unaccompanied in Breathing spaces in each melodic line the bass usually two or three measures Several variations of a similar patterngrouped together Theme called "subject" to give transition from onetype of variation to the long Subject stated at beginning of fuguewithout accompani- next Example: Bach's Passacaglia in Cminor ment All fugues: begin with exposition Construction: examplefour-voiced fugue (soprano, The Chaconne alto, tenor, or bass) (V-1, V-2, V-3,and V-4) Subject heard in each one of the fourvoices one Like the passacag,lia after another: Stately, sober sound 83

V-1S.... SONATA FORM V-2 S. V-3 S. Sonata V-4 S.... V-2 and V-4: known as "answers" to the subject First movement in sonata-allegro form When second voice enters with the subject, the first Second movementslow movement in one of several voice does not stop; it adds a countermelody or forms; for example, theme and variations counter subject (CS). Third movementusually a minuet or scherzo; A-B-A, V-1 S....CS.... three-part form V-2 S....CS.... Fourth movementfinale, in extended rondo form or V-3 . S....CS.... sonata-allegro form V-4 S....CS.... When subject and countersubject are exposed in any Sonata-Allegro (first-movement form) one voice, it is free to continue withoutrestrict- ions as a so-called "free voice." Tripartite formula: A-B-A; each section a large division V-1 S...CS...XXFV...XX... of music; each lasting five or ten minutes V-2 S...XXCS ..XXFV... V-3 S S...XXCS...Fv... Outline of form: S...CS... V-4 Exposition General plan of a fugue: Exposition (reexposition); episode 1; subject; episode A

2; subject; episode 3; subject; stretto (imitation); a I b 1 cadence tonic dominant dominant Example: Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier Recapitulation Concerto Grosso Development

B A I Instrumental fugal form la bc1 lalbic I Three or more movements foreign tunictonictonic Example: Bach's Brandenburg Concerti keys

Chorale Prelude Exposition section Thematic material exposed Very expressive of thought and emotion First themedramatic, masculine, tonic key Less definite in outline than concerto grosso Second themelyrical, feminine, dominant key Three types of variations on hymn choral tunes: Closing themeless important than other themes, Keeping given melody intact while making the accom- in dominant key panying harmonies more interesting by increasing Development section the harmonic complexity or by making the accom- Begins with a partial restatement of first theme panying voices polyphonic Freely combines material introduced in exposition Variation on the theme with a bare melodic outline Modulates through a series of new and foreign Weaving of a fugue around the tune of a chorale keys Example: Bach's Orgelbiichlein Sometimes adds new material Recapitulation Motets and Madrigals Restates themes of exposition in the tonic key Example: Beethoven's Sonata No. 21 in C, Op. 53 Choral compositons sung without accompaniment ("Waldstein") Written during fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries Symphony Motetshort vocal composition on sacred words Madrigalshort vocal composition on secular words Form of the sonata Examples: works of this type by Renaissance period Originated in the overture of early Italian opera called a composers -- Palestrina in Italy; Orlando diLasso in "sinfonia" the Netherlands; Vittoria in Spain; Byrd, Wilbye, Symphonic style perfected by Haydn Morley, and Gibbons in England Form enlarged by Beethoven zrr

SchumannandMendelssohn:wrotelessgigantic Some significant opera composers: Modest Moussorgsky symphonies following Beethoven Vincenzo Bellini Liszt, Berlioz, and Wagner: combinedsymphony with Alban Berg Wolfgang A. Mozart Amilcare Ponchielli some programmatic ideas Georges Bizet Brahms, Bruckner, Tchaikovsky: wentback to earlier Marc Blitzstein Serge Prokofiev Giacomo Puccini symphonic style Claude Debussy Henry Purcell Cyclic form of the symphony used byC6sar Franck and Gaetano Donizetti Umberto Giordano Jean Philippe Rameau othersa motto themerepeating to give a single, Christoph von Gluck Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov unifying thought Charles Gounod Gioacchino Rossini George F. Handel Camille Saint-Saens FREE FORMS Engelbert HumperdinckAlessandro Scarlatti Leog Jankek Becifich Smetana The Prelude Ruggiero Leoncavallo Richard Strauss generally written for Pietro Mascagni Giuseppe Verdi A generic name for compositions, Richard Wagner piano and not specific in formal structure Jules Massenet Gian-Carlo Menotti Carl Maria von Weber A-B-A or free form Kurt Weill Example: Bach's "B Flat Major Prelude"from Well- Darius Milli -ud Claudio Monteverdi Tempered Clavier, Book I Music Drama Symphonic Poem (tone poem) An operatic form in which musical content anddrama Program musicdepicting a mood, story, or idea are equally important Descriptive music with literal description of asound or Libretto and action not interrupted by set pieces sight by usP of specific instruments or morepoetic Vocallines and orchestral work more interwoven description by ust. of musical transcriptionof the (whereas in conventional opera the orchestra accom- phenomena (clouds, sea, country) panies the aria) Examples: Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony;Debussy's Chief exponent: Richard Wagner La Mer; Respieni's Fountains ofRome; Sibelius' Swan of Tuonela; Smetana'sMir Nast, a cycle of six symphonic poems; R. Strauss' Death and Transfigura- Contemporary Music tion Creative Musicwritten to stir, excite, or exalt

Opera and Music Drama Creative Artists Vary in range of abilities and methods, scope,tempera- Opera ment, and expression Impart many different kinds of musicalexperiences that Drama sung instead of spoken require different levels of understandingof their Libretto the "book" of an opera idioms: andKhachaturian, Recitative that part of an opera which isneither FairlyeasyShostakovitch spoken nor sung but half-sung, tellingportions of the Francis Poulenc, Erik Satie, early Stravinsky, early Schoenberg, Virgil Thomson story Ernest Not strictly a realistic form of art Approachable Prokofiev,Villa-Lobos, All-inclusive form because it containsthe symphony Bloch, Roy Harris, William Walton, Malipiero, orchestra, the solo voice, the vocal ensemble,the Britten chorus, ballet, pantomime, drama, and artisticstage Fairlydifficult lateStravinsky,BelaBartok, Milhaud, Chavez, William Schuman, Honegger, settings Character of music either serious or light Hindemith, Walter Piston Style of presentationclassical, romantic, impression- Very difficultmiddle and late Schoenberg, Alban Krenek, istic, "grand," realistic Berg, Anton Webern, Varese, Daliapiccola, Contentusually more substantial than that of oper- Roger Sessions, Charles Ives Understanding with repeated hearings, knowledgeof ettas or musicals ability to Often noted for spectacular display crowds of people, the objectives of the composers, and lights, costumes, scenery differentiate objectives of the composers fr.e7,-.TUF, Wrk,r,3117,1,1N4.4.3www.,77/mr.i.,,,,,,117.4

Musical Texture PAINTING

Monophonic Texture Art Elements Simplest texture Single, unaccompanied melodic line Color Examples: Chinese or Hindu music, Gregorian chant Depends on the reflection of absorption of light by a Homophonic Texture given surface Has three qualities: huename of a color; value dark- Principal melodic line and a chordal accompaniment ness or lightness of a color; intensitydullness or Examples: Works of Italian opera composers, such as brightness of a color Caccini Cool colorspredominance of blue Warm colorspredominance of yellow and red Polyphonic Texture Complementary colorsopposite colors on a color wheel; for example, red and green Moves by separate and indepenaent melodic strands that Analogous colorsrelated colors on a color wheel; for together form harmonies example, colors that are adjacent Requires listening to separate strands of melody sung by Monochromatic color scheme based on various tints separate voices, instead of hearing only the sound of and shades of one color allthe voices as they happen from moment to Shades of colorscolors that are darker than those of moment vertically middle value Example: Hindemith's Das Marienleben Tints of colorscolors that are lighter than those of middle value

Musical Structure Line Definition Progressing movement, direction, or delineation that Planned design that binds an entire composition together stimulates and expresses mood Coherent organization of the artist's material Qualities of linevertical, diagonal, curved, horizontal, straight, and rhythmic Structural Distinctions Contourthe line that defines something

Form in relation to a piece as a whole Form Form in relation to separate, shorter parts of a piece Shape of mass or volume Structural Principles Types of formregular, irregular, defined, and suggested Sectional or symmetrical repetition Variety of shape contribues to good design Two-part (binary) form Three-part (ternary) form Rondo Chiaroscuro Free sectional arrangement Repetition by variation Contrast of dark and light in composition Basso ostinato Differing degrees of dark and light on shapes in a Passacaglia painting Chaconne Theme and variations Repetition by fugal treatment Texture Fugue Concerto grosso General structure of a surface area Chorale prelude Quality of the surface of materials; for example, rough Motets and madrigals or smooth Repetition by development May be tactile or visual Sonata (first movement form) Depends on the use of the medium 86

the oldest, mostpopular, and mostdifficult to Art Principles execute of the artforms Dominance and Subordination Types Main idea, purpose, orplan figures in Center of interest gainedthrough use of size,color, dark Two main types:(a) statuary, which portrays and light, shape, contrast,texture the round; and(b) relief, in whichfigures project Emphasis of one part overanother that is lessevident from the background towhich they are attached gargoyles,idols, Subsidiarytypes:busts,carvings, mobiles, and the like Proportion relationship to oneanother; for Space divisions in Materials example, equal amounts whole and relation amongparts Relation of parts to the Clay, plaster, wood, stone,bronze, bone, ivory, concrete, plastics, wire,and so on Balance of art Visual equilibriumproduced by arrangement Influences elements; for example, asmall form in relation to a large form or thedistribution of dark and light Reflects the individualvision of the sculptor aswell as Symmetrical balance of parts orform the cultural tastesand the social andreligious views of the sculptor's environment conditions Opposition Indicative of thegeographical and climatic under which produced Contrast of art elements tocreate visual tension;for example, contrast ofdirection of lines Reverse of transition Historical Periods Transition

Movement that unifies oneart element withanother Primitive Sculpture Reverse of opposition Dates from Old StoneAge, about 20,000 years ago relief Rock engravings, inciseddrawings on bone, and Rhythm carvings in stone foundin prehistoric cavedwellings such primi- repetitionofartelements Primitive sculpture stillbeing produced by Related movementby the Bushmen of South arranged to achieve harmony tive peoples of the present as Africa and some AfricanNegroes Characterized by power andsimplicity Repetition rhythm Use of art elements inrepeated ways to produce Egyptian Sculpture in design Use of the same motif morethan once to produce a Associated with theneeds of religion;depicted the gods pattern or so-calleddivine pharaohs Used to decoratetemples and tombs Reflected concern withthe afterworld Introduced about 5,000 yearsago duringthe period of SCULPTURE the Old Kingdom,about 3500-2475B.C.; continued almost unchanged fornearly 3,000 years social and Followed rigidlyprescribed rules, as did Basic Information religious customs Pharaohs represented ashalf human, half animal like Definition Carved in colossal proportionsof the hardest stone, the great Sphinx atGizeh and the four rockstatues of The art of representingobserved or imaginedobject ranks among Rameses II thee dimensionallyin solid materials; 4:1 87

Greek Sculpture Sharpest break from medieval past made by Donatello (about 1386-1466) whose "David"revivedthe Rooted in the earlier cultures of Crete, Mycenae, and ancient use of the nude figure and whose "Gatta- Egypt malata"reviveduseof monumentalfigureon Developed rapidly in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C, horseback Reached its peak during theclassic period of the Glazed figures of terra cotta introduced into Italian Periclean Age in the latter half of the 400s B.C. with sculpture by Luca della Robbia (1400?-1482) Phidias, Myron, and Polyclitus Florence recognized as world center of Renaissance Most famous statues, such as the "Discus Thrower" or sculpture, producing such early Renaissance masters "Discobolus" of Myron, now known only through as Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Verrocchio later Greek and Roman copies and later reconstruc- Spiritualstruggleof mankind representedinHigh tions of those copies Renaissance in the unparalleled sculptures of Michel- Included among best known examples of Hellenistic angelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), who was also a sculpture: "Winged Victory" or "Nike of Samoth- painter,architect, and poet; musculature of his race," "Venus de Milo," and the "LaocoOn" group powerful statuary shown in such famous works as "Moses," "Day and Night," "Pietl" Roman Sculpture Post-Renaissance Sculpture Original sculpture in stone, clay, and metal created by Etruscans and other early peoples of Italy Decline of Renaissance art signaled by use of lavish Influenced enormously by Greek sculpture, which was detail imported to Rome after the conquest of Greece Great technical skill shown in sculpture Portrait sculpture highly developed to depict political Emphasis on the sweeping, restless forms initiated by leaders Michelangelo Lacked the intellectual and aesthetic sensibilities of the Dramatic action portrayed in works of leading baroque Greeks sculptor, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), who was also an architect; Bernini's work inclusive of Medieval Sculpture many Roman fountains and the series of 162 figures surmounting his imposing colonnade in front of St. Romanesque Period Peter's Basilica Lasted from about A.D. 500 to 1150, but little Gay, light rococo style evolved in eighteenth century sculpture made in Europe after fall of Roman FranceexemplifiedbyJeanAntoineHoudon Empire until about A.D. 1000 (1741-1828), who sculptedamarblebust of Inspired by the tenets of Christianity; rooted both in Benjamin Franklin and full-length figures of George Rome and in Constantinople Washington Sculpture closely related to ecclesiastical architecture Reverence for the ancients reflected in the formality and Highly decorative, imaginative statuary in conven- coldness of neoclassicism, which came as a reaction tional forms against the theatrical baroque and florid rococo styles Characterized by medieval restraint and formality in the latiler half of the eighteenth century and the Gothic Period early nineteenth century; neoclassicism exemplified Lasted from about A.D. 1150 to 1550 by Antonio Canova inItaly, John Flaxman in Large variety of subject matter, much of itstill England, and Johann Schadow and Johann von religious in nature Dannecker in Germany Churches and tombs decorated with figures of saints Intermingling of the twin currents of realism and and kings romanticism in nineteenth-century France best exem- Church exteriors adorned with chimeras and gar- plified in the work of Auguste Rodin (1840-1917), goyles symbolizing the devil who exerted incalculable influence on the twentieth Stylized, formal quality established by religion and century; Rodin's statuarycharacterized by freer tradition handling of material and bolder expression of feeling; works include "Le Penseur" ("The Thinker"), "The Renaissance Sculpture Kiss," and "Eternal Springtime"

Emphasis changed from the hereafter to man and his Twentieth-Century Sculpture physical world Akin inspiritto theclassical Greek and Roman Characterized by strongly individualistic sculpturing, sculpture such as that of Jo Davidson and Jacob Epstein 88

Motivated many jointed constructions, including the Renaissance (1300 to 1600) mobiles of Alexander Calder and others Inspired by many different influences, such as primi- Asia (India, Mogul period; China, Ming Dynasty; Japan, tivism and religion Samurai established) Interestin new materials and new possibilitiesfor The Americas (Spanish influence; arrival of English; portraying change and movement French colonization) Experimentation with highly abstract forms that have no Europe and Mediterranean (Granada in Spain Moorish counterpart in nature art; Bagdad, Oriental and Islamic creative arts; Russia, Employscontrastingmaterialsasinthe work of icons; spread of Renaissance from Italy to the north) Constantin Brancusi Pre-Modern ( 1600 to 1850)

PERIODS OF ART AND MUSIC HISTORY Asia(Japaneseprintsandindustrialization; China, Manchu Dynasty) TheAmericas(Portuguesein Brazil;classical Being basically creative, man has always sought ways of architecture) releasing his creativity. Histories of the visual arts and music Eastern Europe and Mediterranean (Russia influenced by reflect man's progress in his social, political, economic, and Western culture) religious life.Artists and musicians are molded by the Western Europe (Baroque and Rococo periods) periods and places in which they live. An understanding of artistic and musical principles, which remain constant, is Modern ( 1850 to Present) necessary to develop critical appreciation. A chronology of the arts, including music, painting, and Asia (post-World War IIJapanese influences; India's sculpture, and an outline on impressionism as an example independence) of an outstanding phase in the historical development of The Americas (heritage of the past, including Old World the arts are presented as follows. and New World contributions; new trends) Eastern Europe and Mediterranean (African exploration) Western Europe (neoclassicism, realism, impressionism, Chronology romanticism, expressionism)

Prehistoric (Before 4500 B.C) ImpressionismA Significant Movement in Art and Music Africa, China, Australia, North American continent, Spain, France (drawings, carvings, paintings, ritual Time dancing and ritual music) Last decades of the nineteenth century Ancient (4500 B.C. to A.D. 450) First showing of artists' works in 1874

Asia (India, Buddhist rites; China, influence of Con- Style fucius) The Americas (Mayan culture, North American Indian Music characteristics cultures) Music noted for its tonal color; i.e., the effect created Middle East and Mediterranean (Egyptian, Babylonian, by composers "painting" their impressions Assyrian, Chaldean, Persian cultures) Use of neomodality Europe (Aegean, Grecian, Etruscan, Roman cultures) Open fifths and octaves Parallelismandotherinnovationsinchord Medieval (450 to 1300) progression Whole-tone scale (Debussy) Asia (India, Hindu, Moslem culture; China, Tang and Extensive use of ninth chords Sungdynasties;Japan, Fujiwara and Kamakura General vagueness of form periods) Avoidance of sharp outlines The Americas (Mayan, Inca, Pre-Columbian cultures) Free rhythm Eastern Europe and Mediterranean (Islamic and Moslem Less prominent regularity cultures) Traditions of form and harmony discarded Western Europe (Dark Ages, Middle Ages, Gothic Flowing melodic lines period) Spanish effects (Ravel) 89

Use of extreme registers on the piano Pierre Auguste Renoir (18411.919) Wide spacing of musical phrases "Childin.White," "On the Terrace," "Little Art characteristics Margot Bernard," "The Skaters," "The Boat" Veiled appearances Paul Celanne (1839-1906: considered the father of Atmospheric impressions modern art) Vagueness of dark and light "The Black Clock," "The Card Players," "Maison No sharply defined contours du PenduAuvers," "Lazne," "Le Jugement de Delicate appearance Paris," "Self-Portrait," landscapes of Provence Luminous quality Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) Interest in local scenes (France) "Snow at Lower Norwood, 1870," "La Cite du Ordinary objects viewed from unexpected angles or in Pontoise, 1867," "Penge Station, Upper unfamiliar ways Norwood," "Dulwich College" Undisguised brush strokes Alfred Sisley (1839-1899) Primary colors applied directly to the canvas "Snow of Louveciennes, 1870," "View of Mont- Colors blendedinthe eye of the beholder; for martre," "The Canal," "The Square at Argenteuil" example, the fusing of blues and yellows into Camille Corot (1796-1875) green "Saint-Andre du-MorVan," "The Sevres Road" Subjects: rain, fog, sleet, snow; shimmering reflec- Eugene Boudin (1824-1898) tions on water or cobbled streets; and the like "Beach at Trouville" Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) Examples "Calm Sea" James Whistler (1834-1903) "Courbet at Trouville" Music Claude Debussy (1862-1918) Piano music (suites, images, preludes, etudes) Orchestral works (tone poems and suites, such as La Mer, Nocturnes, Iberia, "Prelude 1 SUMMARY midi d'un Faune") Opera (Pellgas et Mglisande) String quartet Man's cultural heritage is recorded in art forms, which Sonatas both stimulate the imagination and encourage inspiration Rhapsodies by providing children with an outlet through which to Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) expresstheirimpulses,attitudes,andideas.Artistic Orchestral works (Rapsodie Espagnole, Bolin), La endeavor contributes to the personal development of the young. Valse) Ballets (Daphnis et Chloe', Ma Mere l'Oye) Art forms are appreciated through analyzing the ele- Works for solo piano ("Gaspard de la Nuit," "Jeux ments and principles of their structure. Knowledge of an art d'Eau,""Le TombeaudeCouperin," form stimulates creative composition -within that form. "Sonatine") Teachers should develop their own cognitive, affective, and Chamber music conative abilitiesinorder to guidetheir pupils more Other composers: Roussel, France; Delius, England; effectively in understanding and criticizing music, painting, Alb(niz, Spain; Respighi, Italy; Scriabin, Russia; and sculpture. Griffes, United States Art Claude Monet (1840-1926) Selected References "Poplars," "Haystacks," "Rouen Cathedral," "The Breakwater at Honfleur," "The Studio Boat," 1. Anderson, Maxwell. "Place and Purpose of Artist in "HoteldesRoches Noires,""Le Jardinde Society." Address given at the Carnegie Institute of l'Infante,""Quai du Louvre" Technology. New York Times, October 17, 1937, Edouard Manet (1832-1883) Section XI, p. 3. "Artist's Garden at Versailles," "The Railway," "Guitarrero," "Concert at the Tuileries" 2.Art for the Academically Talented Student in the Edgar Degas (1834-1917) Secondary School. Conference on Art for the Aca- "Place de la Concorde," "Duchess Morbilli," "New demically Talented, 1959. Edited by Edwin Ziegfield. Orleans Cotton Office" Washington, D.C.: National Education Association 90

Sense of Beauty. NewYork: Talented Student), 14.Santayana, George. The (Project on the Academically Dover Publications, Inc.,1955. 1961. editor), XXVIII (November- of Wonder. Evanston,Ill.: 15. Think (Dwayne Orton, Carson, Rachel. The Sense December, 1962). Harper & Row Pubs.,1965.

4.The Central Purpose ofAmerican Education. Educa- D.C.: Supplementary Publications tionalPoliciesCommission.Washington, 1961. National Education Association, Barach, Stephanie. AnIntroduction to the Languageof Music. New York: DavidMcKay Co., Inc., 1962. 5.Copland, Aaron. Music andImagination. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1952. Also, paper- in the Library, Inc., Barkan, Manuel. ThroughArt to Creativity: Art backNew York: New American Elementary School Program.Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1963. Inc., 1960. 6.Dodson, Roy E. "DefiningArtistic Creativity," Arts Composition of LandscapePainting. (March, 1964), 30-33. Brandt, Reford. The and Activities, LV Corona del Mar, Calif.:The Press of the RexBrandt School, 1959. 7.Enrichment Activities inMusic for Intellectually Elementary Schools. Instruc- Gifted Pupils in the Process of Education.Cambridge, tional Bulletin No. EC-51.Los Angeles: Divisionof Bruner, Jerome S. The Angeles Unified School Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1962. Also, paper- Instructional Services, Los Vintage Books, 1963. District, 1962. back - New York: of Modern Art. NewYork: Critic's Eye. Indianapolis,Ind.: Canaday, John. Mainstreams 8a. Grosser, Maurice. 1959. Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.,1962. Simon and Schuster, Inc., York: New 8b. Grosser, Maurice.The Painter's Eye. New Artist in Each of Us.New York: 1961 (paperback). Cane, Florence. The American Library, Inc., Pantheon Books, Inc., 1951. Tal- 9.Hartshorn, William.Musicfor the Academically Listen For in Music(Revised Secondary School. MusicEdu- Copland, Aaron. What to ented Student in the edition). New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company, NationalConference.Washington,D.C.: cators 1957. NationalEducation Association(Project on the Academically TalentedStudent), 1960. Craven, Thomas. ATreasury of Art Masterpiecesfrom the Day. New York: Simon "The Role of Listeningin a Renaissance to the Present 10.Hartshorn, William. and Schuster, Inc., 1958. Balanced Program ofMusic Education,"California Journal of SecondaryEducation, XXXIV(April, De Francesco, Italo L.Art Education: Its Meansand Ends. 1959), 23440. New York: Harper &Brothers, 1958. Elementary 11. Mitchell, Coretta. "TheArt Education of Edited by Bernard S. Myers.New Art Education.Sixty-fourth Encyclopedia of Painting. School Teachers," in York: Crown Publishers, Inc.,1955. Yearbook of the NationalSociety for the Studyof Hastie. Education, Part H.Edited by W. Reid Elementary School of Chicago Press,1965, pp. Erdt, Margaret H.Teaching Art in the Chicago: University (Revised edition). NewYork: Holt, Rinehart & 22142. Winston, Inc., 1962. Notes on the Art of 12.Pribram, Karl. "Neurological edition). Learning and Instruction. Gardner, Helen. Art Throughthe Ages (Fourth Educating," in Theories of Brace and Company, 1959. Sixty-third Yearbook of theNational Society for the New York: Harcourt, Part I. Chicago: Universityof Study of Education, Gombrich, Ernest H. TheStory of Art (Eighthedition). Chicago Press, 1964, pp.78-110. New York: PhaidonPublishers, Inc., 1956. We Neglect the Arts?"The 13. Reynolds, Robert. "Dare History of Music. NewYork: Instructional Improvement, Harman, Carter. A Popular California Journal for Dell Publishing Company,Inc., 1963 (paperback). VIII (December, 1965),34.44. 91

Hartshorn, William. "The Studyof Music as an Academic Newmeyer, Sarah. Enjoying ModernArt. New York: New Discipline," Music EducatorsJournal, XLIX (Jan- uary, 1963), 25-28. American Library, Inc., 1955. The Praeger Picture Encyclopediaof Art. New York: Janson, H. W. History of Art.New York: Harry N. Abrams, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1958. Inc., 1962. Taylor, Calvin. "Effects ofInstructional Mediaon Cre- Larkin, Oliver W. Art and Life inAmerica. New York: Holt, ativity," Educational Leadership,XIX (April, 1962), Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1960. 453-58.

Tovey, Donald Francis. Essays Lowenfeld, Viktor. Creative andMental Growth (Third in Musical Analysis. Vol- edition). New York: MacmillanCo., 1957. umes I-VI. New York: Oxford University Press,Inc., 1935-1939. Metropolitan Seminars in Art. Portfolios 1-12. Edited by Vincent, Jean Anne. History ofArt. New York: Barnes & John Canaday. New York:Metropolitan Museum of Noble, Inc., 1955. Art, 1958. Watercolor Methods. Edited by Miller, Hugh M. History of Music(Second edition, revised). Norman Kent. New York: New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc.,1960. Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc., 1955.

Miller, Hugh M. Introductionto Music. New York: Barnes (Also see the music, painting, & Noble, Inc., 1958. and sculpture references listed with the pupil materialsin Chapter V.) ChapterIX The Developmentof a ScientificApproach

TEACHER TRAINING IN THESCIENTIFIC PROCESSES One of the three major areaschosen for enrichment at Enrichment Demonstration the California Project Talent To enrich their teaching withsuitable learning oppor- Center was that of scientificdiscovery, methodology, and master their pupils' courses of tunitiesforpupils, teachers should themselves investigation. Before preparing the levels of intellectual study, teachers at the centerreceived instruction and subject content and understand behavior. Educators charged withplanning teacher training materials in astronomy,geography, mathematics, logic, back- mathematical and astronomical courses shouldprovide a sufficiently broad factual research methods, and ground to stretch the teachers'levels of thinking. When the geography. level of difficulty of inservice coursesexceeds the participants' levels of thought, passivelearning becomes inevitable. When the thought levelexceeds the content level, the THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE learner becomes bored. Amongthe most important concepts of learning readinessand pacing is the determination functioning, which is as Richard E. Haney says that ascientific thinker combines of the proper level of intellectual is in educating pupils. the qualities of curiosity,rationality, suspended judgment, significant in training teachers as it open-mindedness, criticalness,objectivity, honesty, and humility. (4)1 In determiningobjectives in the affective Classes conducted for teachersin science, social science, domain of learning, DavidKrathwohl and others found that and mathematics shouldinstill an understanding ofthe attitudes first emerge at the categorytermed "willingness to scientific procedures of investigationand discovery. Skills respond," which immediatelyfollows the "acquiescence in in scientific inquiry includethe following processes:the responding" level. The taxonomyhandbook on the affec- observation and reporting ofinvestigations, formulation of tive domain by Krathwohland his colleagues classifiesthe questions, design and executionof experiments, partici- internal- more advanced stagesof attitude acquisition as the pationinand reporting of fieldstudies, the use of ization of attitudes atfive increasingly complex stages: equipment for measuring,the documentation of evidence satisfaction in response, acceptanceof a value, preference for findings, classificationof materials and ideas, organi- for a value, commitment orconviction, and conceptualiza- zation and interpretationof data, and the critical review tion of a value. The highestoperational level in affective and analysis of scientificliterature. A broad scheme of learning includes an awarenessof how the particular value inquiry aids children inidentifying a sequence of goals.The relates to those already held orto other values being inquiry approach is aninductive method of guidingpupils formed. (5) to discover ideas forthemselves and to use those ideas in discovering new ones. Ritchie Calderwrites that persons should observe and choose enables scientists to seek more attempting scientific discovery The scientific approach facts, form hypotheses thatrelate and explain thosefacts accurate information throughthe interaction of observable experiments to prove or Scientific work has been plausibly, and perform repeated phenomena with abstract ideas. disprove each hypothesis. (2) described as a restricted realmof experience involving largely cognitive thought processes.(6) Considering vision as a primaryquality of a thinker, Ernest Dimnetholds that A mastery of the basicstructure of mathematics independence is the moral aspectof a capacity for vision; contributes to the effective teachingand retention of he says that a thinker is onewho sees where other persons mathematical concepts, according toFrancis J. Mueller. (7) do not. (3) The studies of William Brownelland others report a high positivecorrelationbetweenmeaningandrateof learning. (1)

Exposing pupils to adult-formedgeneralizations as listed 'Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of"Selected factually in a textbook does not ensure anunderstanding of References" at the end of this chapter.

92 93 the concepts involved, Teachers should teach their pupils particular facet of a subject in preference to the superficial the facts, incidents, and examples that have resulted in the coverage of a diversity of material. (16) promulgation of major rules, laws, and generalizations. In becoming involved in learning experiences that give meaning to concepts, pupils become committed to the impor- THE STUDY OF ASTRONOMY tanceof concepts;andthiscommitmentleadsto conviction. The science program atthe demonstrationcenter focused on astronomy because of the recent developments Correlation studies of the arts and sciences emphasize that have been made in this field, the opportunities offered the relatedness among the ideas, rules, and attitudes of to emphasize scientific investigation through firsthand field these two disciplines. The interchange of learning between experiments, the possibilities for learning modern methods science and literature courses is also advantageous. Teachers of studying the solar system as part of the universe, and the should so organize their instruction as to identify this value of studying astronomy as an aid to understanding the relatedness. order, beauty, and predictability of the universe. Stressing the basic structure of astronomy, teachers encouraged their pupilsto emulate thescientistinhis approach and methodology. References 8 through 15 and 17 through 20 SELECTION OF CONTENT AREAS to this chapter were used in teacher training. The references IN SCIENTIFIC FIELDS to Chapter V list additional resources. The material that follows identifies some of the background information on The Los Angeles Demonstration Center sought to enrich astronomy that proved usefulto teachersin the Los instruction in science, social science, and mathematics. Angeles enrichment program. Included in those fields were logic and research methods, which were also studied in language arts classes. Astronomy was the science chosen for enrichment; geography was the Definition social science. Course work in mathematical and astronomical geography correlated the studies in astronomy, geog- Astronomy is that science which deals with the nature raphy, and mathematics. and organization of the universe, including the heavenly bodies and their size, motion, distance from Earth, relative Science was included in the enrichment program because positions, and chemical composition. of the importance of its two basic functions: to help persons orient themselves to their environment and to help The term is derived from the Greek. The first part, astro, change that environment. The study of science should means "star"; the second part, nomy, is a combining form contribute to self-knowledge, knowledge of the universe, an that means "arrangement" or "management." Indeed, the understanding of the history and social aspects of science, Greeks were very much concerned with the heavens beyond and the development of a scientific approach or attitude. the planet Earth.

CONTENT OF SCIENTIFIC COURSES Units of the Universe

The NEA project report on the academically talented The universe contains many types of material units, student raises the question as to what scientific content is including planets, planetoids, satellites, comets, meteoroids, most appropriate for enrichment in relation to current stars, and nebulas. These units exist in a highly complex scientific thought. The project's reporters recommend that cosmic organization, as highlighted in the following outline. students be made aware of the frontiers of scientific investigation; they also urge the inclusion of a unit of study on the universe and the solar system, with consideration of Organization of the Universe the modern theories of the origin and evolution of the universe, the galaxies, and the solar system. Pupils should The Sun be informed of the use of such equipment asradio telescopes, optical telescopes, and tools for analyzing light A star relatively near the Earth, at a mean distance of 93 waves and radiation from space and of such aids to million miles gathering informationdirectlyfrom space as rockets, Emits heat and light, both of which are essential to satellites, and other space probe instruments. The NEA support life on Earth project reporters stress high-quality teaching in depth on a Density: 0.4 that of the Earth 94

The Pleiades and theHyades, which contain several Surface Resembles the tops of columns ofhot gases hundred stars The Big Dipper, a group of stars Shows gaseous eruptions everyfew minutes Globular clusters of stars: containthousands of stars; for Irregular black "holes": relatively"cool" regions example, the Hercules cluster Flares or "hot spots": calledfaculas The phenomenon of auroras Displays of northern or southernlights in the sky Other Galaxies Caused by interaction of streamsof charged particles Millions of galaxies that shoot out from disturbed solar areas them from 10 to 20 millionmiles Interfere with communicationby causing magnetic Scale distance between Three types storms Irregular galaxies ofill-defined shapes with some Solar corona spiral structure and hot,blue-white "Population I" The uppermost layer of thesolar atmosphere stars with interstellardust and gas Visible to the naked eyeduring a total eclipse of the Spiral galaxies of nascentPopulation I stars and of sun produces both radio waves and established Population II stars A glowing gas that Elliptical galaxies usually ofolder Population H stars light waves consisting of red giants,white dwarfs, and variable Light of the sun Has a brilliance of a billiontrillion 1,000-watt bulbs stars Particular galaxies other than ours 1033 ergs of energy per second Is measured as 4 X The Large Magellanic Cloud Less than 150,000 light years away The Planets Visible to the unaided eye inthe constellation the sun: Mercury, Venus, Dorado Nine planets revolving around 4° Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,Uranus, Neptune, and Dimensions: 12° by Pluto The Small Magellanic Cloud four tenths the Earth's Estimated distance of 164,000light years away Mercury closest to the sun, the constellation distance from the sun Visible to the unaided eye in the Earth's distance from Tucana Pluto farthest away, 40 times half the diameter of the the sun Dimensions: about one Large Magellanic Cloud The local group of galaxies Our Solar System Closer than 2 million light years Contains 13 galaxies The sun at the center around the sun The Andromeda Galaxy The nine planets in orbit Resembles our own galaxy planetoids Smaller planets known as asteroids or Moves with a speed of 180miles per second due to known as natural satellites,that A number of moons, the velocity caused bythe rotation of our own revolve around six of the planets galaxy Comets Meteoroids Remote Galaxies

Our Galaxy Billions in number Some as far as 2 billion light years away Called the "Milky Way" Contains nearly 100 billionstars Outer surface like that of alens or grindstone, circular- Distances in the Universe shaped on top Spiral design formed by stars Some Data Thick in the center Thin at the edges Distance between the Earthand the sun93 million Contains great lump of starscalled the "main sequence" Earth to sun called the in our galaxy); the miles; mean distance from (about 98 percent of all the stars Astronomical Unit (A.U.) star sun, a main sequence Distance to our nearest star,Alpha Centauri25 trillion Also contains large groupsof stars called "loose clusters"; for example: miles 95

The term "light year": measures the distances of stars Friction within the the earth's atmosphere and galaxies Equilibrium between gravity and centrifugal force One light year = the distance that a beam of light upset by friction between atmosphere and satellite travels in one year Causes or may cause the following: Distance covered by a beam of light in one second = Slowdown of satellite's forward speed 186,000 miles Decrease in centrifugal force brought about by One light year expressed by the following: decrease in satellite's speed

smeciuoundtes) . Approach of satellite to surface of earth in spiral 186,000 X 60 X 60(minutes) path if gravity is greater than centrifugal force X 24 (hours) X 3651/4 = 5,880,000,000,000 miles, Enough heat to burn satellite before it reaches ground (similar to burning of meteoroids) or almost 6 trillion miles Law of Inverse Squares 4.3 light years away Star nearest the solar system Has to do with gravity diminishing with distance Diameter of our galaxyabout 100,000 light years; Gravitational field negligible at some 10 planet radii maximum thickness, 15,000 light years from planet Average distance between galaxiesapproximately a million light years Orbiting of man-made satellites Most distantobjectseenby the unaided eye Concepts and terminology Andromeda Galaxy, a million and a half light years Permanent orbit: whole length of orbit outside away atmosphere Decline of an orbit: "braking ellipse" applied to orbit that is decaying or shrinking Artificial Earth Satellites Apogee and perigee Aerodynamic heating Definition Best time to observe a satellite: at dawn or at dusk when An object revolving about the earth in a circular or sun is below horizon and observer is in a dark place while satellite is reflecting light from the sun elliptical orbit Satellites used to facilitate the following: Information of Interest The acquisition of meteorological data for use by weather forecasters First satellite, Sputnik I, launched by the U.S.S.R. on The development of all-weather global navigational October 4, 1957 systems for airplanes and ships by a network of Launching a satellite: requires raising it to the proper satellites that serve as radio beacons height above sea level, orienting itin the proper Warnings of the possible launching of enemy missiles; direction, and giving it the proper speed; usually put the "eye in the sky" series into orbit by a multistage rocket The acquisition of scientific information about micro- Primary purpose of initial stage rocketto get the meteoroids, temperatures in space, radiation and satellite through the thick part of the atmosphere magnetic fields, composition of the ionosphere, Other stages utilized to turn the satellite toward the behavior of energetic particles, gamma rays, and horizontal and to increase its velocity the like Typical rocket used to launch a satellite consists of Geodetic observations;e.g., by Vanguard, which three stages and a nose cone determined thattheearth's geoidisslightly Once in orbit, satellite continues indefinitely as the pear-shaped forces acting on it cancel out, leaving a net forde of Projects carried out by scientists of the United States zero and other countries with the aid of international Far above the earth's surface, two forces that act on a satellites satellite: Communication between distant areas on earth by Force of gravity reflecting radio microwaves from a man-made Centrifugal force satellite; e.g., Echo Gravity and centrifugal force Testing of intercontinental transmission of telephone, Equal in magnitude and opposite in direction for a television, teleprint, and facsimile radio signals by proper value of velocity a medium-altitude, active-repeater satellite Cancel each other Experimental projects in the employment of medium- Hence, satellite at proper speed continues to move in altitude, active-repeater satellites for global com- orbit munication links; e.g., Telstar 96

Testing of the feasibility of employingactive-repeater Lunar orbiter in order satellites for long-distance communications; e.g., Assigned to photograph the moon's surface Surveyor spacecraft the Courier to locate landing areas for the Transmittal of the human voice from space; e.g., and the Apollo lunar expedition about the Score Intended to contribute to our knowledge Providing an operational satellite system forworld- size, shape, and gravitational pull of the moon wide, all-weather navigation; e.g., Transit Mariner Creating a radio-reflective band around theworld by Assigned to provide data for interplanetary space using short copper wires called dipoles; e.g.,West exploration Ford Examples of data already provided: Increased observation of the earth's atmosphere; e.g., The solar wind, consisting of electrifiedhot gases, of 'Tiros and Nimbus constantly rushes outward from the surface the sun. The density, temperature, and velocityof the wind changes with variations in solar activity; e.g., Unmanned Lunar and InterplanetarySpacecraft solar flares. The solar wind influences the amountand inten- Purposes sity of cosmic radiation of the solar system. Interplanetary magnetic fields are created by the To acquire information about othercelestial bodies solar wind, which distorts the earth'smagnetic To aid in preparing for eventuallandings of men on the field. moon and on otherplanets in our solar system Interplanetary space has many weak magneticfields. The intensity and amount of cosmic radiation in Examples of Vehicles space between Earth andVenus seem to be uniform. Pioneer Radio communication between Earth and space- Determined the extent of the Van Allenradiation craft is possible in interplanetary space. belt Small bits of matter in space, micrometeoroids, are Determined the density of micrometeoroids in space fewer in interplanetary space than around Earth. First observed the hydromagnetic oscillationof the earth's magnetic field Ranger Manned Space Exploration Series of spacecraft developed to gatherdata about the moon and to test elements of spacetechnology Purposes requiredforfuturelunarand interplanetary missions To know more about the universefirst of all, our own Equipped with seismometer toreport on lunar disturbances such as moonquakes and meteorite solar system To satisfy man's deep curiosityabout outer space impacts including future Equipped with miniature television transmitterfor To find ways of helping mankind, sending detailed pictures of the moon'ssurface extraterrestrial colonization texture where the capsule lands Surveyor Problems Equipped with television cameras to take pictures while landing, scan the moonscape afterlanding, Man's need for adequate oxygen;barometric pressure; and monitor the spacecraft's instruments temperature control; elimination oftoxic agents Built to analyze lunar surface material,check the Heavy weight of equipment moon's surface for strength and stability,and Isolation; confinement; radiation measure meteorite bombardmentand moonquakes Variable efficiency; accuracy; reliabilityof man Built to advance man's knowledge of the moonand Human requirements of rest, food,and relaxation also to contribute to manned explorationby Dangers to man demonstrating technology for soft landing,by verifying the suitability of sites for mannedland- Examples of Space Flights and TheirPurposes ings, and by aiding the designof protective shielding for manned spacecraft and the astro- Project Mercury nauts' space suits Orbit a manned spacecraft 97

Investigate man's reaction to, and abilities in, space Saturn V Project Apollo lunar exploration flight mission Recover man and spacecraft safely Project Gemini Nova Space ventures beyond Apollo Determine how man will perform and how his abilities as pilot will be affected during prolonged flight Generalizations Develop techniques for orbital rendezvous and dock- ing Like the other planets of the solar system, the Earth Carry outscientificinvestigations of space that moves inrelation to the sun, which also moves require the presence of man on a spacecraft through space. Show controlled entry landing at a chosen site Project Apollo The planets are held in their orbits around the sun by Land American explorers on the moon and return the forces of gravity and momentum. them to earth Planets shine by reflected sunlight. Examples of Space Launch Vehicles and Their Uses Many theories have been advanced to explain the LAUNCH VEHICLES USES origin of the solar system.

Scout Smallexplorersatellitesand The length of a planet's orbit varies with its distance geoprobes (P-21) from the sun.

Delta Meteorological satellites (Tiros); communicationsatellites(Tel- THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY star,Echo,Relay,Syncom); scientificsatellites(Explorers, Geography was the social science elected for enrichment Ariel) at the demonstration center because of its significance in determining the relationship of human activity to the Thor-Agena B Scientificsatellites(Alouette, OrbitingGeophysicalLabora- physical environment. tory);applicationssatellites (Echo, Nimbus) The Values Inherent in Geography Atlas D Project Mercury In discussing the importance of geographical study, Jan Atlas-Agena B Unmanned lunar and interplane- Broek observes that projects to advance underdeveloped tary probes (Ranger) countries abroad and to aid disadvantaged areas at home require a geographical knowledge of local mores and of the Atlas-Centaur Surveyor spacecraft for landing relationships between material and human resources. Such on moon and orbiting around knowledge is also required to solve the problems concomit- themoon; spacecraftof the ant with the depopulation of the agricultural areas, the Mariner type for exploring Mars rapid growth of suburbs, migration, changes in the charac- and Venus ter of business districts, shortage of mineral resources, and air and water pollution. (21) Titan II Project Gemini The study of geography revolves around four major Titan III X-20 (Dynasoar) concepts: regional differences, space relations, man-land relations, and cultural landscape. According to Clyde Kohn, Saturn I Project Apollo earth-orbital the following objectives of a social science program are flights attained through studying geography: (a) developing those modes of inquiry and substantive understandings that Saturn IB ProjectApolloearth-orbital enable pupils to think critically and creatively about their flights of command, service, and environment; (b) identifying with and becoming emotion- lunar excursion modules; orbital ally attached to democratic ideals; and (c) anticipating rendezvous rehearsals social change and choosing desirable changes. (23) 98

movements affect the the Scientific Approach Weather, climate, and earth crustal Contribution of Social Science to surface of the earth and causeregional differences in land forms, minerals, soils, andvegetation. The social sciences afford manypossibilities for develop- attitudes because of theirpotential for ingscientific Climate is determined bysunlight, temperature, humid- encouraging freedom ofinquiry, infusing and integrating winds, rates of investigative skills. Within the ity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, knowledge, and developing and water surfaces,irregular subject of geography waschosen heating and cooling of land field of social sciences, the and sea areas, ocean currents, it provides a knowledgeof the shape and distribution of land for enrichment because and mountain systems. earth's physical and culturalfeatures and their interrelation- understanding of the distributionof ships, together with an Because of various combinations'of heat and moisture natural resources. and their distribution,the earth is divided intoclimatic regions consisting oftropical, middle latitude, andpolar center focused their Teachers of the demonstration lands. geographic presentations onthe basic structure ofthe subject, using the scientificapproach in stressing the major The crust of the earth, consistingof various types of concepts. These concepts arelisted on the pages that rocks, contains useful mineraldeposits. follow. Teacher referenceworks are numbered as22 and 24 entries to this chapter. through 28 in the bibliographical Soil,water,solarenergy, and air arethe natural resources mostindispensable to man. The great sourceof all life on earth is heat from the sun. Definition of Geography Soil and vegetation cover thenonliving surface configuration and provide characterand color to the landscape. Both anatural and a social science,geography is differentiation of the earth's concerned with the areal Major climatic regions coincideapproximately with surface as shown in theinterrelationships of the individual Natural vegetationisa great soil, vegetation, population, major vegetation zones. elements, including climate, resource of man. land use, and industries,together with the unit areas those elements. formed by the complex of Soils are altered by natureand man. Nature combines the action of climate,vegetation, and animals on parent materials to produce regionalvariations in soils. Concepts About Geography

Thefollowingconceptsandgeneralizationswere CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY and are listed here emphasized in the enrichment program satisfy his needs for food, under the two categories,physical geography and cultural Man constantly seeks to clothing, and shelter; in sodoing he attempts to adaptand geography. exploit the earth. Mandoes not use all aspectsof the natural environment, however.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The natural enviornment may setthe broad limits of region, but man determinesits by the earth's shape, size,and economic life within a Life on earth is influenced specific character within thelimits of his culture. set of motions. Theshape of the earth causes anunequal distribution of sunlight, whichin turn influences the Groups of men differences in both climate Man must utilize natural resources. circulation of the air and causes develop ways of adjusting toand controlling their environ- and vegetation. ment. Human changeand the structure ofcivilization man's supply of energy and his and revolution affect time depend upon the extent of Earth movements of rotation ability to utilize and control it. and climate. Rotation ofthe earth on its axis causesnight revolution, and day; seasons resultfrom a combination of distribution, exchange, and the earth's axis. The processes of production, inclination, and parallelism of consumption of goods have ageographic orientation and influences. The organizationof earth-sun-moon relationships are vary withgeographic Earth movements and economic processes within an area(spatial organization) basic to the geography of outer space. rtaragn,awril,,c4,=i1FTIAFT,

results from the kinds of resources, the stage of technology, theorem, linearity, matrices, and Cartesian coordinates; and and the sociopolitical attitudes of the population. clarity of thought. (37) Central to mathematical thought arethefollowingattitudes and values:a belief that The location of production is controlled by the factors mathematics is discoverable, self-confidence, perseverance, of land (natural.lesources), labor, and capital. In most cases flexibility, self-evaluation, recognition of the importance of the attainment of maximum efficiency, as motivated by intuition, and enthusiasm for challenge. (37) competition for the factors of production, determines location of production. In some cases the locationis determined by political or other social controls rather than Enriched Content in Mathematics by economic efficiency. The subject content in mathematics at the Los Angeles Since people generally prefer to live near their work, the center featured mathematical themes or ideas,' which were location of production becomes significant in the distribution of the population. presented in a series of related topics. In encouraging that approach, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics The kinds of climate, soil, native vegetation, animals, proposes the following ten unifying themes: (a) structure; and minerals. influence the nature and extent of man's (b) o p e rationsandtheirinverses;(c) measurement; achievements within each region. The amounts and the (d) graphical representation; (e) systems of numeration; kinds of food neededforhealth vary with climatic (f) properties of numbers and the real number system; conditions and man's technology. (g) statistical inference and probability; (h) language and theoryofsets;(i) logicaldeductions;and(j) valid Human activities and cultural patterns are related to generalizations. (39) geographic location and to the particular era in which human beings live. People in different stages of civilization Some educators believe that the child should be taught react differently to similar environments. statistics in the elementary grades and that the collection of raw data should introduce that subject. After learning that Man and animals may, by their activities, upset the such data must be organized and correlated before interpre- balance of nature. Man, however, may also perform tation is possible, gifted children at the Los Angeles center something positive, like a conservation project, to regain weretaughtdata summarization and other statistical the balance. processes.

Competition for the earth's natural resources sometimes results in political strife, even war. Instructional Methodology

Political cooperation and strife between nations are Robert Davis (36) prescribes the following teaching related to their geographic locations. principles in developing mathematical ability:

Large mathematical concepts should be presented in a THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS sequence of smaller ones.

As a major branch of scientific endeavor, mathematics is Pupils should be assigned problems only after having an important tool for inquiry, investigation, and logical been exposed to the general techniques and concepts thought. A study of mathematics encourages a precise, required. critical attitudeinresearch and promotes respectfor logical reasoning. Practice in one subject area should be obtained by exploring new material.

Mathematics as a Tool for Inquiry and Investigation Learning opportunities should motivate the pupil and stimulate his interest. Including manipulative experiences and depending on a mastery of facts and techniques, mathematical study Mathematical experiences should be informal. embodies the following four essentials: discovery and use of patterns in abstract materials; extension of "open-ended" Only fundamental concepts and techniques should be mathematical situations by creative explorations; under- presented. standing of basic concepts, including variable function, transformation,implication,contradiction,axiom, Discovery of concepts should be emphasized. 100

Activerolesof pupils and teachers should be Enrichment Information encouraged. The teachertraining program atthe Los Angeles tool Patterns should become evidentthrough mathe- Demonstration Center emphasized mathematics as a following outline contains matical experiences. for inquiry and research. The some of the informationthat was offered in inservice Teaching should be geared to the child's ageand courses. Materials used byenrichment teachers arc included References" at the end of this chapter interests. among the "Selected as entries numbered39, 43, 45, 49, 50, 53, 55 through 57, and 60 through 63. Educators should take advantage of observationaland experimental opportunities to increase theireffectiveness in teaching mathematical order, structure, andfoundations. Observation might. Include both classroom visitsand filmed Number lessons. The National Council of Teachers ofMathematics haspreparedaseriesoffilmsonmathematical Beginnings of Number structure. (45) One-to-one correspondence Kenneth B. Henderson discusses the followingfour Accurate records teaching methods appropriate for mathematics:"tell-and- Accounting do," "heuristic," "inductive," and"deductive." The stages Counting (a) statethe item of Model groups in a system of thetell-and-do method are; Recognition of number in acardinal (how many) knowledge to be presented; (b) clarifythe information when necessary; (e) justify the item; (d) assignproblems sense Recognition of number in a natural(which one) sense based on the item; and (e) make a transition tothe next item to be taught. (41) The heuristic ordiscovery method requires the instructorwhether the teacher, programmed Egyptian System of Notation materials, or machineto direct the attention of pupils to certain data. The responses of the pupils tothose data Hieroglyphics: a system of picture writing dictate further instruction. Thefeedback from the pupil distinguishes the heuristic method from thetell-and-do. The Number symbols: role of the teacher resembles that of thepupil because both Egyptian persons formulate certainhypotheses from the available Hindu Arabic data: the pupil, from the mathematicalinformation; the Vertical stroke teacher, from the pupil's reactions to thosedata. Both 1 Heel bone personstesttheirhypothesesinterms of new data 10 becoming available; both converge on anacceptable con- 100 Coil of rope clusion in terms of the information the pupil on the 1,000 Lotus flower knowledge acquired, the teacher on an inferenceabout the 10,000 Bent line pupil's mastery of that knowledge. 100000 Burbot 1,000,000 Astonished man Henderson describes the inductive method asthe use of exercises constructed on familiar situationsinvolving time, Governed by the principles of addition and repetition money, direction, and so on.The pupil discovers the Had a base of ten fundamental principlesto be learned by working the exercises. The method utilizes three stages:(a) presenting The Abacus instances of information from whichthe pupils form hypotheses; (b)presenting evidence to confirm or to Most ancient form of computing machine negate those hypotheses; and(c) stating the inferences Based on the principles of addition and repetition warranted inductively from the conclusionsdrawn in steps Demonstrates the basic principles of theHindu-Arabic (a) and (b). The deductive methoddescribed by Henderson system uses authoritativestatements of rules combinedwith extensivepractice.Beforedrilling with the respective Greek and Phoenician Systeni of Notation process, the teacherdoes not explain the rules applied to Hindu-Arabic obtain the answers. By working manyexercises, the child is Greek and Phoenician number names with expected to learn deductively the principlesinvolved. (41) equivalents: 101

Alpha (1); beta (2); gamma (3); delta (4); epsilon (5); Numeration vau (6);zeta (7);eta (8);theta (9);iota (10); kappa (20); lambda (30); mu (40); nu (50); xi (60); Technique for expressing numbers of a system by words omicron (70);pi (80);kappa (90);rho (100); Convenience dependent on consistency and simplicity sigma (200);tau (300);upsilon (400);phi (500); Numeration scheme (United States): chi (600); psi (700); omega (800); sampi (900) Based on the principles of addition and multiplication Had a base of 10 Ci10 0a107106105104103102101100 M introduced to represent ten thousand § g .§.§..2444 2 yl Roman System of Notation ==IaiiFit" g Roman numerals: .0 1 1 (1); V (5); X (10); L (50); C (100); D (500); i -0 E.' M (1,000) z = Based on the principles of addition, repetition, multiplication, and subtraction

Hindu Arabic System Alternate Expressions of Number Nonrepetitive system; a different symbol assigned for each of the early numbers Example: 7,000 (units implied)has the following No significant compounding at each power of ten, but equivalent expressions: 7 thousands, 70 hundreds, no limit to the number of compounding points 700 tens possible Everyday illustration: decimal money scale and its two A system of scale ten (decimal) chief denominations (the dollar and the cent) Based on the principles of addition and place value 7,500 units [cents] equals 75 hundreds [dollars] ; 7,500 units [cents] equals 750 tens [dimes] Hindu-Arabic Numerals

Did not contain the zero character in its earliest stages Other Scales of Notation An Indian inscription, dated A.D. 876, found to contain zero Choice of base (radix) Digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9): comprise all the Base five symbolism required in this system Separatesymbolsforthenumberconcepts: Operate as face value; for example, 7 represents seven of absence (0);one (1);two (2);three (3);and something four (4) Operate as place value; for example, establishes whether Quantity 5 expressed as 10(one base group of five something is units, tens of units, tens of tens of units plus no units) (hundreds), tens of tens of tens of units (thousands) Quantity 6 expressed as 11(one base group of five plus one unit) Numbers expressed in variousscales of notation: Exponential Notation

Introduced by Descartes, the French philosopher and Base Base Base Base Base Number- mathematician ten twelve eight five three word Shorthand notation (concept) Simplifies writing out the product of identical factors 1 1 1 1 1 one (such as N X N X N) by expressing the typical factor 2 2 2 2 2 two (known asthe base) and then attaching toita 3 3 3 3 10 three number (known as the power of the exponent) which 4 4 4 4 11 four tells how many times the factor is repeated S S S 10 12 five 6 6 6 11 20 six Numbers expressed in exponential form with the same 7 7 7 12 21 seven base may be multiplied by adding the exponents 8 8 10 13 22 eight and may be divided by subtracting the exponent of 9 9 11 14 100 nine the divisor from the exponent of the dividend 10 T 12 20 101 ten An operation bywhich the number propertyof the Work with Numbers missing addend isfound when the otheraddend and the sum of the twoaddends are known Synthesis Principles Combining groups of anysize (addition) be subtracted, (multiplication) Only like numbers can Combining groups ofequal size An equal increase inthe minuend and thesubtrahend Analysis produces no change inthe remainder. Separating a groupinto subgroupsof any size (subtraction) Separating a groupinto subgroupsof equal size Division (division) Definition Comparison in which allOfthe subtra- deficiencyorexcess An analyzing operation Relationshipinterms of hends are alike and bywhich repeated subtraction (subtraction) orratio processes occur Relationshipinterms of measurement Terms (division) Dividend Q the wholewhich in analysis isbroken apart into factors Numbers Various Concepts of Divisorthe known factor the unknown factorwhich is sought; the multipurpose item Quotient Number a solution an attribute,like loyalty or texture Number characteristic of thingsand Principles Number, like texture of several numbersdivided by from things; can beappreciated A quotient of the sum nonexistent apart a givennumber is obtainedeither by adding the only in abstraction dividing their sum bythe objects several numbers and Numbers especiallyassociated with concrete by dividing each ofthe several number given number or (e.g., five books)called "concrete" numbers by the givennumber and addingthe with specific unitsof measure Numbers associated resulting quotients. called "denominate"numbers unchanged if the dividendand concrete or denominate The quotient remains "Like" numbersoccur when divisor are multiplied ordivided by the same of objects or"somethings" numbers agree in terms number. "Abstract" numbersoccur whennumber symbols arc employed to convey ageneralization (6 + 3 =9)

Number as Discreteand Continuous Synthesis uncon- Discrete numbers those applied to separate, Addition nected situations those based on acontinuum with Continuous numbers both) Definition each specific number(an integer or fraction or A synthesizing processof finding, withoutcounting, being a unique measurementfrom a basic zero point the number propertyof a group formedby the number line A continuum: canbe illustrated by a combination of two or more groups and extending starting with zeroat the left Principles infinitely to the right: Only like numbers canbe added. The sum of anaddition is unaffected bythe sequence or orderof its addends. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 Multiplication

Analysis Definition A synthesizing processof combining groups com- Subtraction posed of like things ofthe same size Terms Definition the typical addend operation which is theinverse of the Multiplicand An analyzing Multiplier the number of timesthe typical addend process ofaddition; involves thebreaking up of a subgroups whose sizes may or may appears group into two Productthe result of the operation not be alike 103

Principles Angle unaffected by the The product of a multiplication is The figure formed by two lines (called sides) drawnfrom combinations by which the factors are grouped or the same point (called a vertex) bythesequenceinwhichthefactorsare Kinds of angles multiplied. when one straight line meets another insuch of several Right A product of a given number or the sum a way that the twoadjacent angles are equal or numbers is found either by adding theseveral "right" numbers and multiplying their sum by the given angle several Acutean angle less than a right number or by multiplying each of the right angle numbers by the given number andadding the Obtusean angle greater than a resulting products. Surface Produced by the motion of a line Comparison Has two dimensionslength and width Is the exterior part of anything Relationships Plane surfacea flat areaproduced by a straight line moving perpendicular to its own direction. Differences Deficiency Polygon Excess Example: subtraction A plane figure bounded by straight lines,the sum of the sides being called the perimeter Graphic Representations Classified according to the number of sides it possesses Kinds of polygons Examples: Bar graph, circle graph, broken linegraph Triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon,heptagon, octagon Measurement Many-sided regular polygon Essential facts: Ratio, proportion, variation If the sides and the angles they form areequal, a "regular" polygon is created. The smallest possible number of sides andangles is Geometric Elements and Structure three. As the number of sides and angles increases,the Point polygon becomes more like a circle. A circle may be considered a regular polygonwith an Does not occupy space infinite number of sides. Indivisible; has no width, length, or thickness Indicates a position in space Triangle Represented by a dot A polygon of three sides Never actually seen Simplest of all polygons Kinds of triangles Line Righta triangle with oneright angle, the hypot- enuse being the longest sideand opposite the right Produced by the motion and extension of a point angle Has neither vr.idth nor thickness, but haslength Acutea triangle that has threeacute angles Is abstract Obtusea triangle with oneangle that is obtuse Types of lines Isosceles a triangle with twoequal sides Horizontala line that runs fromleft to right and is Scalenea triangle with no twoequal sides parallel to the surface of water at rest Equilaterala triangle with threeequal sides Verticala line that runs straight upand down and is at right angles to a horizontal line Quadrilateral Obliquea line that is neithervertical nor horizontal Curveda line thatis changing constantly in its A polygon of four sides direction Kinds of quadrilaterals equal sides Parallellines which lie in the same plane and never Square a rectangle with four meet, no matter how far they are extended Rectangle a parallelogram with fourright angles 104

Crystals Parallelograma quadrilateralin which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel parallelogram whose angles Polyhedrons of nature Rhombusan equilateral Formed by the solidificationof substances; e.g freezing are oblique that are hexagonal prisms having only two sides water causes ice crystals Trapezoida quadrilateral All crystals polyhedral in shape and classifiedby the parallel number of their sides Trapeziuma quadrilateralin which no two sides are parallel Pyramid

A polyhedron whose baseis a polygon of anynumber of faces are triangles having a Circle sides and whose lateral common vertex A plane figurebounded by a curved line which has every Essential facts: point equally distant from thecenter Regular pyramidone whosebase is enclosed by a Concentric circlestwo or more circlesthat have the regular polygon and whose vertexlies on the same center perpendicular to the base at thelatter's center Parts of circles Truncated pyramidthatportion of a pyramid plane cutting all Circumference boundary of the circle included between its base and a Diameterthat chord which passesthrough the its edges center of the circle Frustrum of a pyramid that portion included Radiusa straightline drawn from the center to any between the base and a planeparallel to the base point on the circumference cutting all the edges Chorda straightline joining any two points onthe Square-based pyramid one having fourlateral faces circumference Tangenta straightline having only one pointin common with a circle Cylinder circumference of a circle Arc any portion of the rotation of a rectangleabout one the area of a circleincluded within a A figure formed by the Segment side, which remains stationary as anaxis chord and its arc the figure formed by tworadii and the arc Bases plane circles Sector form a curved surface joiningthe bases that they intercept Sides Right circular cylinder formed by revolving a rectangle about one of the sidesof a cylinder as an axis A plane intersecting aright circular cylinder parallelwith Solid its base: forms a circle atthe intersection A plane intersecting a rightcircular cylinder not parallel A portion of spacebounded on all sides to its base: forms an,ellipse at the intersection Kinds of solids Polyhedrona solid whosefaces are polygons; classified according to the numberof faces it possesses Sphere Kinds of polyhedrons curved surface of which every a box having sixsides A solid bounded by a Hexahedron point is equally distant fromthe center Octahedrona polyhedronhaving eight sides when the vertices of with two faces (called Circumscribed about a polyhedron Prism a polyhedron the polyhedron lie on the sphere bases), equal and parallel, andlateral faces Inscribedina polyhedronwhen the faces of the that are parallelograms polyhedron are tangent to the sphere a prism whosebases are Parallelepipedon A great circle formed when aplane intersects a sphere parallelograms and passes through the centerof the sphere a rightparallelepipedon, the faces of Cube A small circle formedwhen a plane intersects a sphere which are squares but does not pass through the centerof the sphere Right prisma prismwhose lateral faces are perpendicular to its bases Truncated prismthe portion of a prism Cone and a section included between the base from a circular base to made by a plane not parallel tothe base A solid figure uniformly tapering and cutting all the lateraledges a point called a vertex 105

Altitudeperpendicular distance from the vertex to the Each interval: has a width of score values (i being the base symbol used to indicate the width of the interval Right circular cone formed by revolving a triangle with in any grouped frequency) one right angle around a sideof the right angle as an Degree of condensation determined by the numberof axis; may be considered a pyramid with an infinite score units included in eachclass interval number of sides Number of intervals dependent on arbitrary choice; e.g., number determined by the number of cases, range of Conic Sections the measures, and the purpose for which the distribution is intended (usually 10 to 20 intervals) Formed when a plane passes parallel to the basethrough Estimate of the needed i obtained by dividing the range the cone to form a circle at the intersection of scores (the highest minus the lowest) by the Kinds of conic sections: number of intervals desired Hyperbola, parabola, ellipse GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS Variations of Basic Shapes Graphic Representations of Frequency Distributions Cycloids and involutes Common cycloida point on the circumferenceof a Histograma bar diagram with two axes,the horizontal circle rolling smoothly on a straight line; a curve base line (X axis or the abscissa) and the vertical line that resembles the curve on the edge of a fish scale (Y axis or the ordinate) Prolate cycloida point within the circumferenceof Frequency polygona diagram drawn from afrequency a rolling circle; a curvethat resembles the surface distribution by plotting points over the midpoints of of a swelling sea each interval, with the height of each point being Curate cycloida point moving outsidethe circum- determined by the appropriate frequency or percent ference of a rolling circle; a curve that loops like a Cumulative frequency curvea diagram formed by vine plotting cumulative frequencies (e.g., the total num- Spirals ber of cases earning a certain score or below) derived Curved lines from the distribution Logarithmic spirala plane curve that cutsall its radius vectors (a straight segment, or its length, General Procedures in Graphing Frequency Distributions from a fixed point to a variable point) at the same angle Selection of axes Helix a line curved like a wirewound around a Selection of size units cylinder Labels of graph Title of graph

Form of a Frequency Distribution Descriptive Statistics Bilaterally symmetrical when the two sides of the FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS polygon are identical in shape Skewed described in terms of degree and direction; Simple Frequency Distribution distribution bunched together on one side of the average and tailing out on the other side A table; e.g., all score values listed in onecolumn and J curvefound in descriptions of certain behaviors the number of individuals receiving each scorein the wherein the large majority have none of the item to second column their credit and a few members have many Arrangement of data to facilitate interpretation of group Rectangulardistributionwhen thefrequenciesin statistics every class interval are the same Normal curvewhen the frequencies form a symmetri- Grouped Frequency Distributions cal, bell-shaped distribution

A table bringing together the single measuresof indi- Graphic Representations of Other Types of Data viduals into a number of groups, each group containing an equal number of score units Line graphused when comparing different groups, Each group called an interval and identified by putting objects,orconditionsinrelationtoacertain down the limits characteristic 106

Mode Bar graphused when different groups orobjects do continuum in relationto the not vary along a That score which occursmost frequently in ungrouped characteristic differentiatingthem, but are a collection of discrete objects data The midpoint of theinterval with the greatest frequency in grouped data May be computed orestimated by general inspectionof PERCENTILES the data

Interpretations of Raw Scores Median To give meaning tothe scores That point above which 50 percentof the cases fall and To determine the positionof a particular score of the cases fall his below which 50 percent To ascertain the relativeposition of an individual or Another name for the fiftiethpercentile or the second score in a group quartile

Essential Facts Comparison of Uses below which a given percentof Percentile: a score at or Modefor obtaining a quick, roughestimate of central cases lie tendency; indicates the typical Percentile scales Median for identifying certainpeculiarities such as Derived from percentages marked skewness and missing cases;indicates the Contain 100 units middle Most commonly used, thequartile: first quartile, the Mean for determining nearlysymmetrical distribution; twenty-fifthpercentile;secondquartile,the indicates the average fiftieth percentile ormedian; third quartile, the seventy-fifth percentile VARIABILITY Occasionally deciles used:first decile, tenth percentile; second decile, twentiethpercentile Kinds of Variability Obtained by inspecting acumulative percentage curve by translating the given percentof cases into numberof Int raindivi du alvariability differences.within cases(nth case); finding the scorecorresponding to individuals the nth case Interindividualvariability differencesamong individuals Percentile Rank Descriptions of Variability A percentage definingthe position of a scoreand its distribution Range the distance from thelowest to the highest A value indicating thepercent of cases in adistribution score in a distribution;the highest score minus the falling at or below this score lowest score; a rough indexof variability Obtained by subtractingfrom the score the lowerreal the root mean square deviation dividing Standard deviation limit of the interval inwhich it is contained; that represents each score;obtained by finding the the result by the widthof the interval; multiplying the raw scores and dividingby the interval; mean by summing this quotient by thenumber of cases in the number; subtracting the meanfrom each raw score to adding the productobtained to the cumulative each deviation (x) the obtain each deviation (x); squaring frequency of the intervalbelow the one in which value; summing the x2 andthen substituting directly score falls into the formula z score Value that indicates how far a raw scoredeviates MEASURES OF CENTRALTENDENCY from the mean in standarddeviation units Uses Arithmetic Mean Way of expressing aperson'spositionina distribution Measure of the average Comparison of the same personwith himself in Equal to the sum of measuresdivided by their number two different scoredistributions; e.g., the rela- XZ tive position of a person on twodifferent tests Formula: M = 107

MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY which is below the crust; the molten outer core and the solid inner core below the mantle Gifted pupils benefit particularly from correlated units of study. Indeed, the ability to interrelate knowledge from Basic Motions of the Nine Planets various fields characterizes the intellectually gifted. Rotationeach planet rotating on its own axis Interdisciplinary units of study further the superior Revolutioneach planet revolving around the sun in a ability of talented pupils to perceive complex relationships, counterclockwise direction as viewed from the north; to generalize, and to comprehend abstractions.Correlated each planet moving in an ellipse units are particularly suitable in the elementaryschool because of the general nature of the schoolingthere, the wide range in pupil abilities and interests, and the importance of broadening intellectual horizonsof young gifted Some Definitions of Terms Used in pupils. (52) Locating Celestial Objects

Mathematical and astronomical geography, which is Celestial Spherethe sky, represented as a large sphere concerned with the relations of the earth to the solar with the earth in the center; imaginary, since celestial system,requiresadetailed knowledge of astronomy, objects are not at the same distance from the earth geography, and mathematics. This area lends itself to enrichment because it develops an understanding of the Visible Horizon the apparent meeting of the celestial immensity of the universe and its relationships. Background sphere and the terrestrial surface; loosely, "where the information for teachers in this field follows. Reference 51 sky meets the ground" to this chapter cites a book for teacher reference; additional works on the topic are included with the pupil materials at Zenitha point on the celestialsphere directly over an the end of Chapter V. observer's head

Astronomical Horizondistance from the zenith measured Planetary Relations of the Earth by an angular distance of 90° in all directions to the Solar System Nadirpoint on the celestial sphere directly below an Distances erect observer's feet; in that part of the skybelow the horizon and therefore not visible; always directly below Circumference of the earth atthe equatorabout the zenith 25,000 miles Average distance between the earth and the sunabout AzimuthAn arc of the horizon measured between a fixed 92,900,000 miles (1 astronomical unit) point (as true north) and the vertical circle passing from Speed of lightabout 186,000 miles per second the zenith through the center of an object (as a star) Lightfromthesun requiresapproximately 500 seconds or 8 I/3 minutes to reach the earth Altitudeapparent angular position of a star above the horizon; found by measuring the angle between the The Earth astronomical horizon and the star along the line through the star and the zenith The third planet from the center of the system, 1 A.U. (astronomical unit) away from the sun Poles of the Earthtwo points on the surface of the earth A geometrical form similar to an oblate spheroid; at the ends of the earth's axis slightly flattened at the poles Has an equatorial diameter of 7,927 miles Has a polar diameter of 7,900 miles Celestial Polesintersection of the earth's axis extended Itsgaseous atmosphere includes:nitrogen, oxygen, out into space and the celestial sphere; north and south argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and tracesof celestial poles other elements and compounds; nitrogen equal to 78 percent, oxygen to 21 percent Earth's Equatoran imaginary circle described upon the Consists of four concentric spheres: the crust, the 3- to surface of the earth dividing the earth into two equal 25-mile-thick outermost sphere, which projects above parts at an angular distance of 90° from each of the the surface of the oceans to form the continental land earth's poles; separates the surface of the earth into the masses; a mantle, a solid shell 1,800 miles thick, northern and southern hemispheres inductive Latitudeangular measurement north or south of the and faulty conclusions are reached. The study of equator; for example, the point halfwaybetween the and deductivereasoningaidsinlogicalthought. (59) equator and the north pole: fixed at45° north latitude Richard Altick encourages the study of logic to improve reading and other communicative skills. He believes that Celestial Equatora great circle formedabove the earth's persons often fail to detect falsehoodsby not recognizing equator dividing the distance between thecelestial poles the faulty reasoning behind them. equally At the Los Angeles Demonstration Center, logic was Meridians prime meridian:a great circle through the incorporated in the enriched classes in reading, English, Royal Observatory in Greenwich near London, England, science, social science, and mathematics. Books andother and the north and south poles intersecting the equator at materials used in the enrichment program by teachers are right angles; other great circles, usually15° apart, drawn listedwith "Selected References" for this chapter as on maps through thenorth and south poles, usually at numbers 69,70,72,74, and 76 through 85. regular intervals

Longitudean angular distance east or westof the prime Elements in the Study of Logic meridian Inductive Reasoning Celestial Meridian a great circle that passesthrough the north and south celestial poles and the zenith; can be Development of a mental pattern is related to what is used to note the apparent turning of the celestialsphere happening after several observations have been made. as the objects in the sky appear to movefrom east to Observations may indicate gradual or rapid changes. west as the earth rotates from west to east Observations always indicate a regular or recurring point. Only one counterexample or contradiction is needed to Ecliptic agreatcircle on thecelestialsphere which disprove a conclusion. represents the apparent path of the sun around thesky as the earth revolves aroundthe sun; its position defined Deductive Reasoning by the plane of the earth's orbit considered as intersecting the celestial sphere This type of reasoning is the basis of mathematical proof. The Equinoxesthe two points of irtersection of the The conclusion of an argument must be true if the eclipticandthecelestialequator;thevernal and information on which it is based is true. autumnal equinoxes; the earth's axis of rotation inclined All the ideas that form the starting point of a deductive to the path of the ecliptic at an angle of66'4° argument are true or assumed to be so; they arecalled the hypotheses of the argument. The Solsticesthe positions where the ecliptic and the The goal of a deductive argument is called the conclu- celestial equator are most widely separated between the sion of the argument. equinoxes; positions called the summer and winter The correctness or validity of an argument is the burden solstices of concern.

Ascensiondistances measured from the vernal equinox Venn Diagrams eastward These are aids to introducing simple deductive argu- Declinationangular distances measured north or south of ments; however, they are not formal proofs. the celestial equator on the celestial sphere Circles or other closed figures in different positions illustrate the relationships described by ideas using the adjectives all, no, and some. LOGIC One Venn diagram that satisfies the conditions of the hypothesis but not those of the conclusion renders A study of logic provides the techniques for assessing the argument invalid; an example of this is called a thoughts and aids in developing precise thinking inall counterexample. subject areas. (55) Patrick Suppes advises that aknowledge of logic can extend the mathematical experiencesof the Sentences and Statements able pupil. (66) Richard Corbin and others observethat everyone uses the principles oflogic every day; when such One branch of logic,called"statementcalculus," principles are applied incorrectly, unsound reasoning results requires declarative sentences to have two properties: 109

(a) the sentence must not be meaningless or nonsensi- Failing to recognize multiplicity of causes cal; and (b) the sentence must be either true or false. Thinking in terms of stereotypes Sentences that contain pronouns such as "he" are called open sentences; the pronouns arecalled variables Helps in Decision Making because they can be replaced by names of suitable objects or persons. Accepting a reasonable level of satisfaction A variable should clearly indicate a set of persons whose Avoiding impulsive action names can replace the variable; this setis called the Reducing the negative aspects of choice replacement set or the domain of the variable. Preparing to back up a decision The word "or," symbolized by "V," is a connective in Developing values as guides sentences; the resulting sentence is called the disjunc- Maintaining a reserve of resources tion of the individual sentence. Negation is used to deny the truth or falsity of a sentence; the symbol for negation is the curl --, called RESEARCH METHODS atilde, which is written to the left of the letter representing the sentence. Research is a formal process for seeking new information Single lower-case letters, such as p, q, and r, are used to by applying thescientific method systematically. The represent open sentences. process requires objective curiosity, accurateinvestigation, Single upper-case letters, such as P, Q, or R, represent and logical analysis. statements. The use of the conditional "if ...then..." forms a compound sentence called a conditional sentence or a Teaching Research Methods as Enrichment sentence of implication. A serious error of logic is to assume that the antecedents Although research methods are normally introduced at and the consequences in a conditional sentence have the college level, gifted pupils should learn these concepts the same meaning; when the antecedent and conse- much earlier as tools for learning. The excitement inherent quence of a conditional sentence areinterchanged, in exploring the unknown through original research spurs the resulting sentence is called the converse of the and stimulates the gifted child to further learning. Research original conditional sentence. methodology can aid pupils in developing self-concepts by making them aware of their own creative thought processes.

Procedures and Problems in the Use of Logic Teachers in the Los Angeles center found that the research process motivated pupils to form good study Testing the Validity of Arguments habits and to acquire skills in reading critically, in locating and organizing data, in using statistics and graphs, in writing Every argument has a corresponding conditional sen- and typing as required to prepare research papers. The tence whose antecedent represents the premise or teaching faculty of the center reported that the use of the conjunction of premises and whose consequence typewriter significantly improved the organizational abili- represents the conclusion of the argument. ties, communicative skills, and study attitudes of their An argument is valid if the conclusion is a logical pupils as they undertook research of their own. consequence of the hypothesis. The use of research methods formed a significant part of Common Difficulties in Defining and the enriched curriculum of the Los Angeles Demonstration Evaluating a Problem Center. Background information concerning research and the relatedskillsinvolvedin writing a research paper Faulty assumptions and attitudes follows.Resourcesforteachersareprovidedinthe Rigid mental set "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. Defensive orientation Emotion and stress Oversimplification Types of Research Sources of Error to Be Avoided Historical Research (Historiography) Overgeneralizing from limited experience Misapplying general rules Focuses on changes, developments, ideas, practices, Mistaking correlation for causation growth or deterioration, events, movements 110

Number each card to identifythe number of the source Includes investigating, reporting,analyzing, and interpre- tating events of the past from the bibliography. useful in knowing the Make certain to record pagenumbers on the cards. Involves forming generalizations them and read them past, understanding the present,and predicting the Skim materials; then return to carefully. future useful to the development of Describes the results of experimentsthat have taken Take notes on what seems place over periods of time the topic. Quote a source directly when anauthor has expressed himself exceptionally well orwhen his exact state- Descriptive Research ment of authority is needed. Summarize important pointswhen necessary to do so. Focuses on conditions, behaviors,and functions of the Distinguish between fact and opinion. present Usually involves comparisons or contrasts Paper Describes conditions existing in natureand society Sorting Notes and Outlining the Sort notes into categories. Experimental Research Choose one type of outline. Use cards for outline headings,subheads, and details. Focuses on cause-effect relationships Includes laboratory and field experiments Develop a workable outline. Describes the effects of proposedprocedures or changes Describes the results of controllingcertain factors Writing the First Draft Determine readership to whomthe paper is to be Guidelines for a Research Paper addressed. Choose a style that is appropriate tothe content. Write rapidly to get pertinentideas on paper and cover Choosing a Subject the ground as thoroughly aspossible. never guess. interest and choose one Always spell correctly; usedictionary Identify a subject of genuine Use one side of a sheet of paper;double-space your area of this subjectfor concentrated study. idea to develop. writing or typing. Formulate a concise controlling needed. Locate material pertaining to thesubject. Mark places where footnotes are Revising the First Draft Gathering Information between writing the first draftand Use controlling idea as a guidefor choice of material. Let some time elapse Record your own observations. revising it. Consider the contentinterms of details, smooth Interview other persons. progression, accuracy offacts and opinions, relevant Read books, magazine articles,pamphlets, newspapers, material, and beginning andending. and other materials as necessary. Consider the style and themechanics of composition. Compile a working bibliographyfrom the card catalog in Recheck spelling. the library. Select the most useful material(about 10 to 15 sources) Preparing the Final Copy for intensive reading. Use the most recent materialfor reference. Leave wide margins. Use works by recognizedauthorities in the subject field. Use sources presenting two or moredifferent opinions if Type the manuscript. authorities disagree on the topic. Number the pages as you proceed. Add footnotes. Include a title page. Reading and Taking Notes Draw up a table of contents. Prepare an accurate bibliography. Use note cards. Prepare the foreword and thepreface if these have not Write with ink. Put one point, fact, quotation, oridea on each cardor already been written. Prepare and insert whateverappendixes are considered a few closelyrelated ideas on each card. Write a heading on each card toindicate that part of the useful. Proofread the total manuscript. subject to which the informationpertains. 01. 111

Using the Scientific Approach 7. Mueller, FrancisJ. Arithmetic: Its Structure and Concepts. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Steps to Be Followed 1961.

Exploration of existing knowledge Identification of the problem Definition of the problem Astronomy Statements of hypotheses Collection and organization of data Analysis of data 8. Bergamini, David, and the editors of Life. The Confirmation, modification, or rejection of hypotheses Universe. New York: Time, Inc., 1962. by testing Extension of some hypotheses 9. Blough, Glenn, andOthers. Elementary School Formulation of conclusions Science and How to Teach It (Revised edition). New Communication of results York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1958.

10. Brandwein, Paul F. Substance, Structure, and Style in ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND MATERIALS PREPARED the Teaching of Science. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1965. In addition to the training materials prepared in astronomy, geography, mathematics, logic, and research methods, 11. Clarke, Arthur C., and the editors of Life. Man and other inservice training materials that were used at the Space. New York: Time, Inc., 1964. center are not presented herein. Such other materials included the following: mathematical design and order in 12. Craig, Gerald. Science for the Elementary-School nature, shapes of sound waves, the artist's use of geometri- Teacher. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1958. cal elements and principles, the study of meteorology, and geology as related to geography. 13. De Santillana, Giorgio. The Origins of Scientific Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.

14. Hoyle, Fred. The Nature of the Universe. New York: Selected References New American Library, Inc., 1962.

15. Hynek, JosephA.,and Norman D. Anderson. Scientific Approach Challenge of the Universe. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962. 1. Brownell, William A., and Others. Meaningful vs. Mechanical Learning: A Study in Grade 3 Sub- 16.Project onthe Academically Talented Student: traction. Duke University Research Studies in Educa- Science for the Academically Talented Student in the tion. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1949. Secondary School. Report of a Conference Sponsored JointlybytheNationalEducationAssociation 2.Calder, Ritchie. Science in Our Lives. New York: Project on the Academically Talented Student and New American Library, Inc., 1962. the National Science Teachers Association. Chairman: Robert R. Donaldson. Washington, D.C.: National 3.Dimnet, Ernest. The Art of Thinking. Greenwich, Education Association, 1959. Conn.: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1963. Y. 17. Ronan, Colin A. Man Probes the Universe. Garden 4.Haney, Richard E. "The Development of Scientific City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964. Attitudes," The Science Teacher, XXXI (December, 1964), 33-35. 18. Science: Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy. Editorial Board: J. Bronowski and Others. Garden City, N.Y.: 5.Krathwohl, David, and Others. Taxonomy of Educa- Doubleday & Company, Inc.,1960. (Doubleday tional ObjectivesHandbook II : Affective Domain. Pictorial Library) New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1964. 19. Science Curriculum Development in the Elementary 6.Margenau, Henry, David Bergamini, and the editors of School. Sacramento: California State Department of Life. The Scientist. New York: Time, Inc., 1964. Education, 1964. 112

20.Space, the New Frontier. Directed by James Dean. 32.Bendick, Jeanne, and Marcia Levin. Mathematics Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Programs Illustrated Dictionary. New York: McGraw-Hill Book and Services, National Aeronautics and Space Admin- Company, 1965. istration, 1964. 33. Bergamini,David. Mathematics.LIFE SCIENCE LIBRARY SERIES. Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Geography Company, 1963.

21. Brock, Jan O.M. Geography, Its Scope and Spirit. 34.Breakthroughsin Mathematics.Edited by Peter Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., Wolff. New York: New American Library, Inc., 1963. 1965. 35, Davis, Robert B, Discovery in Mathematics. Reading, 22.Jarolimek, John. Social Studies in Elementary Edu- Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1964. cation. New York: Macmillan Co., 1959. 36. Davis, Robert. B. "The Evolution of School Mathe- 23.Kohn, Clyde F. "The Geography Component," in matics," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, I, Focus on the Social Studies.Washington, D.C.: No. 3 (1963), 260-64. DepartmentofElementarySchoolPrincipals, National Education Association, 1965. 37.Davis, Robert B. "Math Takes a New Path," The PTA Magazine, LVII (February, 1963), 8-11. 24.Michaelis, John. Social Studies for Children in a Democracy. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 38.Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and General inc., 1956. Theory. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1961.

25.Pounds,Norman,andEdwardCooper.World 39.The Growth of Mathematical Ideas. Kindergarten and Geograplu. Text and teacher's manual. Cincinnati: grades one through twelve. Twenty-fourth Yearbook South-Western Pub. Co., 1961. of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of 26.Readings inWorld History. Edited by Leften S. Mathematics, 1962, Stavrianos and Others. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1962. 40.Gundlach, Bernard H. The Laidiaw Glossary of Arithmetical-Mathematical Terms. River Forest, Ill.: 27.Social Studies Framework for the Public Schools of Laidlaw Brothers, 1961. California. Prepared by the State Curriculum Com- mission. Sacramento: California State Department of 41.Henderson, KennethB."Research on Teaching Education, 1962. Secondary School Mathematics," in Handbook of Research on Teaching. A Project of the American 28.Social Studies in the Elementary School. Fifty-sixth Educational Research Association. Edited by N. L. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Gage. Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1963. Education, PartII.Edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: Distributed by the University of Chicago 42.Henderson, Kenneth B., and Others. Modern Geome- Press, 1957. try, Its Structure and Function. Text, motion pictures,filmstrips. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962. Mathematics 43.Hogben, Lancelot. Mathematics in the Making. New 29. Adler, Irving, The New Mathematks. New York: New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1960. American Library, Inc., 1963.

30. Arkin, Herbert, and Raymond R. Colton. Statistical 44.Jurgensen, Ray C., and Others. Modern Geometry: Methods (Fourth edition, revisrd). COLLEGE OUT- Structure and Method. Boston: Houghton Mifflin LINE SERIES. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., Co., 1963. 1956. 45.Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers. Pro- 31. Bell, Eric Temple. Men of Mathematics. New York: duced by the National Council of Teachers of Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1937. Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: National Council of 113

Teachers of Mathematics. (Textbook is correlated 58.Brumfiel, Charles E., and Others. Geometry. Reading, with the film series or the same title, availablefrom Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1960. United World Films, Inc.) 59.Corbin, Richard K., and Others. Guide to Modern 46.Morgan, Frank M., and Jane Zartman.Geometry: English (Grades 11 and 12). Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Plane, Solid, Coordinate. Boston: HoughtonMifflin Foresman & Co., 1963. Co., 1963.

47.Mueller, Francis J. See entry number 7. 60.Dewey, John. Essays in Experimental Logic. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1960. 48.Ravielli, Anthony. An Adventure in Geometry.New York: Viking Press, Inc., 1957. 61.Korner, Stephan. Conceptual Thinking, a Logical Inquiry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1959. 49.TEMAC. Programmed Learning Materials. "Ratios and Proportions." Chicago: EncyclopaediaBritan- 62. Langer, Susanne K. An Introduction to Symbolic nica, Inc., 1963. Logic (Second revised edition). New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1953. 50.Underwood, BentonJ.,and Others. Elementary Statistics. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. 63.Lewis, Clarence I., and Cooper H. Langford. A Survey of Symbolic Logic. New York: Dover Publications, Mathematical and Astronomical Geography Inc., 1960.

51.Flail, Donald A. Elements of Astronomy andPhysical 64.Lewis,ClarenceI.,andCooperFl.Langford. Geography. Saginaw, Mich.: Trippensee Planetarium Symbolic Logic (Second revised edition). New York: Co., 1963. Dover Publications, Inc., 1959.

52.Project on the Academically Talented Student: Social 65. McCall, Raymond J. Basic Logic: The Fundamental Studies for the Academically Talented Student in the Principles of Formal Deductive Reasoning(Second Secbndary School. Washington, D.C.: National Edu- edition). New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1952. cation Association, 1960. 66.Suppes,Patrick."MathematicalLogicforthe Schools," in Teaching Gifted Students: A Book of Logic Readings. Edited by James J. Gallagher. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1965. 53. Men, Layman E. WFF: The Beginner's Gameof Modern Logic. New Haven, Conn.: Autotelic Instruc- tional Materials Publishers, 1963 (programmed mate- 67.Suppes, Patrick, and Shirley Hill. First Course in rial). Mathematical Logic. Waltham, Mass.: Blaisdell Pub- lishing Co., Inc., 1964. 54. Allen, Layman E. WFF'N PROOF: The Game of Modern Logic. New Haven, Conn.: Autotelic Instruc- tionalMaterialsPublishers,1962 (programmed Research Methods material). 68.Corbin, Richard K., and Others. See entry number 55.Altick,RichardD. Preface toCritical Reading 59. (Fourthedition). New York:Holt,Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1960. 69.Evans, John C. Touch Typewriting. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1948. 56. Ayer, AlfredJules. Language,Truth, and Logic (Second revised edition). New York: Dover Publica- 70.Smith, Samuel, and Others. Best Methods of Study tions, Inc., 1960. (Third edition, revised). New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1958. 57.Brant, Vincent, and Mervin L. Keedy.Elementary Logic for Secondary Schools. New York:Holt, 71.Watson, Jane Werner. The Sciences of Mankind. New Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1962. York: Golden Press, Inc., 1960. Chapter X Formats for LessonPlans and Study Units

and improve- The staff of the EnrichmentDemonstration Center of correlation of studies, variety of experiences, Los Angeles designed formats fordaily and 'weekly lesson ment in summarization andgeneralization. (4) the various courses plans and for long-range plans in for offered. Several of these formats arereproduced in this Professional literature currently stresses the need for extending their dapter. knowing the pupils' ability levels and capacities through increasingly difficultassignments. The framework for applying J. P. Guilford's conceptof intellec- II is illustrated in a THE PLANNING OF FORMATS tual functioning as described in Chapter series of lessons filmed for CaliforniaProject. Talent. (1) statement of The framework utilizing Jerome Bruner'seducational theo- A daily lesson plan should contain a another series of filmed objectives, background information,instructional materials, ries in course outlines is applied in procedures, follow-up work for independentstudy, and observation lessons. (2) The application ofthe Taxonomy lesson should provide of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain toclassroom suggestions for related activities. Each the third film series of Project for motivation, guiding questions,activities, and an evalu- practicesisshown in ation. Examples of daily lesson plansused in the demon- Talent. (3) stration center are reproduced inChapters XII, XIII, and XIV of this publication. It should benoted, also, that 14 demonstration lessons of CaliforniaProject Talent are FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANNING available on film. (1, 2, 3)1 Intheirendeavors toraisethe level of thinking, considered A weekly lesson plan shouldoutline the structure of enrichment teachers in the demonstration center classroom learning centers; should indicateactivities for two functions: (a) planningspecific sequences of activities independent work, specific problemsfor solution, and on increasingly complexlevels; and (b) identifying their instructional materials; and should prescribethe use of own guiding questions atdifferent levels of thought. The levels of intellec- certain instructional aids, such asbulletin boards. teachers thus learned to identify specific tual functioning, to state their purposes inthose terms, and the specified levels of thought. A lesson plan in the social sciencesshould specify the to phrase their questions at goals to be sought in terms of cognitive,affective, and Furthermore, in order to improve their evaluative measures, language activi- the teachers of the Los Angeles centerconsidered the collative learning; pupil needs; references; questions for use at the various ties; opportunities for correlatedwork; and major general- formulation of test izations.Detailedplanningof asocialscienceunit levels. (5) contributes to the teacher's perspective andfacilitates the selection of appropriate means fordeveloping concepts, reinforcing ideas, and evaluating learning. EXAMPLES OF FORMATS formats that were A lesson plan in mathematics or scienceshould contain The following are several examples of Center in planning the major concepts to be grasped, theprojected target dates used by the Los Angeles Demonstration for the enrich- and activities, assignments forindependent work, and lessons, study units, and courses of study opportunities for correlated work in thelearning center. In ment program. summarizing the values of long-range plans,Maxine Dunfee and Julian Greenlee note the followingbenefits to pupils: improvedmotivation,growthinaffectivelearning,

1Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected (The formats follow.) References" at the end of this chapter.

114 Daily Lesson Plan C. Activity

The general format devised for the daay lesson plan D. Evaluation consisted of the following steps: V. INDEPENDENT STUDY I.PURPOSES VI. RELATED ACTIVITY (next lessonor independent IL BACKGROUND project)

III.MATERIALS

IV. PROCEDURE Other Formats

A. Motivation The following pages illustrate formats thatwere designed for weekly lesson plans, the scope of social science, and B. Guiding questions long-range planning for science and mathematics.

WEEKLY LESSON PLAN

Subjects Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday * *

* * * * *

* * 41

* * * *

*Purpose; procedures; outcomes; plam for learning centers (areas for independentstudy, specific problems to be solved, materials, bulletin boards). 116

SCOPE FORMAT FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE

Major Objectives Knowledge and understanding Attitudes and appreciations Skills and work habits

Plan for Study

Needs Infor- Refer- Con- Dra- Oral ScienceMathe- Crea- Art Music mationmix struc- matic and matics tive refer- read- tion repre- written rhythms ems ing senta- Ian- tion guage

Summary and Transition: (statement of major generalization leading intonew area of study)

Summary and Transition: (statement of major generalization leadhiginto new area of study)

Summary:

Major Generalizations (From the social sciences) 117

LONG-RANGE PLAN FOR SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Instructional Independent Learning Concepts Date period work center Sixfilms: Selected References sentationof Statistical Information, "Knowledge,""Comprehension,""Application," "Synthesis," and "Evaluation."Cali- Development of Creative ExpressionThrough a Study "Analysis," fornia Project Talent. Hollywood,Calif.: Acme Films of the Literary Elementof Characterization.Five and Videotape Laboratories, Inc. films: "Cognition," "Memory,""Convergent Think- ing," "Divergent Thinking,"and "Evaluation." Cali- Calif.: Acme Films 4.Dunfee, Maxine, and JulianGreenlee.Elementary fornia Project Talent. Hollywood, Theory, and Practice. and Videotape Laboratories, Inc. School Science: Research, Washington, D.G.: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education 2.Development of CriticalAppreciation Through a Study of the FundamentalForms of Music.Three Association, 1957. "Transformation," and "Evalu- films: "Acquisition," "Making Your Own Tests."Filmstrips, records, and ation." California ProjectTalent. Hollywood, Calif.: 5. manual. Berkeley, Calif.:Educational Testing Service. Acme Films and VideotapeLaboratories, Inc. science, and mathematics Development of Scientific Discovery,Methodology, (Also see the science, social 3. materials listed with the pupils'references in Chapter V.) and Investigation Through aStudy of Graphic Repre- Part Three Implementation of the Program ChapterXI Application of Enrichment in the Classroom

After defining the philosophy and objectives of enrich- inherent in grouping pupils according to compatibility of ment and setting eligibility standards for pupil participation interests, abilities, and maturity levels within the different in the program, educators concerned should devote consid- grades. To solve that problem, certain principals abolished erable care to choosing the particular subject fields to be grade-level organization and introduced nongraded or multi- enriched. When the appropriate content has been selected, graded classrooms. The reorganization of class t,oms in turn the next phase of implementation is to consider data required a reevaluation of educational objectives and a sources, the choice of learning opportunities, and the reorganization of learning opportunities to meet the new availability of resources in personnel and materials. There- objectives. Based on the needs of individual pupils, those after, a program for teacher preparation should be estab- innovationsreflecttheingenuity and high caliber of lished on the basis of the curricular areas elected. The final leadershiprequiredineducatingforindividual excel- steps in establishing the program consist in organizing the lence. (4, 8) gifted pupils into learning groups, providing for individualized learning experiences, and preparing creative classroom environments. The Central Role of the Teachers

ADMINISTRATIVE AND INSTRUCTIONAL ROLES The conversion of educational planning into reality demands the skill and cooperation of the faculty members, The strategic roles of administrators and teachers also for without successful implementation in the classroom, all require thoughtful consideration so that their respective new ideas, techniques, and devices are of no avail. (7) The functions may be clearly delineated and their responsi- teacher's roleis to adapt masses of knowledge to the bilities well defined. children's educational needs. The teacher's artliesin performing that role so as to heighten the pupil's curiosity and to inspire him with a heuristic interest and ability to Role of the School Administrator pursue further learning on his own.

As in any other educational innovation, a high order of Previous chapters in this publication contain a discus- administrative talentis required to launch an enriched sion of the personal and professional characteristics desir- curriculum. Summarizing thefunctions of the school ableinteachers engaged in enrichment, together with principal, Clayton Buell maintains that his ability is a sine teacher training courses in the enrichment process and qua non in providing leadership for both the faculty courses in content areas given for teachers at the Los members and the student body. (1)1 Robert Eaves says that Angeles Demonstration Center. The teachers there mastered grade school principals should activate positive changes in the techniques and subject content in varying degrees of the classroom through recognizing individual differences in competency. The author's experience at the demonstration pupils and varying ability levels within the faculty. Princi- center indicated that only through teacher preparation for pals should also be foresighted, honest of purpose, and their roles in the project and through teacher participation trustful of their teachers. (5) in planning the program could the aims of enrichment be truly realized. In introducing enrichment, the school principal should organize cluster groups of pupils of similar abilities in each classroom. Certain problems arose in clustering at the Los The basic responsibility of administrators, supervisors, Angeles Demonstration Center because of the difficulties and faculty members in enriching curriculums is to fashion and to evaluate learning opportunities appropriate for challenging the gifted child. Their tasks of planning and implementing the project were found difficult but not 1Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. insurmountable at the Los Angeles center.

121 122

CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION social interactions; (b) the learners' qualities being discovered by others; and (c) the learners' discovering the value The enrichment program of California Project Talent and worth in other persons. (3) was designed for self-containedclassrooms, which arrangement enabled the teachers to know their pupils welland to The Los Angeles center encouraged warm, supportive provide them with individual guidance. The self-contained human relationships in an atmosphere free from fear and classroom had the further advantages of permitting flexibil- tension in classrooms where orderliness was based upon ityin time schedules, of facilitating the matching of mutual respect and good will. The attractive surroundings individual needs with the appropriate materials and experi- stimulated intellectual curiosity through bulletin boards, ences, and of correlatingdifferent subject content within displays, models, and specimens. Teachers kept systematic units of study. (9) Those classrooms also facilitated the records of pupil progress and continually evaluated pupil organization of learning groups, promoted individualized achievement toward well-defined goals. The center was also learning experiences, and aided in developing a creative characterized by learning opportunities that were at once learning environment. purposeful, satisfying, and diversified; by varied, multilevel instructional materials; by cooperative, long-range plans; by flexible organization; and by the correlation of course Organization of Groups content.

Because group processes encourage certain learning, research in group dynamics affords challenging implications Organization of Learning Centers for classroom organization. 0. L. Davis, Jr., defines a group as an aggregate of persons who interactand cooperate with Learning centers organized in the classroom all featured one another inworking toward a mutually accepted a particular problem for solution'.Each learning center goal. (2) He says that grouping for a particular purpose aids contained such items as informational resource files, globes, in utilizing the intelligence and the creativity of the group's manipulative materials, files of pupils' work and other members. Groups organized to achieve a common goal individual records, audio-visual equipment, one or more represent great diversity, as do all groups, but the diversities tables and chairs, and reference materials; and it offered to themselves enrich the learning of the participants. the pupils a series of questions for independent study and for individual projects. A bulletin board at each such center presented material to motivate interest, to provide refer- Organization of Individualized Work ence sources, or to summarizelearnings.

Individualized instruction enhances the pupil's oppor- Each classroom featured its own library, containing a tunities to achieve excellence in a field of particular interest wide range of titles related both to subject areas and to to him. The organization of individualized work in the individual interests. An area adjacent to the library shelves classroom encompasses two fundamental educational steps: provided space for pupils to consult encyclopedias, dictio- (a) cultivating the ability to make decisions; and (b) creat- naries, thesauruses, atlases, and other reference materials. ing the desire to make those decisions. The listening center in each classroom contained a tape recorder, a record player, a listening attachment with jacks Classroom Learning Environment and earphones, and a collection of tapes and records.The viewing center containedascreen,a slide projector, A superior classroom environment positively influences filmstrips, and slides. This area was so located in the the learning that occurs in it. William Van Til writes that in classroom as to cause a minimum of noise or other order to promote adequate personality development, the distractions. classroom should be considered as a laboratory for self- discovery a laboratory that encouragesexploration and Yet another type of learning center was related to the originality. Situations wherein all pupils receive the same various subject matter areas such as art, music,reading, treatment are not conducive to the provision of adequate arithmetic, language, and science. Each such center con- experiences for all children. (10) Because the releaseof tained afile of supplementary information; afile of individual potential is the prime purpose of individualized children's independent work; paintings, structures, and instruction, educators should encourage an enthusiasm for models prepared by the pupils; kits of sequential material discovery and create a learning environment conducive to on the particular subject content; booksrelated to the field; discovery. Robert DeHaan and Ronald Doll relate the manipulative materials; a question in problem solving or a concept of discovery to three aspects: (a) thelearners' summary statement of acquired information; independent discovering their own mental, emotional, aesthetic, and study questions; and suggestions for individual projects. 123

clarifying content, acceleratinglearning rates, and increasing retention of information.

SOUND FILMSTRIP ON THE PROJECT

Under the auspices of CaliforniaProject Talent, the Audio-Visual Section of the Los AngelesUnified School District prepared a colored filmstripshowing children at work in various learning centers,together with a phonograph record narrated by MaryP. Broderick. A printed guide accompanies the filmstripand record to inform educators on how the learning environmentprovided at the demonstration center motivated children toexplore and to work independently. (6) Although they arenot for sale, the color-sound filmstrip and guide may beborrowed from any of the 20 regional curriculummaterials depositories located throughout the state. The Bureau ofReferences Services (formerly the Curriculum Laboratory) ofthe California State Department of Education willprovide the addresses of the other depositories. Eachdepository has two filmstrips, records, and guides, one copyof which may be circulated, while the other is alwaysavailable for study at the depository. Besides thecolor-sound filmstrip, California Project Talent also presented 14 films inthree series, as indicated in Chapter XV.

Figure 1. One of Several Different Kinds ofLearning Centers ACTUALIZATION OF ENRICHMENT

As has been pointed out often inthis publication, the basic responsibility of educators who areconcerned with opportunities Because enrichment programs demandthe ready accessi- enrichment is, to provide appropriate learning chapters present bility of all learning materials, manyclassrooms combined for the gifted child. The following three within a single working specific examples of the opportunities that wereoffered in the three kinds of learning centers appreciation, and area. Learning centersencouraged independent work by the fields of creative expression, critical providing space for activities involvingcreative expression, scientificattitudesatthe Enrichment Demonstration scientific experiment, and other such typesof individual Center of Los Angeles. study. The centers were also used forpupil seminars and for teacher-pupil conferences on individualprojects. Selected References

1. Buell, Clayton E. "The Priacipalas Educational Values of Learning Centers Leader of His School," The Bulletinof the National XLVIII Besides their value in encouraginggifted children to Association of Secondary-School Principals, study independently, the purposes of theclassroom centers (March, 1964), 144-57. were to encourage thepupils to work for extended time interrelated learnings, work withabstrac- 2.Davis, 0. L., Jr. "Grouping forInstruction: Some spans, achieve Perspectives," The Educational Forum, XXIV(Jan- tions, summarize and generalizeeffectively, evaluate critically, reason logically, and evolve originalideas. uary, 1960), 209-16.

Other advantages provided by such centers wereto 3.De Haan, Robert F., and Ronald C.Doll. "Individual- instructional materials ization and Human Potential," inIndividualizing stimulate interest with the varied for and to solve problems with resourcematerials, including Instruction. Sixty-fourth Yearbook, Association filmstrips, recordings, and slides. Suchopportunities for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Washing- Association, 1964. reading,listening, and observing helped thepupils by ton, D.C.: National Education 124

4.Dufay, Frank R. Ungrading the Elementary School. 7.Howe, Harold. "Tolstoi and Teachers," NEA Journal, West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Co., 1966. LV (May, 1966), 19.

Eaves, Robert W. "The Challenge to Leadership," The 5. 8.Parker, Don H. Schooling for Individual Excellence. National Elementary Principal, XL (October, 1960), New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1963. 55.

6.Enrichment Programs for Intellectually Gifted Stu- 9.Snyder, Edith Roach. The Self-Contained Classroom. dents.Preparedincooperation withtheU. S. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Curriculum Development, 1960. Office of Education, lad the California State Depart- ment of Education. Presented byCalifornia Project Talent. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School 10. Van Til, William. "The Positive View of Self," in Becoming.Associationfor District [n.d.].Filmstrip, color, 73 frames; sound on Perceiving,Behaving, phonograph record, two sides, 33-1/3 rpm, LP; and Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washing- filmstrip guide. ton, D.C.: National Education Association, 1962. MR711171S.

ChapterXII Enrichment Through Creative Expression

To initiate their enriched curriculums in creative expres- different grade levels applying Guilford's theories on the sion, teachers of the Los Angeles Demonstration Center intellect to the teaching of various literary forms. first chose from a list of proposed topics a subject in which theywereparticularlyinterested,proficient,orwell informed. After closely examining the content of the area chosen, the teachers prepared a long-range plan for a unit of COURSE OUTLINE IN CREATIVE EXPRESSION study. Organized according to the format presented in Chapter XI, the units were prepared under the assumption This course outline constitutes a framework for the that a thorough acquaintanceship with a certain literary study of characterization through experiences related to form releases the pupil's creative capacity within that form couragean important quality of character. by encouraging invention and freedom of expression. Each course outline was based on increasingly difficult levels of the five intellectual operations delineated by J. P. Guilford, Cognition whose theoretical model appears in Chapter II. Specific Purposes

ENRICHED UNITS OF STUDY IN To learn the value given to courage by the Polynesians of CREATIVE EXPRESSION Hikueru.

To understand Mafatu's relationship to his people and to This chapter presents a sample unit of study, together discuss that kinship orally and in writing. with examples of daily lesson plans, as taught at the Los Angelescenterto develop written creative expression Materials through literature. Representative of the type of lessons presented at the center are the sample lesson plans from the Call It Courage, by Armstrong Sperry, pages 7 through unit, which focus on characterization in the story, Call It 13. Courage, by Armstrong Sperry. That unit of study, which followstheregular format for enriched course work, Content includes the following information: purpose, background information, materials, procedures, follow-up with inde- One of thethreeprincipaldivisionsof Oceania, pendent study, and related activities. Polynesia comprises those islands in the Pacific lying east of Melanesia and Micronesia and extending from the Hawaiian The unit portrayed in this chapter is concerned with a Islands south to New Zealand. Polynesians greatly admire study of characterization through a sequence of experiences the quality of courage. involving courage. Five filmed observation lessons from this unit, produced at the center and available to educators, are When Mafatu was three years old, a hurricane killed his listed with the references appended to chapters X and XV. mother and thus enkindled in him an abiding fear of the sea. His father, the tribal chief, who had christened Mafatu The lesson' plans included in this chapter follow the "Stout Heart," was ashamed of the boy because of his prescribed format and illustrate the practical application of terror. Older islanders blamed the spirit Tapapau for the Guilford's theoretical structure of intellectual functioning. lad's fear. Girls laughed at him; boys shunned him; his A description of the learning centers involved and a list of stepmother ignored him. His stepbrothers mocked him and the materials used accompany each of the lesson plans. claimed that Mafatu's fear angered Moana, the sea god. The fishermen would not permit him to join them on fishing The unit outline opens with learning experiences based expeditions because they felt he brought bad luck. Mafatu on cognition. The chapter concludes with lesson plans from spent his time making spears, nets, and shark lines. He

125 befriended a dog, Uri, and an albatross, Kivi. But because of began to fill the great basins that eventually became oceans. the contempt in which I he other islanders held him, Mafatu The continental (granitic) rocks clustered in groups sepa- wanted desperately to escape from Hikueru. rated by deep chasms. During the millions of years of the earth's existence, vast changes have occurred both on the The Author land and on the sea floors.

Written in 1940, Call It Courage won for its author the PROCEDURE Newbery medal for children's literature in 1941. Besides being a writer, Armstrong Sperry is also known as an Motivation illustrator of children's books. An American, Sperry has authored other children's works, including the following: The teacher stimulates the children's interest in charac- Little Eagle, Navajo Boy; Danger to Windward; Thunder terization as a basis for original stories to be written by the Country; Frozen Fire; South of Cape Horn; and The class. The pupils will want to learn more about character by Amazon. studying some of its aspects. The pupils analyze courage as a facet of character preparatory to using characterization in Born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1897, Sperry their own writing. attended Yale Art School. After serving in the United States Navy in World War I, he studied art in New York Guiding Questions City and later spent two years in the South Pacific. Sperry's interest in the sea was inspired during his boyhood from What is the setting of the story of Mafatu? hearing his grandfather spin yarns of his adventures as a sea captain in the South Seas. What did Mafatu most fear? What caused that fear?

Background Information What did Mafatu's name mean?

For many centuries men had been afraid of the sea. As How did Mafatu's father feel about him? The other late as the nineteenth century, many persons still believed boys? The girls? How did Mafatu's stepbrothers feel about that the oceans were bottomless except for the shallow him? How did his stepmother treat him? What did the old fringe of water around the coastal areas. It was widely people think about him? believed that when ships sank, they stopped in midwatera mile or two down because' of the water's increased density Activity atthatdepth. Whilesea water does indeed become somewhat denser with depth, the slight increase in density Read and discuss the story under the guidance of the is not nearly sufficient to support a ship. teacher.

To understand the origin of the ocean, one must have Evaluation and Summary some knowledge of how the earth began. Most theorists now agree that this planet started as a great globe of hot gas Although Mafatu's people are unknown to us, they and cosmic dust that eventually condensed into a solid reveal their attitudes through their actions. What values do mass. In gradually cooling off, the gases became a molten they revere? Are they thinking clearly in making demands liquid before separating into their component materials. of Mafatu? Do they have a right to demand courage of him? The heaviest of those components, which is thought to consist largely of iron, sank toward the center of the earth Independent Study Assignments to form its core. Having a total radius of about 2,150 miles, the core is composed of a solid center surrounded by List each character in the story and indicate his attitude liquids. The core is enveloped in a wrapping of rock called toward Mafatu. Describe qualities in the character of each the mantle, which is approximately 1,800 miles deep and person. which comprises the bulk of the planet. Atop the mantle is the third layer, the crust, which is a thin skin averaging 20 Summary and Transition miles in depth and forming the surface of the earth. The firstsolid layer of the planet to be formed, this crust The pupils analyze the Polynesians' worship of courage originally floated on top of the molten mantle rock. As the andtheirindifference to Mafatu. The pupils wonder mantle cooled, the solidifying crustal rock emitted huge whether Macaw will gain courage or will escape from quantities of steam, which combined with other gases to Hikueru. form the earth's atmosphere. As the earth's surface cooled sufficiently to support water without boiling it, the rains They try to decide what the boy ought to do. 127

RELATED ACTIVITIES youths scorn him as a coward. Deciding that he could no longer remain on Hikueru, Mafatu resolved to face the sea Pupil Assignments god, Moana.

The following assignments may be given to enable the Background Information pupils to acquire knowledge in the fields of oceanography and geobiology: Men have long supplemented their diets with food from the sea. The cycle of oceanic food production begins when Read Let's Read About the Sea, Seashores, and All animal plankton, including eupbausids, eat algae. Plankton, About Whales. in turn, feed a suborder of the whale family called the whalebone whale. Blue sharks taid cod devour herring, Study the exhibits, "Marine Life" and "Tropical which are also prey to fishermen and sea birds. Remora eat Shells." blue sharks; giant squid attack sperm whales; sand sharks eat lobsters and hermit crabs of the shallow seas. The Make a field trip to Cabrillo Marine Museum in San decaying bones of these sea inhabitants in turn provide Pedro to observe sea birds on the beach and the nutrients for the algae. The annual growth in fish averages a breakwater.Collectseashells,grunioneggs, and billion tons. The consumption of smaller fish by larger ones seawater. maintains a balance in the fish population,

Review sound motion pictures. Observe underwater The wind, heat from the sun, and rotation of the earth life and investigate the relationship of plants and cause the formation of strong ocean currents. The wind animals in Life in the Sea. Learn about tides and fish drives the surface currents. Currents near the surface and at inhabiting tide flats in Animal Life at Low Tide. deeper levels result from the sun's heat. The earth's rotation Study the characteristics, habits, and importance of moves whole oceans westward and also causes certain invertebrate animals dwelling on or near the beach in winds. The steady winds pushing the surface currents blow Beach and Sea Animals. from one direction. Tropical winds blow along the equator westward; farther north and south from the equator, the Discover how scientists study the ocean by photo- winds blow eastward. The winds cause three large currents: graphing plants and animals in shallow depths, by the Gulf Stream, the Humboldt Current, and the Labrador exploring the deepest ocean floor in special crafts Current. such as the bathyscaphe, and by using research instruments to map vast areas of the ocean floor in the film, What's Under the Ocean? PROCEDURE

Motivation Memory Curiosity as to whether Mafatu will show courage on the Specific Purposes island stimulates further reading.

To recall the fury of the hurricane in Mafatu's babyhood Guiding Questions and to discuss orally its relationship to his fear of fishing. What does Mafatu's refusal to go fishing have to do with To recall the work that the tribe assigned to Mafatu and his mother's death? to write about the interaction between Mafatu and his tribe. Why was the boy sometimes unhappy with his name?

Materials Why did Mafatu decide to prove his courage to himself?

Call It Courage, pages 13 through 18. Activity

Content Read and discuss under the guidance of the teacher.

Polynesian youth learned to kill swordfish and sharks by Evaluation and Summary starting with smaller fishcalled bonitos. As the boys sharpened their knives and spears and tested their shafts, Although Mafatu's tribe scorned and shamed him, he only Kana was friendly to Mafatu, who heard the other faithfully performed his tasks. Mafatu's fear of the sea kept 128 him from fishing. How was Mafatu's fear justified? What Materials was the value of his tasks? Call It Courage, pages 35 through 79. Independent Study Assignments Content List the tasks given to Mafatu. Indicate their usefulness. What type of person was Kana? How did he reveal some of Mafatu decided to go to a distant island to make a place the qualities of his character? for himself among strangers. He would return to Hikueru only when he had proved himself, hoping to hear his father Summary and Transition say, "Here is my son, Stout Hearta brave name for a brave boy." Mafatu left Hikueru in his canoe with his dog Pupilsrecallthetribe's predominant feelings about Uri, a half dozen drinking nuts, and his fish spear. The boy courage, remember the fury of the hurricanewhen Mafatu was happy to have Kivi, the albatross, along. As his canoe was a boy of three, understand theboy's motivation to rode through the Pacific on an ocean current, Mafatu leave Hikueru, and wonder whether Mafatu will prove his wondered what his father and the boys would say. After courage. going through a hurricane, he landed on a mountainous island.

RELATED ACTIVITIES The South Pacific circle of currents has carried both ancient and modern explorers on their discoveries. Thor Pupil Assignments Heyerdahl, a Norwegian, believed that centuries ago the Indians of Peru left their continent to settle in the South Listen to underwater sounds in the recording, Sounds Sea Islands by sailing across the Pacific Ocean. Heyerdahl of the Sea. itndfiveothers sailed from Peru in 1947. The South Equatorial Current carried them across the Pacific to the Determine how geobiologists map the climate of past Tuamotu Islands in the South Seas; this remarkable venture periods. showed that the South Equatorial Current could have carried the Peruvian Indians westward hundieds of years Experience vicariouslythe feeling of a seafaring before. It took Heyerdahl and his crew 101 days to make adventure. Sing "Call of the Sea," "Viking Songs," the 4,300-mile trip. The courses of the slow-moving surface and "Canoe Song." Listen to themes from the currents of the oceans are determined by the prevailing orchestral suite La Mer: "From Dawn to Noon on the winds in each hemisphere. Heyerdahl's voyage on his raft Sea," "Play of the Waves," and "Dialogue of the "Kon -Tiki" (named after a Polynesian sun god) showed also Wind and the Sea." that the Humboldt and South Equatorial currents of the South Pacific could have carried the Polynesians from their View the art prints listed at the end of this chapter. islands to Peru.

Analyze fearfulness and determine whether fear has a useful purpose (e.g., as a warning of danger). Deter- mine how to go about overcoming undesirable fears. PROCEDURE

Listen to, recite, and discuss the poem "Do You Fear Motivation the Wind?" The desire to learn how Mafatu resolves his fierce Read and discuss the book, The Island of the Blue resentment at being called a coward motivates further Dolphins, and compare the situation of the girl with reading. that of the boy in Call It Courage. Guiding Questions

Convergent Thinking What was the logical thing for Mafatu to do to improve his status? Specific Purpose How did Mafatu gain courage as he started his adventure To synthesize a comprehension of the tribe's behavior on the sea? and Mafatu's feelings and relate this synthesis in oral and written expression to his venture on the sea. What gave him an overwhelming desire to live? 129

Activity Divergent Thinking

Read and discuss under the guidance of the teacher. Specific Purposes

Evaluation and Summary To speculate on what might haveoccurred later in Mafatu's life if the circumstances of his boyhood had been Wishing to prove himself to his father and to *he tribe, different. Mafatu ventures out on the sea, determined to conquer his fear of it. How does he show responsibility to himself and To interpret orally and in writing the manifestations of to his fellow men? courage in Mafatu's life on the mountainous island.

Independent Study Assignments Materials Summarize the events in the story that contributed to Call It Courage, pages 35 through 79. Mafatu's self-doubt. Record the page and line of each event and explain how it influenced his flight on the sea to the Content mountainous island. Having arrived safely on the mountainous island, Mafatu Summary and Transition found food and water, made a fire, discovered a volcano, and learned that the "eaters-of-men" (savages from the Pupils may be expected to interrelate the tribe's behav- Smoking Islands) lived on the southwest part of the island, ior, the fears of Mafatu, nature's harsh law of survival on where they worshiped their idol. Mafatu courageously took sea and land, the values of companionship,and the threats a spearhead from the savages' sacredplatform. Acquiring of loneliness; pupils will also wish to learn whether Mafatu self-confidence and an inner peace, the boy made nets, could survive on the island. knives, shark lines, shellfish hooks, and other implements. Grateful for possessing the skills and abilities necessary for RELATED ACTIVITIES survival under the demanding conditions of the island, Mafatu made clothes; built himself a raft, a canoe, and a Pupil Assignments house; killed a shark and a boar; and made a necklace from the boar's teeth. He enjoyed the companionship of Uri and Consider various qualities of character. Kivi.

Read and discuss the poem "The Wreck of the Background Information Hesperus" to determine what one quality in the father was largely responsible for the wreck. It was formerly believed that the floor of the ocean was composed of "abyssal plains," which are the flat pools of Read and discuss the poem "Solitude" to decide what sediment on seabeds. A physicist and oceanographer of the kind of person would equate solitude with happy Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution of Massachusetts, J. living. B. Hersey, verified that abyssal plains are not quite flat by using an echo sounder, which records changes in depth of Read and discuss the story "Fisherman" to decide one fathom. Some flatplainsinthe Pacific Ocean, whether the characters are defeated by outside forces especially those around volcanic islands, differ from abyssal or by their own weakness and ignorance. plains. Normally volcanoes erupt and lava flows into the sea Read the short story "Albert Schweitzer." Analyze around a volcanic island; however, occasionally lava may pour out from huge cracks in the seabeditself to form a flat the character of a man who would leave security and plain in the absence of a nearby island. Studying such fame at home and dedicate his life to alleviating plains, W. Menard and his colleagues of the Scripps misery in the jungle. Institution of Oceanography at La Jolla, California, have Ascertain the scientific principles of boat construc- recently obtained significant new information about the tion by research, experimentation, and analysis. seabed of the Pacific.

Study the filmstrip "Why Things Float." Much underwater scenery in the ocean is caused by volcanoes, which may continually grow in height because of Read to learn how gravity makes things float and increasing lava eruptions until the volcanoes finally emerge conduct suggested experiments, using the textbook above the ocean surface as new islands. Since about three Science Is Explaining. miles separate the ocean floor from the water's surface, 130

many volcanoes never penetrate theocean's surface; ocean- Activity ographers plot the peaks of such underwater volcanoes with an echo sounder. Pupils read and discuss the story under the guidance of the teacher. Whilestudyingunderwatervolcanoes, H. Hess of Princeton, New Jersey, discovered flat-top underwater islands that he called "guyots," after a famous nineteenth Evaluation and Summary century geologist named Arnold Guyot. Although guyots somewhat resemble volcanoes, they have flat tops. That Mafatu becomes completely Polynesian and rejoices in flatness is ascribed to the fact that at one stage in their the ancient fierceness of his race, fearing nothing and development, the peaks of the guyots probably penetrated enjoying his life. How does his endurance relate to the through the sea's surface as islands, which then slowly sank virtue of courage? over long periods of time, graduallywearing away their tips as they sank. Although mostunderwater volcanoes and guyots developed millions of years ago, occasionally a new Independent Study Assignments island still rises from the sea. Besides the volcanic islands and guyots, mountain ranges also emerge from the ocean Enumerate the events that lent Mafatu courage on the island. Relate each of these events to earlier occurrences in floor. his life. Mention other ways in which the author might have The ocean floor is dented with trenches, caused by folds depicted Mafatu's growth in courage. in the earth's crust. The average trench continues down below the ocean surface to a depth of 5,000 fathoms, Summary and Transition where the valley rounds off at the bottom. Averaging about 50 miles in width, trenches are particularly common in the Pupils consider indications of Mafatu's courage, which western part of the Pacific Ocean. Some of them areabout they relate to his fears, doubts, and moral and ethical six miles deepabout twice the average depth of the ocean qualities. They wonder whether he returns home to receive floor. The deepest trenches yet discovered run southward the plaudits of his family and friends. from east of Japan and the Mariana Islands and westward toward the Philippine Islands. Other trenches are located south of the equator next to the Kermadec Group and the RELATED ACTIVITIES Tonga Islands.

Pupil Assignments PROCEDURE Read and discuss the following books: The Quest of Galileo, The Orphans of Sinatra, Three Without Fear, Motivation Dangerous Journey, Amelia Earhart, Of Courage Undaunted, Little House in the Big Woods, Little Interest in Mafatu's lonely existence on the strange House on the Prairie, By the Shores of Silver Lake, island motivates the pupils to continue reading to learn and The Long Winter. whether Mafatu can conquer his fear. Read and discuss the short stories, "Providence to Guiding Questions Our Aid" and "Spring Victory."

How else might Mafatu have acquired courage had he Discern the type of courage shown through loyalty to not found the spearhead on the sacrificial platform? family members in the face of hardships.

If Mafatu had not recovered his courage, how might he Observe the qualities of physical courage and perse- have developed in his later life? verance in overcoming hardships as shown in adventure stories, biographies, and historical fiction. If his mother had not died, what kind of man might Mafatu have become? Listentotherecordings, "Paul Revere's Ride," "Daniel Boone: The Opening of the Wilderness," What might have been the result had Uri the dog become "The Winter at Valley Forge," and "Log Cabin in the lost in the storm and had Kivi failed to return? Wilderness." 131

Evaluation height reaches one seventh of its length, the wave becomes steep and breaks; but a strong wind may blow off the Specific Purposes wave's top beforeitattainsitsfullheight to form whitecaps, which may be found on windy, stormy days. To apply value judgments to synthesized understanding of persons and events in the story through oral discussion. Oceanic storms complicate wave patterns. Waves may originate at one place while others are reaching that spot To generalize learning orally on courage as a quality of from a storm center several miles away. These traveling character. waves grow rapidly before breaking. High waves may even he found in areas where there is little wind because large To include characterization as a literary element in the waves retain their energy for a long while, sometimes pupils' own stories. traveling hundreds of miles from the storm center of their origin. Swells are formed by waves that become smoothly Materials spaced and roundly crested in moving away from driving winds. Shallow water retards the waves, causing breakers to Call It Courage, pages 79 through 95; The Quest of approach the beach at an angle. Currents in the open seas Galileo, by Patricia Lauber; The FDR Story, by Catherine serve as breakwaters by breaking up wave patterns and 0. Peare; Seeing Fingers: The Story of Louis Braille, by creating new ones. Large, powerful waves breaking against a Etta De Gering; Follow My Leader, by James B. Garfield; shore may either wear away or build up the coastline. wtTh The Door in the Wall, by Marguerite DeAngeli; The Island the sand washed by the waves onto a beach is blowy, of the Blue Dolphins, by Scott O'Dell; Robert Louis the high tide line, sand dunes are formed that may de _,p Stevenson: His Life, by Catherine 0. Peare; and The into grassland when plants take root in them. Orphans of Simitra, by Paul-Jacques Bonzon.

Content PROCEDURES

Chased in his canoe by the cannibalistic man-eating Motivation savages, Mafatu prayed to Maui for help on the windless sea. Sharks pursued his canoe. In a rage Mafatu called to Continued reading is motivated from interest in learning Moana the sea god, whom he blamed for his mother's death about the reception Mafatu receives from his tribe when he and for his own fear, which had turned his people against returns home. him. Suddenly Mafatu losthis fear of the sea. Accompanied by Uri and Kivi, Mafatu returned to his native island. Alighting on the beach resplendent with his spear and his Guiding Questions boar's-tooth necklace, he addressed his father: "My Father, I have come home." His father warmly responded: "Here is What is your opinion of the standards of courage held by my son come home from the sea. Mafatu, Stout Heart. A Mafatu's tribe? Were they just? Why? brave name for a brave boy!" Would you have lost your courage in Mafatu's place? Background Flow would you have improved your reputation with the tribe? The sea's surface is topped by waves, of which the highest point is the crest; the lowest point, the trough. The What did Mafatu do to regain his courage? What distance between the crests of waves is called the wave circumstances helped him to do so? Which circumstances in length. The speed and the wave length determine the period the plot were the most important? of a wave, which is the time required for the wave to pass a fixed point from crest to crest. Only gales blowing across How do stories like Mafatu's help you to improve your hundreds of miles can produce the largest waves, which life? may reach heights of about 60 feet. What aspects of courage have you read about in other The "fetch" refers to the distance run by waves under books? the force of the wind. The longer the fetch, the longer and faster are the individual waves. The wind speed determines What is courage? How do we portray it in our own lives? the length of time required for waves to increase to their maximum size. The wind also determines the height of the How did the author make his characters seem like real wave's crest, which is limited by the length. When a wave's persons? 132

Evaluation and Summary DAILY LESSON PLANS FOR CLASSES IN LITERATURE Mafatu fought the sea and won, sustaining himself by his own wit and skill. He had faced death courageously.Upon The examples of daily lesson plans in literature described his return home, he heard his bravery extolled by his father in this section were designed for children of varying age before the whole tribe. levels at the Los Angeles Demonstration Center. Materials used in providing a classroom environment conducive to concomitant learning are listed with each lesson outline. Independent Study Assignments Each lesson planisfollowed by a description of its applicationtoanintellectualoperationfromJ.P. Tracethe development by the author of Mafatu's Guilford's "Structure of Intellect" model of 126 cubes character; list sequentially the thoughts and events that depicted in Chapter II. reveal aspects in the boy's character.

Lesson Plan I Summary and Transition GRADE LEVEL: Kindergarten Pupils may be expectedtofeel that Mafatu was AGE LEVEL: Between four and a half and five and a courageous in reacting to histribe's indifference toward half him by fighting the seas and that he faced death fearlessly. The children will probably conclude that courage is the inner strength enabling a person to de his duty to himself Specific Purposes and to his fellows against great odds. They may observe that authors portray character in their use of dialogue, in To develop an appreciation for stories and books by motivating the actions of each individual by a description reading, by listening to stories, and by writing original of his temperament and personality traits, and by fore- stories. shadowing his probable future development. The teacher will request pupils to use characterization in writing original To become aware of characters in stories by listening to stories. stories.

To learn about actual animal behavior by listening to realistic stories. RELATED ACTIVITIES Todevelopcreativeexpressionthroughstudying literature. Pupil Assignments Background Listentothe ABC televisionshow, "Discovery '64The Voyage of Christopher Columbus." The children have identified the characters, the main ideas, and the subjects of stories, pictures, books, records, Discover how different types of courage may be of and films to which they have been exposed. The class has the same quality but of different caliber. cared for a live guinea pig and has dictated individual and group stories. Read Profiles in Courage, by John F. Kennedy, or watch the two sets of 16 NBC television films made Materials from that series by Robert Saudek Associates. Avail- able through I. Q. Films, Inc., the films on each of A written experience chart listing the general topics the 16 persons represented consist of two 25-minute studied. reels, accompanied by a teacher's guide. RCA Victor recording VDM 103 presents the sound track of the first set of eight films. Senator Edward M. Kennedy PROCEDURE narrates the recording. Allan Nevins served as histor- ian on the project. In reading the book or watching Motivation the films, note how the subjects treated displayed courage either through their unswervingdevotion to a Interest in reading books, interest in animals, recall of principle or through their advocacy of conciliation. stories, rereading of the experience chart, and the desire to 133

write their own stories motivate children to work in the Memory listening center, at the library table, and on mats. The children remember the many stories they have heard Guiding Questions and recall examples from them to illustrate their knowledge of fictional characters. Who is in the story? Convergent Thinking How does the character look? The children explain why all the stories read are animal What is the character doing? stories.

Are the characters true to life? Divergent Thinking

Activities After speculating on possible animal characters for depiction in original stories, the children dictate their own The pupils go to study centers: (a) to the listening animal stories. center to hear a phonograph reording of "The Poky Little Puppy"; (b) to the library table to read animal stories in Evaluation picture books; (c) to the reading circle to read the picture, "Chipmunks." The children return to the group to share Later the children will think evaluatively on their use of ideas and to discuss findings (subject of the story and animal characters and will evaluate their own and other realistic animal behavior) under the guidance of the teacher. pupils'original stories as to the realism manifested in The pupils summarize findings that all stories read and animal behavior. heard were about animals. They speculate on ideas for their own creative stories about animals. The children dictate their stories. (How does the animal look? How does the CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT animal act? What is he doing?), Learning experiences and environmentinthe Los Evaluation and Summary Angeles center's classrooms were planned to meet the many dimensions of the intellect. Teachers emphasized extension After reading their own stories and those of other of reasoning, recognition of relationships, satisfaction of children, the pupils conclude that all stories written during intellectualcuriosity,fulfillmentof awide range of this class period are animal stories. interests, and stimulation of ability to work independently.

Independent Study Assignments The enriched classroom environment provided for the academically talented kindergartners should include the The childrenareaskedtothink of other animal following learning centers: characters about which to write. Language Arts Center

RELATED ACTIVITIES Name cards Reading-readiness materials (reading textbooks in three Independent Projects sets from state series; single copies of preprimers) Collection of picture books and stories related to The children are introduced to a new recording for the animals listening center, a new book for the library table, new Literature file (nursery rhymes, poetry, pictures) pictures for the literature file, and another live animal in Record player, headsets, and collection of phonograph the play yard. records

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF GUILFORD'S Art Center "STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT" Bulletin boardartprocesses (tempera on Cognition starch and water; hanging panel of tissue lamination) Art file (concepts arranged according to topic, shape, The children demonstrate their understanding of the texture, and media) stories and their characters. Children's art work filed in boxes 134

Art materials (near sink area); art kits (string, stamp, illustrations in several folk tale books and have drawn folk sponge, rubbings, clay, tempera and crayonsets) tale characters in art experiences. The children desire to locate other folk tales. Mathematics Center

Bulletin board chart showing geometric shapes in the Materials environment List of elements of folk tales composed by the group; Manipulative materials having geometric shapes flannel board; the book, Blind Men and the Elephant, Mathematics books (for use with small groups) Lillian Quigley; record player and earphones; the record, Manipulativeobjects (individualflannel boards and flannel objects, individual chalkboards, equipment for "Best Loved Fairy Tales," Volume II, Childcraft, Mercury selection: "ThreeBillyGoatsGruff"; measurement) Recording Mathematics file (set cards, perception cards, number sequence pocket charts. Supplementary readers: I Know a Story and It Happened One Day. Collection of library and numeral cards) books (folk tales): Nail Soup, Margot Zemach; Stone Soup, andGretel,Grimmand Social Science Center MarciaBrown; Hansel Humperdinck; Nibble, Nibble, Mousekin, Joan Anglund; Informational picture about ships on bulletin board Just Say Hic, Barbara Walker; "Lazy Jack," in It Happened One Day; Three Billy Goats Gruff, Marcia Brown; Oniroky Information file box and the Carpenter, Tadashi Matsui. Art process material and Single-copy social science books children's artwork. Toys

Science- and Music-Correlated Center PROCEDURE Science file Science books Motivation Activities and Independent Study Music file box (blank notation patterns of songs) Musical instruments Interest in folk tales is furthered by listening to a flannel Music books board story, "The Blind Men and the Elephant." Children Bulletin board display of animal pictures and corre- refer to their chart of elements of folk tales in comparing sponding musical notation of folk songs and contrasting that story with previously learned ones (for example, "Chicken Little," "Puss and Boots," "Sleeping Beauty and Rose Red," "Jack and the Beanstalk," "The Lesson Plan II Wave," "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs," and so forth.

GRADE LEVELS:First and second Guiding Questions AGE LEVELS: Six, seven, and eight What kind of a story is this? Specific Purposes How did we learn this today? What are the other ways To evaluate and analyze folk tales or folklore literature you might learn about this story? in the literary category; to develop creative expression through astudy of the literary category of folklore What words do we know that have "folk",in them? Why literature. is that a clue?

Background What parts of the story made you think this was a folk tale? The pupils have read, heard, and analyzed well-known folk tales as well as unfamiliar selections to broaden their What happened to illustrate the element of repetition in backgrounds. They have applied value judgments to folk this story? tales. The children have summarized several criteria of that literary category from books they have read and heard. Which story had a part like this? They have recalled stories learned elsewhere. They have shown a need to improve their skills in arranging a sequence What parts in other folk tales can we compare? Which of events. They have shown an appreciation of the were alike? Which were different? 135

When was this story first told? When did it take place? their favorite character, they speculate as to his imagined How do you know this? Where could we check? Let's look actions and as to possible changes in the plot. in the book to find out. Evaluation What else shall be add to our list to show another way of telling whether a story is a folk tale? How will this help you The children are thinking evaluatively about the ele- in your reading? ments of folktales. They can evaluate a new story according to the characteristics of folklore, comparing and Evaluation and Summary contrasting some of the same elements. They will observe that not all folk tales contain all the characteristics. The pupils add to their list of characteristics of folk tales. The children realize that not all folk tales have all the elements listed and conclude that there are possibly other CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT elements of folk tales yet to be found. In planning learning experiences and the classroom environment, two teachers in the Los Angeles enrichment RELATED ACTIVITIES program sought to challenge the many dimensions of the intellect. Independent Project It was found that the following learning centers can The pupils have heard recordings of folk songs and have make positive contributions to a classroom environment sung folk songs; they have recalled the folk songs and have that is challenging to gifted pupils: read the musical notation; they are learning to accompany the singing ots folk songs on melody bells and autoharps. Music Center The children are learning the origins of songs and have a globe, maps, and books (American Folk Songs, Ruth See "Related Activities." Seeger; Music in Our Town, grade two; Music Through the Day, grade one). The pupils have learned a folk dance and Reading Center have originated some of the actions. As a continuing activity, they will later build on this interest in geography Class stories and illustrations by investigating the culture of people in other countries. Favorite poetry file

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF GUILFORD'S Mathematics Center "STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT" Abacus Cognition Number line Story-problem file The children know elements of the folk tales that they Manipulative blocks for forming sets have read. Place-value chart Independent work folder Memory Clock kits Manipulative disks The children remember the many tales of folklore read, Perception cards recall examples of them, and illustrate their understanding Fact cardsaddition, subtraction of the literary category. Individual flannel boards Geometric figures Convergent Thinking Place-value kits Money kits The children have selected the folklore elements in many TextbooksGreater Cleveland Mathematics Program, tales, which they have analyzed in summaries. levels I and 2 Supplementary textbooks Divergent Thinking Science Center The children re-create their folk tales. In their play, "Chicken Licken," they add characters and adjust the plot, Rock and soil samples using the language approach to reading. In writing about Magnifying lenses 136

Record of science experiments PROCEDURE Informational books (textbooks single-copy books for reference) Diagram of earth's core and strata Motivation Problem-solving question: "Whatmakes up the earth?" The teacher stimulates discussion of the importance of the lighthouse by showing an art print of a storm at sea Social Science Center ("StowingtheSail,Bahamas," Winslow Homer). The teacher asksthe following questions: What might be Record of temperatures of milk in various stages endangering these people? Who could help? Graph to show changes and comparisons Thermometer to find temperature on graph Studyprintofsituationsrequiringtemperature Guiding Questions measurement Picture and story files In the story about the little red lighthouse, how did this Information books (for example, How We Get Our Dairy same thing happen? How would you describe this story? Foods, Milk for You, The Dairy) Why is this considered a fantasy? Children's construction work Experiment (hot and cold liquids) What characteristic did you find in this story? Where else Samples of thermometers used for meat, candy, milk, have you found this characteristic? the human body, and so forth What special elements of fantasy did we talk about today? What element of fantasy should we add to our list of the characteristics of fantasy? Lesson Plan HI Activities GRADE LEVELS: Third and fourth AGE LEVELS: Seven, eight, and nine The pupils discuss the story as a fantasy. Some read independently at the learning centers.

Specific Purposes Evaluation and Summary To recall in a group discussion evaluations and analyses of fantasies; to evaluate as a group a new story according to The children summarize their knowledge of the elements the criteria of fantasy previously summarized; to develop of fantasy (plot, characterization, and setting) and locate creative expression through a study of fantasy. them in their new story. They add an element of fantasy to their list of known characteristics. They decide to read more fantasies to locate other elements, such as style, Background mood, and theme. The pupils have read, heard, and analyzed fantasies in stories and books. They have heard recordings of "Winnie Independent Study Assignments the Pooh," "More Winnie the Pooh," and "Pinocchio." They have read fantasies in the following books: Once The children read "Flyaway at the Air Circus" in Treat Upon a Storytime, Treat Shop, Finding New Neighbors, Shop to discover another characteristic of fantasy talking Sam and the Firefly. The children have read the following machines. single-copy library books: Cyrano the Cow, Don Freeman; Our Veronica, Roger Duvoisin. RELATED ACTIVITIES Materials Independent Projects Artprint:"StowingtheSail,Bahamas," Winslow Homer. Story: "The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Theteacherintroduces"Cloudburst"from Grand Gray Bridge," Hildegarde Swift; books: Friends Far and Canyon Suite and art prints by Winslow Homer related to Near, Treat Shop. Record: Grand Canyon Suite, Ferde storms. The story, "The Little Red Lighthouse and the Grofe'. Great Gray Bridge," illustrates cooperative action. 137

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF GUILFORD'S Science Center "STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT" Group science picture (water cycle) Problem-solving question: "How do we explain the Cognition water cycle?" Experiments (plant growth, water cycle) The children understand some elements offantasy Chart showing relationship of plant growth and human pertaining to plot, characterization, and setting. health Magnifying glass Memory Weather and climate kit, Science Research Associates Science picture information file The children remember many fantasies and recall exam- Slide and filmstrip projector ples of them to illustrate their knowledge of the criteria of Filmstrips related to rivers and lakes that literary category. Tape recorder and earphones Teacher-prepared tape: "How Our Deserts Are Formed," with follow-up written material related to the tape Convergent Thinking Temperature line graph for Los Angeles Having located some elements of fantasy in many Independent activity to graph rainfall in two areas stories, the children find another element in today's story. Water table (aquarium) They review their list of elements of fantasy and decide to read more such stories to discover additional ones, Art Center

Divergent Thinking Art supplies (brushes, paints, and so forth) Chart of art elements Later the pupils will write original stories of this genre. Materials of different textures Magnifying glass, prism Color discs in color wheel Evaluation Problem-solving questions: "How can we use primary Later the children will evaluate the fantasies that they hues to get other ones?" "How many hues can you read in terms of theme, mood, and style as well as of the find in our light rays?" "What textures can we see in additional elements pertaining to plot, characterization, and nature?" "What elements did the artist Jackson setting with which they arc already familiar. Then they will Pollock use in his composition?" compare and contrast many fantasies,including their own, Art file boxes for children's art work illustrations); in terms of the literary criteria. Single-copy books (Caldecott awards for e,g., Randolph Caldecott, MaryGould Davis Illustrators:(a) Marcia Brown for Once a Mouse; CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT (b) Virginia Burton for The Little House; (c)Robert McCloskeyfor Make Way for Ducklings; and The classroom of the enrichment center contained the (d) Leonard Wisegard for The Little Island following learning centers:

Language Arts Center Music Center

California state series reading textbooks Chart rack of familiar and new songs Single-copybooks(forexample:Petunia,Roger Rhythm instruments Duvoisin; The Giant, William DuBois; and Charlotte's Autoharp Web, E.B. White) Resonator bells Record player and earphones Chart with musical notation of "The Frog and the Problem-solving question: "What elements of fantasy do Mouse," in Music Now and Long Ago you find in these pictures fromWinnie the Pooh?" Chart with a musical pattern from the song,"The Frog Story record (for example, "Winnie the Pooh,"read by and the Mouse" Maurice Evans) Problem-solving question: "Can you find this pattern in Book: Winnie the Pooh, A. A. Milne our song?" Prints of water color drawings by Ernest Shepard Book: Frog Went A-courtin', John M. Langstaff(Calde- Picture dictionaries and word file boxes cott Award illustrator, TeodorRojankovsky) 138

Social Science Center (a) plot (originality, ingenuity, clarity, effectiveness of the opening situation, andprobability of the outcome); Chalk map of Los Angeles basin with acetate overlay (b) characterization (believable,lifelikecharacters o not Problem-solving question; "Why was the Los Angeles caricatures or stereotypes e interesting dialogue and dia- basin a good place for a city?" lect, if appropriate); (c) setting (contribution to mood and Textbooks; single-copy books atmosphere, influence upon characters, importance to the File box of informational pictures and teacher-prepared story); (d) theme: What idea, truth, or observation is stories conveyed? Why is it significant?; and (e) style and tech- Realia pertaining to study of Los Angeles nique (rapid-mot Ong narrative, emotional impact). Chart rack with summary chart of children's reading and bibliography Materials Outline map of California (rainfall) Globe of the world "TheMilkPitcher"byHowardBrubakerand File of children's maps " Rikki- Tikki -Tavi" by Rudyard Kipling, in Short Stories I, Geography books (for example, California and the West) edited by Virginia Alwin. Other stories and books with a House set for El Pueblo (Los Angeles as a village) child hero or heroine: Ace Pitcher, John Gartner; The Children's construction work tools Fighting Shortstop, Richard T. Flood; and so forth. Chart summarizing the children's knowledge of literary elements. Mathematics Center

Problem-solving question: "How are musical notes like PROCEDURE fractions?" Acetate-covered boards with independent work Motivation Math Workshop for Children, Encyclopaedia Britannica Press The children are motivated by their interest in short Answer sheets for follow-up work stories as a literary form; by their memory of, analyses of Manipulative materials previously read stories; and by a desire to read more short Combination study cards stories. Number lines Single-copy books (for example, Numerals, Irving and Guiding Questions Ruth Adler; Instant Math, Ann Cutter; Fun with Figures, Mae and Ira Freeman; The Wonderful World What literary elements did you notice in the short story, of Mathematics, Lanedo and Lancelot Hogben; and "The Milk Pitcher"? Was any one literary element stronger Arithmetic Can Be Fun, Munro Leaf) than another in this story?

How did the author develop the main character? Lesson Plan IV Why did Phil emerge at the end as a likable human being? GRADE LEVELS:Fifth and sixth AGE LEVELS: Ten and eleven How does the development of characterization by Howard Brubaker in "The Milk Pitcher" compare with that Specific Purposes by Rudyard Kipling in "Rikki- Tikki- Tavi "? How isit similar cr: how is it different? To evaluate short stories and express one's self in a discussion; to analyze short stories in relation to plot, Activities characterization, setting, mood, and theme; to apply value judgments to synthesized comprehension of short stories. Children read and discuss under the guidance of the teacher. They locate parts of the story to illustrate the Background author's use of literary elements. After having studied many short stories, the children Evaluation and Summary know that the literary elements are called plot, characterization, setting, mood, and theme. They have evaluated Characterization is a predominant literary element in shortstories and have summarized their learnings as "The Milk Pitcher," which has only a slight plot. Phil, the follows: To evaluate short stories, the critic considers main character, has fine attitudes toward work, school, and 139

teamwork; he respects his parents, teachers, and coaches. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT He has a good-natured disposition; alikable,positive personality; and a fine sense of humor. Phil fulfills his The classroom of the Los Angeles enrichment center potentialities. He is uniquejust as each human being is where this class was taught provided the following centers: unlike any other. "The Milk Pitcher" is a typical short story because it is a fictional work that has singleness of effect, Creative writing center unity, and brevity. Social science center (Latin America) Architecture center (modern cities in Latin America Independent Study Assignments compared to old cities) Plant life experimental center Read another short story, "The Mission," Hugh B. Cave. Music center Analyze the main character, Yolande. Describe her charac- Newspaper center ter. Locate parts of the story that show the development of Mathematics center Yolande. What was her goal? Describe the relationship Art center (landscapes, sculpture, design, study of the between Yolande's character and her goals. post-impressionists) Science center (insects, earth's developmentminerals, electricity, meteorology, astronomy, plant life) RELATED ACTIVITY Depth study center (filmstrips, slides) Reference center Independent Projects

The teacher introduces other stories andbooks with a child as hero; for example, Ace Pitcher and The Fighting Selected References Shortstop.

Art Prints PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF GULLFORD'S "STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT" Bradbury, Bennett. "Ground Swell."

Cognition Homer, Winslow. Four prints: "The Boatman," "Breezing Up," "Diamond Shoal," "Eight Bells." The group knows the literary elements of a short story.

Memory Books The group remembers the many short stories that they have read and can recall examples of them to illustrate the Bonzon, Paul-Jacques. The Orphans of Simitra. New York: criteria for that literary form. Criterion Books, Inc., 1962.

Convergent Thinking Daugherty, James. Of Courage Undaunted. New York: Viking Press, Inc., 1951. The group has analyzed the literary elements of a short story in many stories and has summarized their findings on DeAngeli, Marguerite. The Door in the Wall. New York: a chart. Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1949.

Divergent Thinking DeGering, Etta. Seeing Fingers: The Story of Louis Braille. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1962. The group has speculated on how the various authors might have written their stories differently. Some children Du Soe, Robert C. Three Without Fear. New York: have considered a subject or character for a short story of Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., 1947. their own. Garfield, James B. Follow My Leader. New York: Viking Evaluation Press, Inc., 1960.

The group evaluated the short story by analyzing one, Hamori, La'szhi. Dangerous Journey. New York: Harcourt, thus applying value judgements to that literary form. Brace & World, Inc., 1962. 140

Lauber,Patricia.The Quest of Galileo. New York: Pope, Alexander. "Solitude;' in Poetry II, Literary Heritage. Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1959. Edited by Stanley R. Peterson. New York: Macmillan Co., 1962. O'Dell, Scott. The Island of the Blue Dolphins, Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Co., 1960. Short Stories and Feature Stories Parlin,John. Amelia Earharl: Pioneerinthe Sky. Champaign, Ill.: Garrard Press, 1962. "Albert Schweitzer" and "Providence to Our Aid," in Adventures in Modern Literature (Fifth edition). Peare, Catherine Owens. The FDR Story. New York: Edited by Herbert Potell and Others. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1962. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962.

Peare, Catherine Owens. Robert Louis Stevenson: His Life. "Fishermen" and "Spring Victory," in Short Stories II, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955. Literary Heritage. Edited by Elizabeth Scheid. New York: Macmillan Co., 1961. Sperry, Armstrong. Call It Courage, New York: Macmillan Co., 1940.

Wilder, Laura Ingalls. By the Shores of Silver Lake; Little Songs, Themes, and Records House in the Big Woods; Little House on the Prairie; and The Long Winter. New York: Harper & Brothers "Call of the Sea," "Canoe Song," "Viking Songs." in Music [n.d.]. Around the World. CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES. Sacramento:CaliforniaStateDepartmentof Education, 1958. Essays Debussy, Claude. La Mer. Themes: "From Dawn to Noon Kennedy, John F. Profiles in Courage. New York: Harper & on the Sea," "Play of the Waves," and "Dialogue of Row Pubs., 1961. the Wind and the Sea," in Music Around the World. CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES.Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1958. Exhibits

"Marine Life"; "Tropical Shells." Fifth and Sixth Grades "Log Cabininthe Wilderness," "Daniel Boone: The Audio-Visual Materials. Publication No. EC-211. Los Opening of the Wilderness," "Paul Revere's Ride," and "The Winter at Valley Forge." Fifth and Sixth Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, Divi- Grades Audio-Visual Materials.PublicationNo. sion of Instructional Services, 1962. EC-211. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, Division of Instructional Services, 1962. Filmstrips Sounds of the Sea. Folkways Record No. 6121. Folkways "Why Things Float." Third and Fourth Grades Audio- Records and Service Corp. Recorded by the Naval VisualMaterials.PublicationNo.EC-207. Research Laboratory. ELEMENTARY SCIENCE SERIES III. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, Division of Instructional Services, 1960. Sound Motion Pictures

Animal Life at Low Tide, Pat Dowling Pictures; Beach and Poetry Sea Animals and Life in the Sea, Encyclopaedia Britannica Films; What's Under the Ocean? Film Garland, Hamlin. "Do You Fear the Wind?" in Poetry I, Associates-of California. Literary Heritage. Edited by Richard Corbin. New York: Macmillan Co., 1962.

Longfellow,Henry Wadsworth. "The Wreck of the Textbooks Hesperus," in Poetry II, Literary Heritage. Edited by Stanley R. Peterson. New York: Macmillan Co., Andrews, Roy Chapman. All About Whales. New York: 1962. Random House, Inc., 1954. 141

Let's Read About the Sea. Edited by Kay Wareand Others. Supplementary References St. Louis: Webster Publishing Co., 1958, (For research and motivation)

Science Is Explaining. Edited by WilburBeauchamp and Our Wonderful World, 18 vols. Edited byHerbert S. Zim. Others. Glenview, 111.: Scott, Foresman & Co.,1963. New York: Grolier, Inc., 1967. Chicago: Field Zim., H. S., and Lester Engle. Seashores.New York: Golden The World book Encyclopedia. 20 vols. Press, Inc., 1955. Enterprises Educational Corp., 1968. ChapterXIII Enrichment Through Critical Appreciation

Enriched classes in critical appreciation should focus the acquisition, transformation, and evaluation stages of intensively on a narrow subject field to acquaint pupils with learning. The teachers phrased guiding questions appropri- a limited content in depth as a basis for critical analysis and ate to different intellectual levels and stated their purposes evaluation of the arts. At the Los Angeles center, the in terms of the content levels of intellectual behavior enriched curriculum in critical appreciation followed the required. pattern and procedures recorded in this publication. The center's faculty members stated their objectives, chose particular resources and learning opportunities, received COURSE OUTLINE IN CRITICAL APPRECIATION training in subject matter, and prepared lesson plans. This course outline constitutes a study of the sonata As an example of a unit of study to promote critical form of music through experiences related to the sonata appreciation in music, this chapter presents a course outline allegro form (or first movement form). that focuses on the sonata form of music. This outline, or framework, was originally part of a more extensive study Acquisition called "Development of Critical Appreciation Through a Study of the Fundamental Forms of Music." Three Specific Purposes observation lessons were filmed to show a class working at three different levels of intellectual functioning. Chapter Tolearnaboutthefirstmovement (allegro)of XV contains a discussion of those films. Schubert's Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major by listening to a recording, reading reference books, singing the themes, The examples of daily lesson plans included in this and reading charted themes while listening to the music. chapter are based on the practical application of Jerome Bruner's description of the stages of learning. Each lesson To learn about the sonata allegro as a musical form by plan provides a description of the learning centers within the same methods of listening to examples, reading, and the classroom at the appropriate part of the unit. The singing the themes. course outline and individual lesson plans cite reference materials that were used in the Los Angeles program. To learn to identify the sonata allegro form by recognizing the introduction, exposition, development, recapitulation, and coda. IMPLEMENTING ENRICHMENT IN CRITICAL APPRECIATION Materials In beginning enrichment courses in the appreciation of Recording and score of the first movement of the various art forms, the 'teachers first selected a specific area Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major, by Franz Schubert in the arts from alist of proposed topics previously (1797-1828). developed. Each teacher chose a field of particular personal interest or one in which he was especially proficient or well Content informed. After studying the subject content extensively, the teachers prepared long-range plans for a unit of work Schubert wrote his fifth symphony in one month when presenting information conducive to sound analysis and he was nineteen years old. The work reflects its composer's criticism. admiration for the gay, light music of W. A. Mozart.

The teachers organized their units at increasingly diffi- The Composer cult levels of content on the basis of the three stages of intellectual functioning described by Jerome Bruner and Schubert was born in 1797 in the modest Lichtental summarized in Chapter II. Each course included lessons at district of Vienna, Austria. Although the name "Schubert"

142 143

Although the use of the term "sonata"itself is usually means "shoemaker,"Franz's ancestors had been forest Moravia until his own reserved for compositions for soloinstruments with or laborers or small landholders in actually a sonata generation, when his father became aparish teacher. His without accompaniment, a symphony is for four stringed mother, a Silesian, came from afamily of locksmiths, for orchestra; a string quartet is a sonata instruments; a concerto is a sonata for one or moresolo gunmakers, and innkeepers. instruments with orchestral accompaniment.Most overtures After studying the violin with hisfather, Schubert are written in theform of the first movement of a sonata. entered the Royal Seminary on a choralscholarship in 1808 chapel. To obtain the The term "sonata form" is applied tothe forms of the and sang in the choir of the court following parts: scholarship, Schubert passed a musicexamination for which first movement, which consists of the themes; he was prepared by MichaelHolzer, the Lichtental choir- (a) the exposition of the principal and secondary he had played the violin at (b) the development of one or morethemes; and (c) the master under whose direction Although Sunday Mass. Schubert enjoyed hisdays at the seminary, recapitulation of all themes followed by a coda. which he left when his fine treble voicebroke in 1813. the sonata form may refer to an entire workconsisting of he attended the three or four movements, the sonataform proper, as During the following academic . year, specific type of teacher training college of St. Anna;thereafter he taught outlined in the foregoing, means the briefly. At the age of nineteenSchubert abandoned his musical structure generally found in thefirst and often in It is known as the teaching career to devote himself tocomposing. That same the last movement of an, entire sonata. form because almost all year his fifthsymphony appeared. sonata allegro or first movement first movements of sonatas are writtenin allegro (fast) Schubert's first public success as a composer camewith tempos. The tripartite formula A-B-Ais used to designate recapitulation of the the performance in 1814 ofhis Mass No. 1 in F Major, the exposition, development, and form. A chart outlining which he himself conducted. By 1815Schubert had written sonata allegro or first movement more than 150 songs.In 1827 he wrote the "Winter that form follows: Journey" song cycle, which reflectedhis sorrow over Beethoven's death the year before. Exposition Development Recapitulation

On November 19, 1828, Schubert diedof typhoid fever, A B C leaving many unfinished works. Thespontaneity of his b musical thought had often led him toabandon a composi- I abel tion that he was not inspired tocomplete. Perhaps the most Symphony No. 8 in B famous of his unfinished works is the Foreign ttt "Unfinished Symphony." t dd Minor, which is also known as his 000 keys o o o That work is considered as Schubert's mostperfect orches- nrn n n n tral poem in pathetic vein. i i ccc song," Schubert nn Regarded as the father of the "art a produced a richer treasury of songs and songcycles than a his vocal creations, nn did any other single composer. Besides t Schubert composed nine symphonies, six masses,15 quar- tets and other chamber works,and innumerable other types of compositions, including sonatas,sonatinas, overtures, dances, fantasies, and choral works other than masses, The first theme of the exposition section,which is incidental music for plays. dramatic (or masculine) in nature, isalways in the tonic (or feminine) in the Sonata Form key; the second theme, which is lyrical Background Information character, is in the dominant key; theclosing theme, of dominant. The As originally used, a sonata simply meant amusical lesser importance, is also written in the development section freely combines thematerial intro- composition for instrumentalists asopposed to a cantata, from the Italian duced in the exposition into other keys andsometimes adds which was written for vocalists. Derived The recapitulation restates the word sonare, meaning "to sound,"the term "sonata" now new thematic material. themes of the exposition more or lessliterally in the tonic referstoa compositionfor one or two instruments consisting of three or four movementscontrasted in rhythm key. and mood but related in tonality,sentiment, and style. piano alone and for The sonata form is largely the creationof Karl Philipp Many sonatas have been written for the Bach. Living in other instruments with piano accompaniment. Emanuel Bach, a son of Johann Sebastian 144 the eighteenth century, the younger Bach was one of the major tonic chord: B flat-D-F. The teacher points out that first composers to expaiment with the sonata form, which Theme 2 is written in the dominant key of F major. After was later defined by both Haydn andMozart. Beethoven, the introduction, themes 1 and 2 form the exposition of Schumann, and Brahms extended the use of the sonata the first movement. form. Introducing the development section of the movement, Musical structure is the coherent organization of the the teacher asks: "What melody do you hear in this part of artist's material. The usual method of analysis is to select a the allegro movement?" particular form and to illustrate its use by one or several composers. Such analysis reveals that composersseldom fit After observing the variant in Theme 1 developed in the their works neatly to the form; they normally choose as a key of B flat major, the pupils discuss the repetition of the model a particular structure, which they freely interpret in variant by different instruments on different pitches in the unique patterns. The content of each composition deter- development. mines its musical form. Selected children play themes 1 and 2 on musical Composers all approach their Work differently. Schubert instruments, together with the transition and variants of wrote spontaneously, sometimes producing a song aday. Theme 1. The teacher replays the entire movement and has Beethoven, on the contrary, reworked his themes repeat- the children follow it on the chart. The teacher asks: "What edly. Traditionalist composers, such as Johann Sebastian themes are included in the next section of this movement?" Bach and Palestrina, perfected the musical style of their The children discover that the movement concludes by times by beginning with an established pattern rather than returning to themes 1 and 2 and to their related transitions. with a theme. Their opposites are the experimentalists, like They observe that Theme 1 in this recapitulation is played Moussorgsky, who favor experimentation rather than in the subdominant key of E flat major and that Theme 2 is theoryandwhousetrial-and-errorapproachesto recapitulated in the tonic key of B flat major. composition. After another transition, the full orchestra plays the PROCEDURE coda, which consists of scalelike passages followed by a series of chords. Motivation Evaluation and Summary A pupil who has read Schubert: A Critical Biography, by The teacher and pupils summarize their information Maurice J. Brown, in his literature class now discusses this about the sonata allegro form and the music of the first work with the other children to arouse interest in the life of movement of Schubert's fifth symphony on a chart or this composer. Following the discussion, the teacher plays a record revealing the theme from the first movement of chalkboard, as follows: Schubert's Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major to awaken INTRODUCTION interest in the music of Schubert and in the sonata form of music. SECTION A: EXPOSITION Theme 1 )B flat major (tonic) Guiding Questions and Activities Theme 1 Transition After playing the entire first movement (allegro) of Theme 2 }F major. ( dominant) Schubert's symphony, the teacher asks: "What repeated Theme 2 melodies or sections do you hear?" The teacher then Transition replays the recording through the first melody (Theme 1) as the pupils follow the theme on the charted notation of the SECTION B: DEVELOPMENT music. Variant in Theme 1is developed in B flat major (tonic). The teacher next replays the recording as the children read the charted notation and identify the short transition SECTION A: RECAPITULATION and Theme 2. Theme 1E flat major (subdominant of B flat major) Theme 1 In Theme 1, the children discover the ascending pattern Transition of the I, V, and IV chords; the descending scale pattern; Theme 21B flat major and the distinctive, uneven rhythmic figure. The pupils also Theme 2 observe that Theme 1 contains the first three tones of the Transition 145

CODA By listening to recordings, compare sonatas for violin S.Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Full orchestra, playing scalelike passages followed by and piano byJ. Schubert, Schumann, DvOrak, Debussy, Hindemith, a series of chords, completes the movement. and Copland. Independent Study Assignments Transformation While listening independently in the classroom music center to the recording of the fifthsymphony's first Specific Purpose movement, the pupils follow the score andidentify the various parts. To transfer knowledge of the four elements of music rhythm, melody, harmony, and tone colorby interpret- Summary and Transition ing them in the first movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major. Know that the first movement from the fifth symphony of Schubert is written in the sonata allegro form, which Materials consists of an introduction, exposition, development, recapitulation, and coda. Relate information about the musical Recording and score of the first movement (allegro) of elements of rhythm, melody, harmony, and tone color and the Schubert symphony. facts about orchestral instruments to an interpretation of the symphony's first movement. The transcriptions of "Strings and Keyboards" and "Sonata and Symphony."

RELATED ACTIVITIES Content

Pupil Assignments As previously indicated, every sonata allegro or first movement form retains the tripartite pattern of exposition, Listento another example of the sonataform, development, and recapitulation. The varied themes of the Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 21 in C Major, Op. 53, exposition are usually designated by "a," "b," and "c." the "Waldstein"; study Aaron Copland's analysisof Although it is difficult to generalize about the exposition, that sonata in Appendix III of What to Listen For in the first theme usually has a strong, dramatic, affirmative Music. quality in contrast with the second theme, "b," which is characterized by a more lyrical quality. Both the "a" and Listentotheseond movement of Schubert's "b" themes may actually contain several subthemes or Symphony No. 5in B Flat Major and to his consist of a series of themes, but the juxtaposition of one "Unfinished Symphony" (Symphony No. 8 in B theme or group of themes with another of contrasting Minor); study the notation of the latter's themes and mood is the essence of the expository section and deter- the cello part in New Music Horizons. mines the character of the entire sonata allegro form. The contrast in themes creates a sense of dramatic struggle. The To trace the development of modern music notation last theme (or themes), "c," concludes the exposition. In and to learn more about Schubert's contributions, the scores of the classical sonatas or symphonies, the listen to the transcriptions of "Sons of Guido" and double bar with the repeat sign indicates the end of the "MusicA Language and an Art." exposition and its repetition in the same form. To learn more about Austrian music, listen to the Another important factor of the expositionis the transcription "Austria" in The World's Music in transition that bridges the moods of the "a" and "b" America. themes. The transition, which may be either short or rather elaborate, never equals in significance the "a" and "b" Read the following books on Schubert: Schubert; themes. Memoirs by His Friends, by Otto E. Deutsch; Music for Young Listeners (Volume I, The Green Book), by The development gives the sonata allegro its special Lillian Baldwin; Schubert: A Musical Portrait, by character, because no other musical form reserves a special Alfred Einstein; Curtain Calls for Franz Schubert and division for extending musical themes previously- 'intro- Franz Schubert and His Merry Friends, by Opal duced. After beginning with a partial restatement of the WheelerandSybilDeucher;andUnfinished first theme, the development usually modulates through a Symphony, by Madeline Goss. series of other keys that signal a return to the original 146

tonality to begin the recapitulation, which repeats the Summary and Transition exposition. Almost always slow in tempo in contrast with the exposition, the introduction may be quite independent Realize the relationship of the elements of music as of the following allegro, or it may be a slow version of the expressed by the instruments of the orchestra in the first first expository theme to lend a feeling of unity. The coda, movement of Schubert's symphony. Decide to evaluate which presents the musical material in a new way, leads to your own interpretations of the sonata allegro form. an epilogue or conclusion.Although the structure indicated in the foregoing generally typifies the sonata allegro form, RELATED ACTIVITIES itsconstruction isfar from rigid, varying widely with particular works of music. Pupil Assignments Read Schubert's Songs, by Richard Capell; How to PROCEDURE Read a Score, by Gordon Jacob; and The Art of Judging Music, by Virgil Thomson. Motivation View the films, String Choir and Listening to Good The ^hildren listen for rhythmic patterns as the teacher Music The String Quartet. plays a recording of the first movement of the symphony. Listen to the transcription, "The Wonderful Violin," Guiding Questions and Activities and watch the filmstrip, "Fundamentals of Stringed Instruments" (Part I, Violin). After playing the recording, the teacher asks: "How did Schubert develop Theme 1 rhythmically? Theme 2?" The Evaluation pupils identify, write on the chalkboard, and clap the most important rhythmic patterns in themes 1 and 2. The Specific Purposes teacher asks: "How does the composer transmit a feeling of liveliness in his music?" The pupils point out instances of To appraise interpretations of the first movement of the legato and staccato styles of playing. Schubert Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major.

The teacherasks: "How did Schubertcreatethe To evaluate generalizations about that movement by dramatic and lyrical feelings in this movement?" recalling them in a group discussion.

The children point out the use of particular instruments Materials to lend such feelings to certain sections. They recognize that in measures 2 and 4 of Theme 1 of the exposition, bass Recordings: Sonata in F Major for Violin and Piano, by strings imitate the melody previously played by the violins. WolfgangAmadeus Mozart,andtheSchubertfifth They observe the repetition of Theme 1 with a counter- symphony. melody being rendered by theflute. They note how contrasting instruments give depth to the dramatic passages Books: What to Listen For in Music, by Aaron Copland; of the development and how stringed instruments and Music for Young Listeners (Volume I, The Green Book) by flutes provide lyricism to the movement. Lillian Baldwin; and Essays in Musical Analysis (Volume I, Symphonies) by Donald Francis Tovey.

Evaluation and Summary Score: First movement of Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major, by Schubert. The allegro movement of the symphony is written in a gay rhythm and has a delicate quality. It isscored for Content stringed and wind instruments but for no percussion. The content includes all previously learned knowledge Independent Study Assignments about the sonata allegro form, the elements of music, and the instruments of the orchestra. In developing their In the classroom music center, listen to the transcrip- musical themes, composers use the four essential elements t i ons"StringsandKeyboards"and"Sonataand of rhythm, melody, harmony, and tone color. Every Symphony." Examine the use of the various instruments in musical composition reflects the individuality of its com- providing different tonal effects. poser and the influence of his period. A composer's style 147

results from the interaction of hispersonality with all Independent Study Assignments aspects of his environment. In the classroom music center,listen to Theme 1 of the consideration of the Schubert symphony to compare it withMozart's Sonata in Critical listening to music involves Compare the notation as musical conductor and the performer orperformers, as well F Major for Violin and Piano. The listener should understand the found on page 204 in the essays byDonald Tovey. as of its composer. first movement of the composer's style to obtain an idea of howeffectively the Determine why Theme 1 of the toas "Schubertized artist conveys that style. Musicevokes responses on three Schubert symphonyisreferred levels or planes: the sensuous, theexpressive, and the Mozart." musical. On the sensuous plane, thelistener surrenders himself to the pleasure of the musicalsound, On the RELATED ACTIVITIES expressive plane, he appreciates the meaningof the musical moods. On the musical plane, he enjoysthe manipulation Pupil Assignments of the musical notation. Listen to the first movement of Mozart'sSymphony Identify Active music listening develops criticalappreciation by No. 40 in G Minor while following the score. increasing the pupil's perception ofelements of form within the exposition, development, and recapitulation. the abstract. Design is evident in therepetition of melodic C Minor lines or rhythmic patterns in eitheridentical or altered Listen to Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in form. Listening that focuses on the structureand inter- and follow it on the score. Identifythe various relationships of the constituent elementsdevelops critical themes and sections. appreciation. Read the following books: The Joyof Music, by Leonard Bernstein; Exploring Music, byVincent Jones and Bertha Wingert Bailey; More Essaysfrom PROCEDURE the World of Music, by Ernest Newman; andLearning to Listen, by Grosvenor Cooper. Motivation DAILY LESSON PLANS FOR CLASSES Afterinterpreting,interpolating,extrapolating, and translating information about the firstmovement of the IN MUSIC AND ART Schubert fifth symphony, the childrencheck their own judgments by analyzing the sonataallegro form. Examples of daily lesson plans in musicand art as used in the Los Angeles EnrichmentDemonstration Center follow. These examples typify enrichmentprocedures and Guiding Questions and Activities indicate their application to lessons forchildren of various ages. A classroomenvironment that meets the many The teacher asks, "How is the firstmovement of the intellectual needs of gifted pupils is describedin each lesson Schubert fifth symphony representativeof the sonata plan, together with lists of the requiredmaterials. allegro form?" The application of Bruner's stages of learningis demon- In evaluating their learning, thepupils review the parts strated in an art lesson and in a correlatedlesson in art, of the movement, the moods createdby the instruments, music, and history. These stages,described in Chapter II, and the rhythmic patterns,illustrating the latter on the are acquisition,transformation, and evaluation. chalkboard.

To verify their judgments regardingthe sonata allegro Lesson Plan I Art form, the pupils review selectionsfrom Aaron Copland's What to Listen For in Music andDonald Tovey's Essays in GRADE LEVELS: Third and fourth Symphonies). Musical Analysis (Volume I, AGE LEVELS: Seven, eight, and nine

Evaluation and Summary Specific Purposes discussion; to analyze Teacher and pupils cooperate in diagramingand out- To evaluate paintings in a group chalkboard. An illustration of the artists' use of art elements(color, line, form, value, lining the sonata form on the and subordination, the form was presented earlier inthis chapter. texture) and art principles (dominance 148 proportion,balance,opposition,transition,rhythm, dent activity for the listening center. The teacher asks the repetition). children to visualize their impressions of the music.

Background PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF JEROME BRUNER'S "STAGES OF LEARNING" Through many experiences, the pupils have gained an appreciation for art. They are learning about artelements Acquisition and principles through numerous viewing, drawing,and painting experiences. The children have acquired information about art elements and principles. Materials Transformation Art prints: "Montmarte," Maurice Utrillo; "TheBridge," Paul Cezanne; "French Farmhouses," Maurice deVlaminck; The children have appliedtheir knowledge of art "The Tiger," Franz Marc. Chart of art elements and elements and principles to analysis of paintings. principles.Recording:PictureiatanExhibition, Moussorgsky. Evaluation

PROCEDURE The children think critically in generalizing their learning about art elements and principles and in evaluating art Motivation prints.

Enjoyment of art prints and a study of art elements and CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT principles lead to the desire to discuss art experiences and to evaluate paintings. The classroom environment is planned to promote the teacher's efforts in meeting the many dimensions of the Guiding Questions intellect. What do we know about art elements? What do we know In the Los Angeles enrichment center, the classrooms about art principles? Look at this print of a painting. How used the following learning centers: well doesitillustrate artistic elements and principles? (Teacher repeats with a series of prints.) Why are art Literature Center elements and art principles of value to us as appreciators of art? Collection of single-copy library books dealing with fantasy; collection of sets of literature readers with sections Activities on fantasy (e.g., After the SunSets, Treat Shop, and Ranches and Rainbows). Art print related to fantasy: "Sun Under the guidance of the teacher, the children recall of their knowledge of art elements and principles. While and Rocks," by Charles Burchfield; chart of the criteria looking at the prints, the pupils analyze and evaluate them the literary category of fantasy. in relation to the artists' use of art elements and principles. Art Center Evaluation and Summary Chart listingart elements and principles; art print: The children analyze the value of art elements and "Breton Landscape with Farmhouse," Paul Gauguin; collec- principles both to the artist and to the viewer. tion of art slides analyzing art elements and principles. Viewlex projector and viewing screen; file of art prints; Independent Study Assignment painting and drawing area furnished with equipment and supplies. The children analyze and evaluate art prints and slides in the art center. Music Center

RELATED ACTIVITY Johann Sebastian Bach's life history in Music for Young Listeners (Volume ill, The Blue Book). Collection of Independent Project musical recordings; record player with connector box, The teacher introduces the musical recording of Pictures headsets, and earphones; music books, autoharp, song bells. at an Exhibition, by ModestMoussorgsky, as an indepen- Art print related to music: "Le Concert Orange," Raoul 149

elements, acoustics, and Dufy. Themes of music recordings(musical notation on elements and principles, musical historyof impressionism. They havecompared strips). the Renaissance art with impressionistic art.They have actually and forms of sound wavesmade by Functional Supply Center seen the shapes orchestral instruments. Theyhave sung and heard impres- conferences (e.g., spelling sionistic, classical, and romanticcompositions. They have Files of class work for parent piano compositions in work, graphs of children's progress,stories and illustra- composed a song and several simple tions); homework file; correction crayons; namecards, impressionistic vein. attendance cards, library cards, paper. Materials Social Science Center Music books, piano, and flutefor singing activities; of the post office as a recordings of both piano and orchestralversion of "Clair de Books relating to the study of representative community service agency;informational pictures (e.g., Lune," by Claude Debussy. Art prints impressionists: Cezanne, Renoir, VanGogh, Monet. post office, transportationmethods); file of informational material. Industrial arts work(e.g., letter-sorting boxes and mailbox). Map of local post offices markedwith ZIP codes. PROCEDURE Folders with collections ofchildren's stories. View lex projector; transcription machineswith headsets, connector Motivation box, earphones; sound filmstrip:"How a Bank Serves the The interest that has been developedin texture has Community." enabled the pupils to perceive arelationship between music and art, particularly works of theimpressionistic period. Mathematics Center

Matchbooks;problem-solvingwrittenmaterial; Guiding Questions multiplication facts, combination cards, fraction cards, and music? fraction disks, number sentences;hook-and-loop board with What are the elements of impressionistic art boards; Why do the composers or painterswho use this style leave a large arrayof numbers; small individual array information do they chart rack with pertinent material(e.g., calendar, codes). much to the imagination? What provide? What do they omit? Why? Science Center Is there a logical organization toimpressionistic music? and why? Science books; microscope and otherequipment; records Is it similar in art? Different? How and displays of experiments. How can we evaluate impressionism?How does our own composition compare with otherimpressionistic music? To what extent does it resemble the other? Lesson Plan IIArt, Music, and History

GRADE LEVELS:Fifth and sixth Activities Nine, ten, and eleven AGE LEVELS: The children hear and singoriginal compositions and listen again to familiar impressionisticmusic. The teacher's Specific Purposes questions stimulate the analysisand evaluation. The children's judgments are based on theirlevel of knowledge and To evaluate the relationship ofimpressionistic art and ability. Some of the children workindependently at the art music. and music centers. In a group discussion, to analyzeartists' and composers' utilization of the art elements of textureand tone color; to Evaluation and Summary in judging the similaritiesand differ- use this knowledge artistic and musical ences of impressionism asapplied to art and music. Tone color and texture exist in both works. In art, tone color and texture areproduced by differentshading, blending, and mixingof colors.In Background impressionistic music, the chords move in aparallel manner; and eleventh chords. Having had many experiences in art,music, science, and they are often rolled seventh, ninth, developed an appreciation of Each instrument of the orchestrahas a particular tone literature, the pupils have with others to "paint" painting, sculpture, music, and poetryfrom studying art color, which the composer combines 150

of art prints for use in studying eras in arthistory. Books his picture. Harmony creates moretextures. Certain com- and harmonies producethe on music history;record file of classical, romantic, impres- binations of instruments photographs of orchestral "impressionistic sound." In both artand music, impressionistic, and modern music; instruments; charts of musical themes. sionism is marked by apparentlack of structure andform. What to Listen For in Independent Study Assignment Music appreciation books (e.g., Music, Aaron Copland; YoungPeople's Concerts, Leonard Orchestra, John Hosier). Exploration of modern paintingand music for an anlysis Bernstein; and Instruments of the of structure and form and acomparison with the painting Music chart of vibrations per secondof middle C on the and music of the impressionisticperiod. piano; music chart of overtoneswhen G is played on the piano; music chart of the first16 overtones from one note RELATED ACTIVITY (low G).

Independent Project Record player and earphones; experimentation areawith oscilloscope and wave motion machine;recording: "Science The teacher introduces artslides, books, and musical of Sound," Bell Telephone Laboratories;science textbooks recordings for further independentwork in assessing the and single-copy books; mathematicaldiagram of the vibra- contributions of various artists;for example, Volume I of and Drawings of the tions of a violin's A string(whole-length, two-halves, and Impressionism,AlbertSkira; the mathematical by Ira Moskowitz. three-thirds vibrations); books related to MastersFrench Impressionists, edited study of frequencies such as TheGiant Golden Book of IrvingAdler;mathematicsfileand PRACTICAL APPLICATION OFJEROME BRUNER'S Mathematics, mathematics books. "STAGES OF LEARNING" Social Science Center Acquisition periodical file, atlas, map of about artistic and musical Books on American history; The children have learned the Overland Trail, informationfile; current problem- elements. solving question noted on a poster or onthe chalkboard.

Transformation Language Arts Center The children have applied theirknowledge of those Literature collection; books onreading and writing elements in analyzing paintings andmusical compositions. skills; picture file with questionsintended to stimulate interpreting impres- They have used their knowledge in creative expression; chart ofliterary criteria of biography; have interpreted musical sionistic music and art. They kit of materials for developingcritical reading skills. impressionism through singing. Theyhave created original music and artistic works in theimpressionistic style.

Evaluation Selected References

The children will criticize musicalcompositions and art prints in relation to impressionism.They will evaluate the Books relationship of impressionistic art andmusic and analyze the artists' and composers' use of textureand tone color. Baldwin, Lillian, Music for YoungListeners. Vol. I (The Green Book).Morristown,N.J.:SilverBurdett CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT Company, 1951.

The classroom in which thisclass was offered in Los Bernstein, Leonard. The Joy of Music.New York: Simon Angeles contained the followinglearning centers: and Schuster, Inc., 1959. J. Schubert: A Biography withCritical Correlated Art, Music, Science, andMathematics Center Brown, Maurice Digressions. New York: St. Martin'sPress, Inc., 1958. Art books; projector,filmstrips on art elements; art Capell, Richard. Schubert's Songs(Second edition). New prints of significant workscreated by impressionist painters Yor;,.: Macmillan Co., 1957. (Monet, Utrillo, Pissarro, Renoir);artists' biographies; file 151

Cooper, Grosvenor. Learning to Listen: a Handbook for Piano Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957. Resonator bells Violins Copland, Aaron. What to Listen For in Music (Revised Other orchestral instruments edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957. Deutsch, Otto E. Schubert: Memoirs by His Friends. Motion Pictures Translated by Rosamond Ley and John Nowell. New Gregor Piatigorsky. World Artists, Inc., 26 min. York: Macmillan Co., 1958. Instruments of the Orchestra. British Information Services, Einstein, Alfred. Schubert: A Musical Portrait. New York: 20 min. Oxford University Press, Inc., 1951. Listening to Good MusicThe String Quartet. Encyclo- Goss, Madeleine. Unfinished Symphony: The Story of paedia. Britannica Films, Inc., 14 min. Franz Schubert. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1941. String Choir. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., 12 min. Jacob, Gordon. How to Read a Score. Oceanside, N. Y.: Boosey and Hawkes, Inc., 1944. Recordings' Jones, Vincent, and Bertha Wingert Bailey. Exploring Music. Boston: C. C. Birchard & Co., 1941. Beethoven, Ludwig van. Piano Sonata No. 21 in C, Op. 53 ("Waldstein"); Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67. Kaufmann, Helen. The Story of One Hundred Great Composers. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, Inc., 1943. Mendelssohn, Felix. Symphony No. 4 in A Major, Op. 90 ("Italian"). Newman, Ernest. More Essays from the World of Music. New York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1958. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. First movement, Symphony No. 40 in G Minor. Thomson, Virgil. The Art of Judging Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1948. Schubert, Franz. Last movement, Sonata in B Flat Major for Piano, Op. Posth.; first and second movements, Tovey, Donald Francis. Essays in Musical Analysis. Vol. 1, Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major; Symphony No. 8 in Symphonies. New York: Oxford University Press, B Minor ("Unfinished"). Inc., 1935.

Wheeler, Opal, and Sybil Deucher. Curtain Calls for Franz Schubert. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1941. Scores

Wheeler, Opal, and Sybil Deucher. Franz Schubert and His Beethoven, Ludwig van. Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. Merry Friends. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 67. 1939. Mendelssohn, Felix. Symphony No. 4 in A Major, Op. 90 ("Italian"). Filmstrip Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. First movement, Symphony "Fundamentals of Stringed Instruments." Part I (Violin), No. 40 in G Minor. Set 1. Third and Fourth Grades Audio-Visual Catalog. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District. Schubert, Franz. First movement (allegro), Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major.

Instruments 'Many otherlistings of recordings may be found inthe Autoharp comprehensiveSchwann Long Playing Record Catalog(published Clarinets monthly). Boston: W. Schwann, Inc. (137 Newbury St., 02116). 110.11.111.*1, 111.W ...41.1.4111A01101.6MIAR

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Songs Transcriptions

"The Brook," in Music in Our Country. CALIFORNIA Audio-Visual Materials, Secondary Grades. Publication No. STATESERIES.Sacramento:CaliforniaState 579. Audio-Visual Section, Division of Instructional Department of Education, 1958. Services. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District,1961. Standard School Broadcasts: No. New Music Horizons. Morristown, N. J.: Silver Burdett 239A, "Austria"; No. 506D, "Horns and Trumpets"; Company, 1949.Songs:"The Alpine Hunter," No. 505B, "The Science of Sound"; and No. 508C, "Cradle Song," and "Invocation." "Sons of Guido." 30 min. each.

"Wandering," in Music Around the World. CALIFORNIA (Also consult the references belonging to chapters V and STATE SERIES.Sacramento:CaliforniaState VIII for listings on music and other branches of the fine Department of Education, 1958. arts.) ChapterXIV Enrichment ThroughaScientific Approach

The subject fields of natural and social sciences and otherwise interacting with their pupils determined the levels mathematics were chosen to promote scientific discovery, of intellectual response elicited from the pupils. methodology, and investigation at the Enrichment Demon- stration Center of California Project Talent. Organization of A series of six filmed observation lessons exemplifying enriched courses in this area proceeded according to the class progress toward goals in each of the six different successive stages described in pievious chapters of this categories of the taxonomy was made to demonstrate parts publication. In beginning to enrich courses in the realm of of the unit on graphing. These six films are listed with the science, educators first chose certain specific curricular references for Chapter X of this publication; Chapter XV areas for intensive study in order to provide solid ground- provides information regarding their distribution. work fortheir pupils in the content selected before involving them in the concomitant scientific processes. OUTLINE OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERIENCES Chapter XIV presents a framework for studying graphic IN THE AREA OF MATHEMATICS representations of statistical information. This framework is an example of a course outline for a mathematics study The outline that follows covers the scope and sequence unit intended to develop in the gifted learners a scientific of scientificexperiencesin the area of mathematics. approach. Besides the necessary reference materials, the Specifically,theoutlineconstitutesa framework for chapter includes sample lesson plans that illustrate the studying graphic representations of statistical information. applicationof thelevels of educational objectives as outlined by Benjamin Bloom and his committee in their Knowledge Taxonomy of Educational ObjectivesHandbook I: Cog- nitive Domain. Specific Purpose To learn that a graph shows the correspondence between IMPLEMENTING ENRICHMENT IN A the elements of two different sets. SCIENCE CURRICULUM Materials Science teachers in the Los Angeles center began their programs by choosing a specific topic from the many San Fernando Valley Times subjects proposed in the initial planning for enrichment in The New Exploring Numbers: pages 169,234,238,242, this area. Each teacher selected a topic of special interest to 243 himself or one in which he was already well versed. After The New Understanding Numbers: pages 18,56,59,68, studying the content in his particular field, the teacher 90,127,143,171,198,214,302 prepared a unit of study according to the format illustrated Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade four): in Chapter X. Study units exemplified the six classes of pages 196-200 intellectual functioning described in the first Taxonomy Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade five): handbook, edited by Bloom. The teachers aimed their pages 202-10 lessons toward specific goals in one of the six classes Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade six): pages identified in the handbook: knowledge, comprehension, 196-207,253 application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Enlarging Mathematical Ideas: pages 8,36,38 Extending Mathematical Ideas: pages 91-93 The teachers' abilities to formulate specific purposes in terms of levels both of content and of intellectual behavior Content contributed to their skill in developing the various dimensions of the children's intellectual functioning. The levels of A graphisa diagramthattellsa number story the teachers' intellectual behavior when questioning and pictorially. Every graph has a pertinent title, together with

153

. a scale to aid in itsinterpretation. A graph is used to and distance is measured from the origin 0. Thesecond portray the relationship of facts within one set of data or to number (Y) is measured along the Y axis from 0.The show the correspondence between elements of one set with intersecting lines of the graph separate the plane intofour those of another. Types of graphs include bar, rectangle, equal parts, known as quadrants. Beginning with the upper circle, and line graphs; pictographs; or a combination right quadrant numbered I, and then moving counter- thereof. Graphs serve to organize compactly groups of data clockwise, each quadrant is numbered consecutivelywith by means of understandable pictures. The two main kinds the Roman numerals, II, III, and IV. All coordinatesin of data are counts and measurements. quadrant I are positive numbers; all in quadrant III are negative ones. In quadrant II, X is negative andY is A pictograph visualizes facts in the form of pictures; it is positive; the reverse is true of quadrant IV. closely related to a scale in which a line of a given length represents a certain quantity. As used on a graph, the term Constructing a graph. The following principles apply to "scale" expresses the relationship between a space and the graph construction: number of objects, distances, or amounts that it represents. Primarily used to make quick comparisons, a pictograph is Coordinate lines should be kept to a minimum; curves normally less accurate than a table of data. should predominate. One form of pictograph is the bar graph, and some The source of the data should appear at the lower left graphs combine pictures with bars. Single-bar graphs are of the graph. more easily read than multiple ones.Only the length of the bars varies; their widths and the spaces between them are Footnotes should be placed under the graph to its always equal. right.

In the rectangle graph, sometimes called the 100 percent To make the graph more readily comprehensible, single.largraph,theentirelengthof therectangle curves, segments, and details should beminimized. represents 100 percent of a quantity. This graph is used to compare a part with the whole. A scale caption should indicate the units uf.A. The X-axis scale caption is centered directly beneath the Involving the same principle as rectangle graphs are circle X axis, while the Y-axis caption appears at the top of graphs, in which the entire circle represents 100 percent of that axis or sometimes along its side. a quantity. The circle graph isdivided into sectors, each one representing a subdivision or percentage of the total To avoid a misleading comparison, the zero point quantity. should be indicated on the scale at the Y axis. Line graphs, commonly used when time is avariable, A scale break may indicate the omission of a zero require the use of two scales, horizontal and vertical. The point. particular value assigned to each scale is written beside the line that represents it. The numbers are given in ordered To indicate the size of variations in the graph, the pairs, each of which locates a single point on the graph. scales of value should appear along the X and Y axes.

The scales of broken-line and curved-line graphs may The scale on the Y axis should run from the lowest begin at some point other than zero. .A straight-line graph value at the bottom of the graph to the highest value depicts the relationship between two changing quantities in at the top. The scale on the X axis should run from a line whose slope is constant.If the data deal only with the lowest value at the left to the highest at the right. positive values, then the graph would be located in the first quadrant. Elements of line graphs. A line or a curve indicates variation in data. Points are plotted according to their A more complex type of straight-line graph uses ordered respective values on X and Y scales, and straightlines pairs in coordinated axes. Two number linesone horizon- connect these points. tal and one verticalrepresent the two axes. The label "0" designates the intersection point of the axes, called the Elements of logarithmic charts. Neither zero nor base origin. The same unit of measurement is used on both axes. lines are required. The horizontal axis of semilogarithmic The horizontal line is called the X axis; the vertical line,the charts serves as a basis for arithmetic scales. Because their Y axis. The horizontal distance is the abscissa; the vertical logarithms form an arithmetic progression, geometric pro- distance, the ordinate. The first number (X) of theordered gressions form straight lines when plotted on logarithmic pair (X,Y) is always located by counting along the X axis, paper. Equal rises or falls indicateequal changes in percent. 155

Equal slopes on a logarithmic chart indicate equal rates of Guiding Questions change. Logarithmic charts are used to compare proportions of rates of change or to show the relationship of two When did the greatest increase in population occur? or more widely differing series. What interval shows the greatest increase in industrial growth? What was the industrial trend between 1950 and 1960? Was the increase in residential growth constant Elements of silhouette charts. Positive and negative during each ten-year interval? deviations from a zero or base line are depicted by filling in the area between that line and the curve. Construction How is information depicted graphically on a time line? requires plotting points to indicate the deviation from the (See page 169 in The New Exploring Numbers.) What is the base line, connecting those points, and filling in the area earliest year shown on the time line? The latest year? One between the curve and the line. inch on the time line represents 40 years. How many inches represent 80 years? Each inch on the line is divided into Elements of band charts. Band charts illustrate variations four parts. How many years are represented by 'A inch? in components as well asin thetotals. Construction proceeds by firstplotting the variation in the largest In about what year was the use of ether discovered? Was component, shading it in, adding the next component to it nearer 1840 or nearer 1850? the first segment, plotting the result, and thus continuing through all the component parts. How does a chart show information graphically? (See page 234 in The New Exploring Numbers.) Find the total number of children who received stars. (The school had an Elements of high-low graphs. Fluctuations (high and low enrollment of 203 children.) values) are indicated for ea,th period. Construction requires plotting the lowest and highest values within a period, then What informationis shown on thepicture chart, connecting the low points of each period and the high "Planting Flowers," on page 238 of The New Exploring points of each period. Numbers? Which of the flowers is the tallest? Which is the shortest? How much taller than the hyacinth is the late Elements of histograms. Also called rectangular fre- tulip? (Use measurements to the nearest inch.) For which quency polygons, histograms depict a frequency distribu- flower is the bulb planted deepest in the ground? About tion (a) by erecting vertical rectangles; and (b) by using size how deep? of class interval as the width and frequency of class interval as the height. What specific facts do we gain from the "Graphs of Temperature and Rainfall" on pages 242 and 243 in The New Exploring Numbers? The first graph shows the average Elements of bar charts. Subdivided absolute bar charts proportions of each monthly temperature for what city? In what month is the are constructed by determining the 60° F.? 40° F.? component and arranging the components of each bar with average temperature in Indianapolis nearest the largest subdivisions at the bottom. 70° F.? 55F.?

Simple percentage bar charts show percent values by the What data about electricity do we learn from the time length of the bar. Subdivided percentage bar charts make line in "The Magic of Electricity" on page 68 in The New use of rectangular bars of the samewidth and length Understanding Numbers? Point to the mark that shows the constructed on the same base; the base with the length year 1850, the year 1860, the year 1830. What was represents 100 percent. Each bar is divided into segments invented approximately 30 years after the motion picture according topercentof the totalfigure which each projector? subdivision repregents. Study the bar graph on page 198 of The New Under- standing Numbers and then compute the percent of PROCEDURE accidents that occur while children are going to school. Tell how many accidents occur on school grounds, in school Motivation buildings, at home, in other places. Where do the fewest accidents occur? The most accidents? Discuss the growth of the San Fernando Valley, using the local newspaper to obtain statistics on residential and By reading the circle graph on page 171 in The New industrial growth. The pupils will probably express curi- Understanding Numbers, determine the source of the osity about the graphic presentation of information in the average American farmer's income. How many cents of newspaper. every dollar come from dairy products? How many from 156 poultry and eggs? How much less than one quarter of every In the pictograph, "1960 Population of Selected States," dollar comes from dairy products and from poultry and on page 202, how many people does one symbol represent? eggs? How do you know this? Which state shown on the graph has the greatest population? How can you tell this? Read the picture graph, "Baseball Booster Buttons Sold," on page 196 in Modern Arithmetic Through Discov- On the divided-bar graph, "How the Family Income Is ery (grade four). Who sold the mostbuttons? How many Used," on page 205, what decimal number best represents did he sell? How many buttons did Mike sell? How many the part of each $100 that was used for food? For clothing? more did he sell than Joe? How many times asmany? For other expenses? Read the bar graph, "Hotel Guests," on page 197. In From the circle graphs on page 207, can you figure out which month did Mr. White have the greatest number of who spends a greater part of their money on foodboys guests? How many more guests were there in June than in or girls? A greater part onclothing? A greater part on May? personal care? Study the horizontal bar graph, "Television," on page The relationship shown on the number line on page 8 of 203 of Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade five). Enlarging Mathematical Ideas can be written in four After the first week, Betty realized she had spent too much different ways; n stands for the missing number. In what time watching television. How many fewer hours did she four ways can you write what is shown on the number line? watch it the second week? What does n stand for? On the four number lines on page 36 of Enlarging Mathematical Ideas, give a whole number Study the vertical bar graph, "Piano Practice," on page for one point that lies between the points labeled 1 and 3. 203. What is the difference between the hours of practice for the first and second weeks? The first and fourth weeks? On page 91 of Extending Mathematical Ideas, how is each number in the second row related to the number listed Study the table of information, "Gas Sales for Week of above it? February 14," on page 204. On which two days was the most gas sold? On what day was the least gas sold? What In the table on page 93 of Enlarging Mathematical Ideas, was the total number of gallons soldduring the week? each number in the right-hand column is how many times the number opposite it in the left-hand column? Read the bar graph, "Attendance at the Princeville County Fair," on page 207. What was the total attendance for the six days? Between what two days did attendance differ the greatest? Activities

Study the line graph, "Population of Park City," on page Study newspaper graphs under the direction of the 209. In what ten-year period did the least change take teacher. Study the time line on page 169 of The New place? The greatest change? Exploring Numbers; also the chart on page 234 and the graphs of temperature and rainfall on pages 242 and 243. From the pictograph on page 210, determine how many Study the time line on page. 68 of The New Under- more cars were registered in 1960 than in 1940. standing Numbers; also the bar graph on page 198 and the circle graph on page 171. Read the bar graph, "Weekly Income of Teen Times Readers" on page 196 in Modern Arithmetic Through Study the picture graph on page 196, the bar graph on Discovery (grade six). What information does the title of page 197, and the line graphs on pages199 and 200 of the graph give? What does the vertical scale show? How is it Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade four). labeled? What is the difference in the income of the boys in the twelve- through fourteen-year-old group and the boys in Study the horizontal and vertical bar graphs on pages the fifteen- through seventeen-year-old group? 202 and 203, tables of information on pages 204 through 206, bar graphs on page 207, line graphs on pages 208 and Read the line graph, "Normal Monthly Precipitation 209, and the pictograph on page 210 of Modern Arithmetic Duluth, Minnesota, and Miami, Florida," on page 199. Through Discovery (grade five). What does a one-unit space represent on the horizontal axis? On the vertical scale? Which city receives the greatest Study the graphs on pages 196 through 207 and on page amount of precipitation in one month? 253 of Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade six). 157

Learn the relationship shown on a number line that can RELATED ACTIVITIES be written in four different ways. (See page 8 of Enlarging Mathematical Ideas.) There is a one-to-one correspondence Pupil Assignments between number pairs and points on a graph. Study the sound motion pictures, "The Story of Our Use variables in problems. (See page 93 of Extending Money System" and "Story of Weights and Mea- Mathematical Ideas.) sures."

Evaluation and Summary Graph information historically on time line, table, or pictograph. Know the unifying concepts that underlie the prepara. tion of graphs. Study the following filmstrips for information on graphs:"Graphs," Set1; "Graph Uses," Set 2; Independent Study Assignments "Definitions and Key Words"; "Deductive Reason- Show ability to read graphs by answering the following ing"; and "Induction, Analysis, and Indirect Reason- questions: ing."

In The New Exploring Numbers: questions on pages Read Composition: Pictures as Structures, Metropol- 169, 234, 238, 242, and 243. itan Museum of Art Seminars. Analyze the artist's use of mathematical structure. In The New Understanding Numbers: questions on pages 18, 56, 59, 68, 90, 127, 143, 171, 198, 214, and 302. Analyze the artist's use of grids or graphs in relation to balance and composition. In Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (gradefour): -b,-c, -d and 2-a, -b, -c on page196; questions1-a, Read The First Book of Architecture. Graph the questions 1 through 5 on page 197; question 1 on page 198; historical periods from 500 B.C. to the twentieth questions 1, 2, 3 on page 199; question 1 on page 200. century. In Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade five): questions 2 through 5 on page 202; questions 1-a, -b, -c, Read The Painter's Secret Geometry: A Study of 2-a, -b on page 203; questions 1, 2, 3 on page 204; question Composition Art. Study the rectangular graph used 4 on page 206; questions 11, 12 on page 207; questions 1-a, by Puvis de Chavannes in "Decoration of the Large -b on page 208; questions 1-a, -b, -c and question 4 on page Amphitheatre of the Sorbonne" on page 209. Study the use of a grid in relation to the artist's plan for his 210. painting. Using graph paper, plan a composition for a In Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade six): painting of your own. questions 1 through 4 on page 196; questions 1 through 5 Visit an electronics firm to gather data related to the 4 on page 202; questions on page 199; questions 1 through manufacture of radios and television receivers. Graph 1 through 5 on page 205; questions 1, 2 on page 206. the statistical information collected. Show familiarity with relationships shown on a number Study Instruments of the Orchestra, pages 5 through line by solving problems 1 through 5 on page 8 of Enlarging 56, and listen to the accompanying record. Graph the Mathematical Ideas. growth of the orchestra (1700-1900), using the table of information on page 50. Show knowledge of using number pairs in graphingby answering questions 1 through 4 on page 91 of Extending Graph world series all-time records in the American Mathematical Ideas. League and the National League, using the World Series Encyclopedia. Show ability to use variables by answering questions 1 through 8 on page 93 of Extending Mathematical Ideas. Relate graphing skills to science problems centered on astronomy and space travel. After gathering data on Summary and Transition the aerospace industry, graph facts on the military Graphs show arrangement and organization of data. By and civilian production of aircraft in the United investigation, learn the usefulness of graphing as a tech- States between 1915 and 1960. Refer to Compton's nique for summarizing data. Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact-Index for data. 158

Read "Project Relay" in NASA Facts.Record and Content graph information regarding milestones in space secondary communications. Data may be collected from either primary or sources. Data from primary sources areobtained by Read The Six Orbits of Sigma 7, concerningWalter questionnaire, interview, or letter; from secondary sources M. Schirra's space flight, October 3, 1962(National by compiling information secured by other agencies. Aeronautics and Space Administration).Trace the chronology of Project Mercury flighttests from Since measurements are only approximate, asingle August 21, 1959, to October 3, 1962, on atime line measurement may lack the accuracy necessaryfor certain of the same or on a rectangular graph. scientific work; therefore, many measurements thing are taken under similar conditions. Thisforms a set of Compare the payload weights of the NASASounding data. Graphs and tables are useful devices for measurement Rockets. Make a graph of the data gathered. and summarization.

Refer to appropriate source material forinformation I. The Collection of Data on the nationallaunch vehicle program. (Sep -the NASA publication, Space Launch Vehicles.)Graph The following essentials of data collection arelisted for statistics regarding the stages, propellants,thrust, consideration and implementation: maximum diameter, height, payload, firstNASA launch, and use of Scout, Delta, Thor-Agena B,Atlas Elements of collecting data by the interview method. D, Atlas-Agena B, Titan 11, Titan HI, Centaur,Saturn, Advantages of the interview method are that a highdegree Advanced Saturn, and Nova. of accuracy is possible when data are obtaineddirectly from the source, and material is obtained that cannotbe Compare graphically the sizes of the Geminiand secured through a questionnaire. Information canbe Apollo spacecraft from information in "Footprints checked personally. Disadvantages are that only asmall on the Moon" byHugh L. Dryden in the March, number of samples can be obtained, and recordingthe 1964, issue of the National Geographic Magazine. interview involves a subjective factor. Graph the sizes of the planets in relation to the earth Elements of collecting data by the questionnaire from data in The Nature of the Universe,by Fred method. The questionnaire method shouldutilize easily Hoyle. understood questions; follow a logical sequence of questions; be concise; call for responses indicatedby yes or no, checks in blank spaces, or numerical clues. Itshould facilitate tabulation of data. Advantages of thismethod are be Comprehension that a large area may be canvassed for data, which can assembled inexpensively. Disadvantages are that questions cannot be answered without a supplementaryexplanation; Specific Purpose results may be unreliable; some persons may not answerthe questionnaire. To learn how data are collected and togain skill in translating mathematical verbal materialinto symbolic Advantages and disadvantages of using datacompiled statements (and vice versa); ininterpreting data; and in from secondary sources. A disadvantage of usingsecondary determining implications, consequences, andeffects by sources is the inabilityof verifying the data obtained by the means of graphs andtables. primary source or of verifying the accuracy ofthe results because of lack of knowledge of the statisticaltechniques used. Another disadvantage is possible prejudice inchoice Materials of source material and techniques, as well as lackof representative samples. Advantages are the economyof (grade five): Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery time and expense since data are already compiled;also, the through 210; and (grade six): pages 203, 207, 208 shift of responsibility for accuracy. pages 196 and 203 The New Understanding Numbers: pages171 and 213 Extending Mathematical Ideas: page 9 II. Graphs Graph paper with different sizes of squares(e.g., eighths of an inch or tenths of an inch) The unit of measurement used on thevertical graph is Teacher-prepared material or Discovery in Mathematics often greater than that on a horizontal one. The linegraph 159

always has two scales, and a bar graph has a scale and a PROCEDURE label. Both kinds of graphs have two axes. The line graph is useful for indicating changes over a period of time, such as Motivation changes in weight as heights change or changes in value as amounts change. Pictographs are easy to understand but The usefulness of graphs in summarizing data leads to have limitations if required to give accurate values for the desire to prepare graphs for interpreting relationships. symbols. For linear measurements, graph paper (cross- section paper) should be used. Guiding Questions Study the bar graphs on pages 203 and 207 of Modern Elements of extended types of bar charts. Two kinds Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade five). How does the will be considered here. First, pictorial bar charts; these scale for the vertical bar graph differ from that for the present pictures of different heights for comparative pur- horizontal bar graph? Add the attendance for Saturday and poses. Second, loss and gain bar charts: on these the bars for Sunday. Compare that sum with the sum of the extend from a zero line; when horizontally constructed, attendance for the six days. Which is easier for making barsrepresentinglosses extend to the left, and bars comparisons the bar graph or the table on the opposite representing gains extend to the right; when vertically page? constructed, the bars above the horizontal line represent profits, and the bars below the line represent losses. What symbol would you use to represent the data on page 202 of Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade Elements of area diagrams. Geometric shapes, such as six)? What symbol might you select for a pictograph to circles or squares, contrast quantities by comparing figures show the number of books in five different libraries? The with varying areas. Pic charts are circle-shaped diagrams number of houses constructed in each of four towns? The divided into sectors, each of which indicates the propor- number of votes cast for each of three candidates? tionate size of a component part of the whole. The circle equals 100 percent, or 3600; therefore, each percent equals What isthe proportion of the money the average 360° divided by 100, or 3.6. The sectors are usually arranged American farmer obtains from meat animals to his total clockwise. Comparison of charts must involve uniform size cash income? Refer to the circle graph on page 171 of The of sectors. Wording and percents are placed horizontally on New Understanding Numbers. each sector. A legend may be used to indicate the meaning of any shading, coloring, or crosshatching. Use the graph on page 214 of The New Understanding Numbers to determine the consequences if a driver of a car Elements of solid diagrams. Construction utilizes geo- with good brakes is going 50 mph and suddenly he sees a metric forms to illustrate comparisons in the volumes of the child on the road about 50 yards ahead. Will he be able to figures. stop the car in time? How does the graph help you to tell?

Elements of map graphs. Pictorial representation pre- Study "Weekly Income of Teen Times Readers" (allow- sents data in a geographic distribution. Construction utilizes ances and earnings) on page 196 of Modern Arithmetic shading, crosshatching, dotting, coloring, or pinning with Through Discovery (grade six). Can you make comparisons flags, pins, or tacks. as quickly by glancing at the table as by looking at the graph? Which provides more precise information?

III. Tables Activities

A statistioltableisasystematic arrangement of Study the graph on page 207 of Modern Arithmetic numerical data presented in columns and rows. Through Discovery (grade five). Make a bar graph or a table to compare the attendance for Saturday with that for Elements of general-purpose tables. Tables present varied Sunday at the Princeville County Fair. information on the same subject; present data in an orderly, logical manner; constitute a form that can be used with ease Make a pictograph to represent the data in the table on for reference purposes; allow inclusion of actual figures; page 203 of Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade and present original data. six). Compare the number of students enrolled in academic courses with those enrolled in vocational ones. Elements of special-purpose tables. Rounded numbers may be used; selected material may be concisely presented Learn from reference books the chief sources of income to facilitate interpretation; and data may be utilized to for farmers in California. Make a circle graph showing the emphasize relationships. sources of income in relation to one another.

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Evaluation and Summary RELATED ACTIVITIES

Graphs show relationships among facts so that trans- Study Assignments lation, interpretation, and extrapolation are possible. Read This Is NASA. Record data concerning advanced types of spacecraft; graph the facts. Independent Study Assignments Sec the motion picture, High Temperature Materials. Show ability to understand graphs by writing answers to Record information about the effects on various problems in Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade materials of high temperatures to determine suit- five), page 208, questions 1 -a, -I) and questions 2-a, -b, -c. ability of the materials for high-temperature applica- tions. Demonstrate skillin translating verbal material into symbolic mathematical material by solving problems in Compare the statistical information regarding moon Modern Arithmetic Through Discovery (grade five), page travel in From the Earth to the Moon, by Jules Verne, with the most recent data concerning planned 209, questions 3-a, -b, -d, -e, -f and questions 4-a, -b, -c, flights to the moon. -d, -e; page 210, questions I-a, -b, -c and questions 2, 3. Graph data on the atmosphere at different levels Illustratecompetencyindetermining implications, above the surface of the sea. Use The Prentice-Hall consequences, and effects (that are in accordancewith the Book About the Stars for a reference. conditions described) by solving problems in The New Understanding Numbers, page 214. Discover the masses of some stars and also their luminosity. Graph the results, using What Is Science? Show ability to reorder data and apply scientific method and other reference sources. by completing question 5, page 9, Extending Mathematical Ideas. Complete the bar graph given by drawing a bar that Relate the graphic method to the study of tempera- represents the product of each pair of factors indicated. ture, pressure, and wind velocity. Read Reader's The height of each bar should represent the product. Digest Science Reader, Red Book, pages 128 through 133. Graph comparative readings for fahrenheit, centigrade, and kelvin thermometers. Experiment Collect graphs of various types and interpret them. with the barometer, the hydrometer, and the ane- mometer. Graph weather patterns. Using The New Understanding Numbers, write additional questions requiring extrapolation of data to show Trace the history of scientific thought through the trends or tendencies: bar graphs, pages 56, 127, 198, 214; use of a graph or a time line.Refer to The Book of circle graphs, pages 90, 171; dot maps, page 143; picture Scientific Discovery and The Origins of Scientific graphs, pages 18, 59, 302; and time line, page 68. Do the Thought. same using The New Exploring Numbers: bar graphs, pages 88, 243; line graph, page 242; picture graphs, pages 234, Relate graphing skills to social science. Use graphs to 238; and time line, page 169. interpret the economics of Latin America through the following topics: "The Aztecs," "Guatemala," "The Using Discovery in Mathematics or teacher-prepared Need for Land Reform," and "Industrial Growth." material, including problems, review open sentences and Reference materials should include Readings in World signed numbers. The types of problems include finding the History. Study the history of cycles in relation to the "truth set" in open sentences, making tables and graphs to growth of civilization. Graph significant cycles (e.g., represent truth sets, finding equations for the graphs, business statistics). Use Mainsprings of Civilization for writing problems for given examples, devising quadratic data as well as other references. equations, writing a story for a given problem, and so forth. Application

Summary and Transition Specific Purposes A graph should emphasize the relationships among the To learn to apply the principles of graphic representa- facts in a set of facts. Work on the prediction of probable tion by using mathematical abstractions in concrete situa- effects from the application of knowledge. tions. 161

To recall the principles of supply and demand; to period for which the sellers are making decisions will help determine the utilization of these principles in predicting to determine which costs will be considered. When a farmer the effect of supply and demand in particular situations. decides whether to pick certain vegetable crops, he considers only the added costs of picking, but he will plant Content crops for the next season only if he anticipates aprice sufficient to cover all the costs. If the time period reviewed Analysis of data takes the form of descriptive statistics is very long relative to the production processes of an or numbers derived from organized data. Two typesof industry, planned sales (output) will be based on an descriptivestatistics may bederived to summarize a estimate of all costs. Depending on the time lapse involved, frequency distribution. One of these usually presents an a schedule of the amounts to be sold at a seriesof prices idea of the magnitude of measurements or numbered may be either a long-run or a short-run supplyschedule. counts by computing a number that represents the middle or center of the distribution. A determination of the quantities and prices of goods must take into consideration the differencesinseller Measures of centraltendencymean, median, and responses with regard to short-run and to long-run plans. modehelp to determine a frequency distribution. The lowest price necessary to induce a seller to offer a given quantity will depend in part on the time period involved. In Descriptive statistics that show the center of distribution competitive industry, market price is determined through are called measures of central tendency.Another type the action of thousands of individual buyers and sellers, indicates the variability or spread of the measurements who push prices up and down toward a point at which the from the center. These descriptive statistics are called amount that buyers want find the amount that sellers offer measures of dispersion or of variability. The rangethe are equal. Price is increased when buyers want morethan difference between the largest and smallest measurements sellers offer, and it is forced down when buyers want less of a distributionis not completely reliable. The standard than sellers offer. This process is described as the law of deviation is a more accurate measure of variability. supply and demand. This law is a statement of tendencies toward an equilibrium position attained when no single When two number lines are constructed in the same individual can improve his position within the opportunities plane to intersect at the 0 point of each line, each point of available. Changes occur when this stabilized condition does the plane may be associated with an ordered pair of real not exist. numbers. For work of an elementary nature, it is conve- nient to arrange the two number lines perpendicularly. This Principles of table construction. The title above the table restriction is not a mathematical necessity, as Rene Descar- indicates the nature of the data presented, the locality tes, who originated the concept, used axes that intersected covered, and the time period embraced. The source obliquely. information indicates the authority for the data, verifies them, and serves as a reference. Footnotes to explain "Supply" is a set of amounts to be offered at each of a figures in tables are placed immediately beneath the table seriesof pricesifthesellercannot raise the price. and are indicated by symbols or letters. The arrangement of "Demand" is a set of amounts wanted at each of a series of dataalphabetically, geographically, by magnitude, or by prices if the buyer cannot lower the price. The amount that other customary classificationfacilitates analysis. Col- buyers will take at various prices is shown on a "demand umns are numbered or lettered for reference purposes. schedule"; the amount that sellers will offer at various pricesis shown on a "supply schedule." A change in demand involves a shift from one supply schedule to PROCEDURE another. Demand curves generally slope down to the right because more supplies will be bought at low than at high The teacher guides the pupils in making use of effective prices. Supply curves generally slope up to the right because methods relating to the subject area. He utilizes a simple fewer goods will be offered at low prices than at high ones. graph figure drawn on the chalkboard or a poster board. The graph should be of the supply-demand type showing The concepts of demand and supply are meaningful only pricealong theverticalaxis and quantity along the in a purely competitive situation. Competitive firms are horizontal axis. sellers whose offerings make up supplies; they are also buyers demanding services and products from others. They Motivation sell to other firms and to eventual consumers; they buy from other firms and from owners of productive resources. The challenge to use their knowledge of graphs by The actual and anticipated production costs of the sellers applying principles in order to predict probable effects are extremely important in determiningsupply. The time motivates the pupils. 162

Guiding Questions Study the work of social scientists in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, In the figure of the graph, the original supply and historical research, political science, psychology, soci- demand curves are drawn in unbroken lines. Changes in ology, and statistics. ReadThe Sciences of Mankind: conditions indicated in the problems that follow are shown Social Scientists at Work Today in Many Challenging by drawing new curves with broken lines. Shifts in curves Fieldsand other references. Synthesize graphically (either supply or demand, or both) change the points of the data collected. intersection. What points of intersections of the curves apply to the new conditions? Use letters (A, B, C, D, or E) Use knowledge of graphs in additional mathematics to indicate the new intersection points. Assume that no work. Study and graph the curve of normalcy in other changes occur in supply or demand than those relationtothe probability theory after reading specified. Assume also that no restrictions interfere with a Mathematics(LIFE SCIENCE LIBRARY SERIES). free market. After readingThe World of ScienceandElementary Automobiles.New union agreements that have almost Statistics,work out problems on graphs in the eliminated labor grievances have been made. Buyers with Alternate Workbook to Accompany Elementary Sta- urgent demands for new cars have been supplied. tistics.

Butter, Itis winter, and production is lowest. Taxes on Study the precise definitions givenin The Laidlaw oleomargarine have been eliminated. Glossary of Arithmetical-Mathematical Terms.

Oysters.Chesapeake Bay oysters are slowly succumbing Work problems stated as equations and practice to a sickness induced by increasing pollution of the bay. plotting equations on a line graph. UseDiscovery in Mathematics asa student discussion guide. Activity Learn more about the number line fromRealm of Pupils recall general principles of supply and demand Numbers. and determine their use in each situation. They mark the appropriate letters at the points of intersection of the Learn the speed of the earth around the sun and curves that apply to the new conditions. study how this is computedin The Story of Mathe- matics.Graph the statistics. Evaluation and Summary Analysis Knowledge of principles of graphic representation aids in predicting the probable effect of a change in a situation Specific Purpose that was previously stable. To learn to recognize which facts or assumptions are Independent Study essential to a main thesis or to the argument supporting that thesis by analyzing the relationship between the yearly Apply specific principles of graphic representation to income of certain families and the medical attention they new fictional situations presented by the teacher. receive.

Summary and Transition Content A circle graph may represent pictorially the correspon- The rules of graphingspecificfacts are useful in predicting theprobable effect of changed conditions. dence between two sets of things. Circle graphs are Analyze the elements of a graph. customarily used to represent such correspondence when one set deals with numbers and the other set deals with objects or nonnumerical concepts. The elements of the two RELATED ACTIVITIES sets are formed in ordered pairs. A sector of a circle represents a certain fractional part of the circle's area. In Pupil Assignments the circle graph, the sectors emphasize not only the various magnitudes but also the ratio of the magnitude of each Study "The True Story of an Election." Compare second component to the magnitude of the sum of all the registration figures statistically. second components. For this reason the sum of all second 163

components must refer to a meaningful entity. For exam- Guiding Questions ple, such a sum is meaningful if it refers to the total number of votes cast in an election or to the total number of dollars The following tabulation represents the relationship spent last year by the government. In set terminology, the between the yearly income of certain families and the area of the entire circle represents a set of which the sector medical attention they receive: areas represent subsets. The ordered pairs represented by a circle graph involve second components as subsets. Percent of family members who received no medical attention The science of statistics helps with extracting informa- Family income during the year tion from raw data so that discoveries and descriptions of relationships can be made and expressed in a precise manner. Under $1,200 47 $1,200 to $2,999 40 Research is controlled observation in a field of study. $3,000 to $4,999 33 Statisticsis a tool applied to actual research situations. $5,000 to $9,999 24 Statistical methods are useful for describing and inter- $10,000 and over 14 preting concrete experiences. Conclusion:Members of families with small incomes are Graphic representations are used extensively in technical healthier than members of families with large incomes. work, since the outstanding features of group performance Which of the following assumptions would be necessary to are most readily grasped in this form. justify this conclusion? A fundamental problem in research is the selection of Wealthy families had more money to spend for comparable groups of subjects at the beginning of the medical care. experiment. If groups are not comparable originally, conclusions drawn may be in error regardless of whether the All members of families who needed medical atten- conditions did or did not have any different effects in the tion received it. course of the experiment. The groups for an experiment must be so chosen that they would not differ except for a Many members of families with low incomes were not sampling error if they were tested under the same condi- able to pay their doctor bills. tions. Members of families with low incomes often did not One research method for obtaining comparable groups is receive medical attention. "random sampling," whereby every member of the population from which the sample is taken has an equal chance of Activities being chosen. For an experiment two groups are needed, both of which are random samples. Construct circle graphs with the given data. Analyze the given facts. Study the relationship of ideas represented by Another type of grouping for researchis "matched the facts and decide which of the assumptions justifies the samples." By this is meant that for each member of the conclusion. population there is another member who is similar or in some way related. Whenever a sampling of pairs of Evaluation and Summary individuals is made from a population, each sample is not drawn randomly. However, a random sampling of the pairs Through analyzing the facts known in a situation, is drawn; the two persons forming a pair are drawn additional facts can be learned and organization of the data simultaneously but randomly with respect to any other can be perceived. pair. Then groups are formed by assigning one member of Independent Study Assignments each pair to a different group. Analyze additional problems with assumptions prepared by the teacher. Make graphs of different types to illustrate PROCEDURE known data. Motivation Summary and Transition Analyzing the elements of a graph motivates the pupils Knowledge and application of graphic representations to solve the stated problems. are useful in learning data and perceiving relationships. individual graphs based on public assistance and counseling andguidance also make use Synthesize learnings by making them in statistical analyses of unique information that leads tothe deduction of proposi- of them. Psychologists utilize measurement and testing. Economists usethem in analyzing tions and relationships. and reporting data on financialtrends and in preparing hypotheses on future conditions. RELATED ACTIVITIES PROCEDURE Pupil Assignments

Practice graphing number sentenceswith one and two Motivation variables.Plot numbers after referring to pages107 Pupils are motivated by theirresolution to use graphs in through 116 of Modern Mathematics. solving a problem that is based on newknowledge and that allowsfor discovery of generalizationsfrom symbolic Fun with Figures. Study circles, lines, and angles in representations. multiplication table Study the similarity between a Guiding Questions and a graph in The NewMathematics, pages 21 through 24, What fictional situation will youcreate? What resource books will you use? How will youtabulate your new Study graphs and gravity by readingThe Wonderful information? On what basis will youmake your predic- World of Mathematics. tions?

Study practical uses of graphs,diagrams, and maps as Activity described in the book, Industrial ArtsDrawing. Pupils identify an area of uniqueinterest; then they Strengthen understanding of setsfor use in equations locate resource material, gatherinformation, organize data, and graphs by working inMathematics Enrichment: analyze tabulations, graphinformation, formulate hypoth- Programs A, B, and C. eses, and modifyhypotheses based on changed conditions.

Discover the relationship of scales,angles, and lines to Evaluation and Summary mechanical drawing, as graphs. Report on their use in Graphic presentation ofinformation aids analysis and described in An Introduction to MechanicalDrawing. application of data in situationsrequiring solution or prediction.

Synthesis Independent Study Assignments Specific Purpose Practice the process of synthesisby doing problems assigned by the teacher. Forexample, assume that several To synthesize learnings ofgraphic representation by authorities were asked to participatein a round-table making individual graphs based onunique information that discussion of juvenile delinquency.They were given the leads to the deduction of propositionsand relationships. following data for City X and forcommunities A, B, and C within City X: Content Juvenile delinquency rate(annual arrests per 100 per- In addition to all previouslylearned content related to sons aged fivethrough nineteen): graphic representation, the pupilsneed information, in- City X as a whole 4.24 sights,and experiences to broadenand deepen their Community A 18.1 learnings. Community B 1.3 Anthropologists use graphs torecord data regarding Community C 4.1 people of the past. Archaeologistsand historians use them in compiling historicalrecords. Geologists and geographers Average monthly rental: changes of climate, the rise andfall of use them in studying $60 the seas, the movement ofglaciers, the advance or decline City X as a whole of rock formation, and the Community A 42 of moisture in deserts, the rate 100 rate of ground-waterdeposits. Physicists and chemists use Community B Community C 72 graphs to record experimentaldata. Sociologists working in 16S

Infant death rate (per 1,000 births): Demographers work with political scientists to study population pressures and world resources. Graphs are useful City X as a whole 52.3 in recording the research of these social scientists. Community A 76.0 Community B 32.1 A graph is a mathematical device offering the following Community C 56.7 advantages: a quick visual reference; a picture of otherwise detailed, involved relationships by representations of nu- Birth rate (per 1,000 inhabitants): merical data on scales; the vivid impact of information; and a rational analysis of data. City X as a whole 15.5 Community A 16.7 Some disadvantages to the use of graphs follow: possible Community B 10.1 misinterpretations; large inaccuracies due to small errors in Community C 15.4 calculations; and deliberate altering of scales to give a false picturefor example, to promote propaganda. How would you explain the differences in these juvenile delinquency rates in the light of the foregoing data? What proposals would you make for reducing the juvenile PROCEDURE delinquency rate in each of the three communities? Motivation

Summary and Transition Extensive experience with graphs leads pupils to want to evaluate them. Knowledge of graphic representation is useful in under- standingdata and perceiving relationships. Resolve to synthesize learning by making individual graphs based on Guiding Questions unique information that leads to the deduction of proposi- tions and relationships. What is the main advantage of organizing data? How do you decide whether to use a line graph or a bar graph to present data? How does graphing aid in problem solving? What difficulty might you have in making a pictograph that Evaluation you would not have in making a line or bar graph? Compare the types of graphs and their usefulness in Specific Purposes relation to specific purposes. Compare graphs to an outline method of gathering data. Which is more useful? When? To judge the value of the graphic method of organizing data by recalling the accuracy of reporting facts graphically in other lessons. Activity

To judge the graphic method of presentation in relation Under the guidance of the teacher, discuss the value of to other ways of reporting data. the graphic method of representing data.

Content Evaluation and Summary

All previously learned content related to graphic repre- Graphing is a useful method of organizing data. sentation is included or implied. Independent Study Assignment Political scientists record graphically what people think by using public opinion polls, samplings, and surveys. Solve problems such as the following: Political scientists also study the development of nations and traditional political systems. A housing concern made some experiments on methods of heating houses. A room was constructed with walls that Cultural anthropologists study human beings as members could be heated or refrigerated at the same time that air of of society. They analyze family cultures and nations in any temperature was being circulated through the room. their search for patterns and proposals to improve world Several individuals were asked to record their sensations as conditions. the conditions were varied. 166

DAILY LESSON PLANS FORDEVELOPMENT Wall Air OF THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH Trial temperature temperature Sensations The following pages present dailylesson plans used in the Los Angeles EnrichmentDemonstration Center to (°F.) (°F.) develop scientific attitudes. Theclassroom environment in which each lesson was conductedis described in each I 85 85 Uncomfortably hot example. The practical application ofthe Taxonomy of Educa- 50 Uncomfortably 2 85 TheClassificationof Educational hot tionalObjectives: GoalsHandbook I: Cognitive Domain toeach lesson plan follows each outline. The Taxonomyis discussed in Chapter 85 Comfortable 3 70 II. 4 70 70 Comfortable Lesson Plan I Social Science 5 70 50 Comfortable GRADE LEVELS: First and second 6 50 50 Very cold AGE LEVELS: Six, seven, and eight

7 50 70 Uncomfortably Specific Purposes cold To illustrate informationpreviously gained regarding 8 50 85 Cold different temperatures of milk byconstructing a bar graph.

To develop a scientific approachthrough the problem- solving process. How do you explain a person"ssensation of "coldness" in a room where the airtemperature is 85° F. and the wall Background temperature is50° F.? Consider the following: The children have analyzed,synthesized, and evaluated relationships and comparisons. Make all the suggestions that you can toexplain why the use of graphs to show They have gathered informationfrom studying the dairy a person is coldin a room where the wall temperature is 50° F. Give reasons why youbelieve each sugges- farm in a social science unit. tion will explain the phenomenon. Materials What kinds of evidence would youwant to collect Charted large graph paper, construction paper,masking upon which toevaluate your suggested hypotheses? tape, scissors, chalkboard,chalk.

Analyze the suggestions that youhave made and PROCEDURE select the one you believe to bethe best explanation. Give your reasons for your selection. Motivation A bar graph on which thetemperatures of milk are plotted motivates the children torecord known informa- Summary tion mathematically. A graph is a pictorial expressionof a particular topic. A graph indicates the pairingof the elements of one set with Guiding Questions the elements of another set.The correspondence is shown data to present a compact Why is milk delivered to yourhouse cold? Do you think in all graphs, which organize milk is kept at this temperatureall the time? At what picture that is useful forapplying mathematical abstrac- In the relationships, synthesizing temperatures did we find milkduring processing? tions, analyzing facts to perceive the pasteurizer? In the bottle? information to generate hypotheses,and evaluating proposi- cow? In the tank truck? In (Write temperatures on the board aschildren say them.) tions to solve problems. 167

We have been recording our arithmetic and spelling Comprehension scores every week. What have we done? How can weshow these temperatures of milk in a similar way? (Put up a large The children understand the relationship of one bar to piece of graph paper; have construction strips ready.) How another and the total meaning of the bar graph. They shall we label the axis? understand reasons for the varying temperatures of milk.

Activity Application

The children label the graph. The teacher provides strips The children will apply knowledge of graph construction of construction paper and asks, "How can we use these to facts learned in social science. strips?" The pupils place strips on the graph according to the temperatures to be plotted. Analysis

Evaluation and Summary The children will critically examine bar graphs during future lessons before analyzing the organizational principles The children state their observations on the rise and fall of graphing. of milk temperatures from the cow to the milk bottle. They explain why the graph gives them a quick picture of the Synthesis differences in temperature. Other groups of children work independently at different learning centers. One group will The childrenwill learn later to deal with abstract be working from a taped lesson on geometric shapes. A relations of graphs and their data to predict solutions to second group will be working at the viewing center with problems based on those data. slides related to geometric shapes in art. A third group will be at the mathematics-art center identifying pictures with Evaluation geometric shapes and manipulating geometric figures. The children will learn to interpret graphs effectively, Independent Study Assignments judge their excellence, analyze their effectiveness, and The children's independent work is to prepare a bar compare and contrast the valuesof different kinds of graph based on ages at which children like to play various graphs. games. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT RELATED ACTIVITIES The classroom in which this lesson was taught included Independent Project the following learning centers: The teacher introduces additional mathematics enrich- Correlated Mathematics and Art Center ment material to the children for independent work at the mathematics center. This material is related to the chil- Diagram that shows the ratio at which a dimension will dren's study of artists' use of mathematics and to work that decrease as it is projected toward the-vanishing point. isinprogressatthe mathematics- and art-correlated learning center. Books include An Adventure in Geometry, Art prints(e.g.,"Sight of a Village," by Lyonel Anthony Ravielli; The Meaning and Wonder of Art, Fred Feininger, with overlay showing geometric shapes), photo- Gettings; Fun with Figures, Mae and Ira Freeman; The graphs, mathematics books, art books, geometrical shapes. Giant Golden Book of Mathematics, Irving Adler; Pencil, Viewing center (sikbs of art prints with mathematical Pen, and Brush, Harvey Weiss; The Story of Numbers, emphases). Patricia Lauber; Arithmetic Can Be Fun, Munro Leaf; and The Wing on a Flea, Ed Emberley. The teacher also Literature Center introduces a new art print"The Church," by Lyonel Feiningerwhich is related to artists' use of geometry. Collection of single-copy books of fairy tales (e.g., The CoconutThieves,CatharineFournier;GooseGirl, PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF Marguerite de Angeli; and Pulcinella, Rose Laura Mincieli). TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Chart of criteria of the literary category of fairy tales.

Knowledge Music Center The children know specific facts about graphs and have Record player and earphones, collection of records, learned about social science from the dairy farm. musical instruments. Question for study: What are the 168 names and values of thesenotes? Chart of scale and this area. Some children have done individual workrelated notation; music theme charts (e.g., themefrom "Little to the problem to be solved, usingperiodicals for data. White Donkey," Adventures in Music, gradetwo). Materials Language Arts Center Taperecorder,projector,andfilmstrip.Teacher- periodicals: Handwriting chart, spelling file, word fileboxes, diction- prepared informational material. Books and Richards; Early California,I. aries. Children's stories related to socialscience; reference CaliforniaYesterdays,I. Study Kit Richards; "Opinion Section," Los AngelesTimes, Jan- books (e.g., The First Book of Words); Spelling Review, January 9, 1965; Life, (Science Research Associates). uary 10, 1965; Saturday January 8, 1965; California Homes, Winter, 1965;Holiday, February,1965; Westways, January, 1965, November, Social Science Center 1964, and October, 1964; Desert, January,1965; Los Angeles, January, 1965; Friends, December,1964. Reference charts, informational pictures onbulletin board, construction work, picture file,reference books, globe. PROCEDURE

Science Center Motivation

Chart of recent scientific problem-solving experiences: The children recall the social science problemstarted by How do seeds grow? Which way will the rootsgrow? What the group during its last reference period.Using a map of do seeds need? California, the pupils state hypotheses as to whysettlers came to the CentralValley, even though the Spanish Recent experiments to observe and manipulate.Science settlers did not. textbooks. New science problem: How does athermos keep liquids hot or cold? Science books (e.g., Prove It,Rose Guiding Questions Wyler and Gerald Ames). Why did settlers come to California'sCentral Valley area? Why did they feel differently aboutthis area than did Lesson Plan IISocial Science the early Spanish settlers?

GRADE LEVELS: Third and fourth Activities AGE LEVELS: Seven, eight, and nine The class recalls the problem. An individual statesit for the teacher to record on thechalkboard. The class Specific Purposes hypothesizes possible answers to the questionand then Some children read toa study of the begins its multitext reference work. To synthesizeresearchrelated teacher-prepared material, periodicals, or books; someview following social science problem: Why did settlers come to filmstrips; some listen to tapes; and somework with the California's Central Valley? Why was theirfeeling about this area different from that of the early Spanishsettlers? teacher to synthesize individualized efforts.

To synthesize pertinent current news articles ascontri- Evaluation and Summary follows the butions to the class discussion period that The pupils discuss information gainedfrom references reference reading time. and other media. They summarize thefavorable and unfavorable conditions created by climate, landformations, fortools, and the nature of the Background materialsavailable population. The children have studied California historyand geography. They know about the Indian, rancho,and mission Independent Study Assignment periods of California history. They have studiedthe life and for a detailed work of the trappers in relation to Californiahistory. They The children use their geography books have learned that although the Spanishsettlers did not comparison of the climate and soil conditionsin various settle in the Central Valley, many othersettlers did come to regions of California. 169

RELATED ACTIVITY science books on acoustics (book sets and single copies). Record player, earphones, headsets, connector box; music Independent Project books; tuning forks.

The teacher introduces for individual reading the Decem- Mathematics Center ber, 1964, edition of American Heritage containing the article, "Golden Days in California." Mathematics books (e.g., The Giant Golden Book of Mathematics, The Meaning and Wonder of Art). Problem- PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF solving question: "How are mathematics and art related?" TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Mathematicaldiagrams,geometricdesigns,geometric mobiles. Individual work for written follow-up. Knowledge Literature Center The class knows about the settlement of California, and they have learned about the geographical regions of the Collection of animal stories; chart of the criteria of the state. literary category of animal stories.

Comprehension Art Center

The class understands the importance of the historical Art print(stilllife):"Pommes et Oranges," Paul and geographical influences on California's past and pre- Cezanne; collection of California flower prints; file of sent. still-life prints; collection of slides of still-life paintings; viewlex projector; still-life tapestry work; biographies of Application artists and books on art.

The class has applied its knowledge of the history and Social Science Center geography of California to current social science problems. Social science informational file; textbooks and refer- Analysis ence books; bibliography chart. Art prints: "Ranch Scene," Brayer; "Home on the Desert," Dixon; "Rancheria," Hurd. The class has analyzed the relationship of California's history to its geography. Lesson Plan III Social Science, Reading, and Logic Synthesis GRADE LEVELS: Fifth and sixth The class will derive proposals from its varied reference AGE LEVELS: Ten, eleven, and twelve material. Specific Purposes Evaluation To summarize in a group discussion the current prob- The class will evaluate its proposals in a group discus- lems related to a study of India. sion. To recall in discussion the development of politics, CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT economics, and culture in India; to discuss likely solutions to current Indian problems; to discuss reactions to political, This classroom environment included the following economic, and cultural problems by formulating an original learning centers: prognosis.

Correlated Music, Science, and Mathematics Center To evaluatesources of information in relation to denotation and connotation; to evaluate prognosis in Diagrams of the Pythagorean theorem related to mathe- relation to logical thought. matics, music, and science. Art prints: "The Old Refrain," Harnett; "The Yellow Violin," Dufy; "Musical Forms," Background Braque. Bell Telephone Laboratories' experimental equipment on acoustics; informational recording, "Science of The children have summarized numerous articles from Sound"; suggested science experiments related to sound; periodicals related to India's current problems in the areas 170 of religion, health, politics, economics, and culture. They Activities have background information on the history and geography of India The children discuss current problems related to the history, politics, economics, and culture of India. They The children know that sensitivity to connotation is propose solutions and formulate a prognosis for the future essential to profitable reading, since words may produce an of India. They examine the logic of the prognosis and emotional reaction. They know that personal connotations analyze the reasoning involved. result from the experience of the individual and that general connotations result from the common reactions of Evaluation and Summary most people to a specific word. In analyzing propaganda, the pupils have collected some current examples of good The pupils judge thereliability of their periodical and bad propaganda; they have analyzed written accounts reading and summarize the factual information related to and have discovered oversimplification, misunderstanding, India. They judge the reasonableness of their own solutions and handed-down prejudice. They have concluded that and their prognosis for the future of the country. much of the intolerance and bias that trouble modern society are based on stereotypes, which fact discourages Independent Study Assignments rational reactions and open-mindedness in forming opinions. The teacher directs the children to learn more about the way in which people of India view the West. The teacher The children have often reasoned inductively and deduc- asks the children to read "Gandhi Looks at the West," by tively. They have used the Venn diagrams in logic to aid in Mohandas K. Gandhi, and "Nehru Looks at the West," by introducing simple deductive arguments. They have worked Waldemar Kaempffert, in Readings in World History, edited with valid and invalid arguments and with tautologies; and by Leften S. Stavrianos and others. they have tested the validity of arguments. RELATED ACTIVITIES Materials Independent Project Current periodicals related to problems of India. Wall maps of the world: "Cereal Crops," "Density of Popula- The pupils analyze slides of the art of India to determine tion," "Coal, Iron Ore, and Copper," Finch World Products the cultural influence of society on the work of the artists. Series. Globe, atlas, encyclopedias, geography textbooks, teacher-prepared materials; projector; slides of art prints of East Indian artists. PRACTICAL APPLICATION.OF TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PROCEDURE Knowledge

Motivation The pupils have acquired a considerable amount of information on the history, geography, politics, economics, Children's interest in current problems of India arises and culture of India. from their study of the history, politics, economics, and culture of the country. Comprehension

Guiding Questions The pupils understand the significance of social science problems in relation to their current study of India. What are the current problems in India? What is your source of information? -Whatis your solution to the Application problem? What areotherpossiblesolutions to these problems in India? What original prognosis for the future The pupils have applied their knowledge to current can we make from what we know? Is this prognosis logical? problems in India.

What personal or general connotations were evident in Analysis the periodicals that you read? Did you notice any oversimplification, misunderstanding, or prejudice in those The pupils have seen the relationship of the various articles? Is that argument valid? Why? Is that prognosis social science problems and have followed organizational logical? Why? Is that a reasonable deduction? principles for solutions to current problems in India. 171

Synthesis Social Science Center

The pupils will formulate a prognosis for the future of Child's painting of India; social science books (e.g., India. Readings in World History); periodicals, atlas, art slides of India, slide viewer, world maps. Individual work related to Evaluation the following problem: "Compare phases of the culture of India with those of the cultures of Mexico and the United The pupils will judge their prognosis for the future and States." their processes of reasoning according to the rules of logic. They will evaluate their sources in relation to connotation. Language Arts Center

CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT Diction center: recording of Edward Teller's "Conquest of Space" (to be analyzed in terms of qualities of diction); This classroom provided the following learning centers: tape recorder to record and analyze pupils' own voices.

Correlated Art and Music Center Literature center: collection of historical fiction; chart (Emphasis on painting and music of the Renaissance) of criteria of historical fiction; mimeographed material on evaluating historical fiction for independent study. Art books (e.g., on the high Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo); laminated artprints of Reference library: programmed material for organiza- Renaissancepaintings,largeartprints (e.g., those of tional skills; resource file. Botticelli); art slidesprints of outstanding works of the masters; projector and screen. History books (e.g., Your World Past); Los Angeles Unified School District's publications of Artists' Biographies. Pictures of musical instruments of the Renaissance period (e.g.,lute, oliphant, Selected References recorder). Independent music-listening activities; for example, recordings of Renaissance period music: "Jacobean Consort Music," Jacobean Ensemble, London; "Italian Art Books and Portfolios Music in the Age of Exploration," Fleetwood Singers, Lyrichord; "A Treasury of Music of the Renaissance," Bouleau, Charles. The Painter's Secret Geometry: A Study Elektra. of Composition Art. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1963. Science Center Canaday, John. Composition: Pictures as Structures. Metro- Experimentation area (crystal building, magnetism, and politanSeminarsinArt. New York: Metropolitan electricity). Matter and energy kit, earth's crust kit;scienc' Museum of Art, 1958. books (textbooks and single copies of reference books). Chase, Alice Elizabeth. Famous Paintings: An Introduction Mathematics Center to Art for Young People. New York: Platt & Munk Co., Inc., 1951. Books on logic, logic problems for independent study, and exploring mathematics. Geometry filmstrips; projector Craven, Thomas. The Rainbow Book of Art. Cleveland, and screen. Three-dimensional geometric shapes; mathe- Ohio: World Publishing Co., 1956. matics textbooks and reference books; mathematical games, chess games. Moore, Lamont. The First Book of Architecture. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1961. Mathematical and Astronomical Geography Center

Terrestial and celestial maps; globe; map projections of Field Trips different types; map and globe kit for independent work. Problem-solving question: "How do you find a position on It's Worth a Visit. Catalog of School Journeys for Elemen the earth's surface?" Geography and astronomy books. tary Grades. Publication No. EC-146. Los Angeles: Los Independentprojectsongeography, astronomy, and Angeles Unified School District, Audio-Visual Section, mathematical geography. Division of Instructional Services, 1960. 172

Filmstrips Marks, John L., and Others. Extending Mathematical Ideas. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1961. "Definitions and Key Words"; "Deductive Reasoning"; "Induction, Analysis, and Indirect Reasoning"; "Mis- Morton, RobertLee, and Others. Modern Arithmetic takes in Thinking." Curriculum Films, 1947. Audio- Through Discovery. Books 4, 5, and 6 for grades four, Visual Materials, Secondary Grades. Los Angeles: Los five,andsix,respectively. CALIFORNIA STATE Angeles Unified School District, Audio-Visual Section, SERIES. Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, Division of Instructional Services, 1961. 1963.

Graphs. Set 1: "Graph Uses"; Set 2: "Plotting Graphs." Neely, Henry. Triangles; Getting Ready for Trigonometry. The Jam Handy Organization, 1944. Audio-Visual Mate- New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1962. rials,Secondary Grades.Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, Audio-Visual Section, Division Ruchlis, Hyman, and JackEngelhardt. The Story of of Instructional Services, 1961. Mathematics:GeometryfortheYoung Scientist. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Harvey House, Inc., Pub- lishers, 1958. Mathematics Books Spooner, George, and Others. Mathematics Enrichment. Adler, Irving. The New Mathematics. NewYork: New Program A (1962); Program B (1962); Program C American Library, Inc., 1960. (1963). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. Asimov, Isaac. Realm of Numbers. Boston: Houghton Underwood, Benton, and Others. Alternate Workbook to Mifflin Co., 1959. Accompany ElementaryStatistics.NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. Bergamini, David. Mathematics. LIFE SCIENCELIBRARY SERIES. Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, Underwood, Benton, and Others. Elementary Statistics. 1963. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. Brueckner, Leo J., and Others. The New Exploring Num- Watson, Jane W. The World of Science: Scientists at Work bers. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1957. Today in Many Challenging Fields. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1958. Brueckner, Leo J., and Others. The New Understanding Numbers. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., Williams, S.M., and Others. Modern Mathematics in the 1957. Elementary and Junior High School (Second edition). Syracuse, N.Y.: L. W. Singer Company, Inc., 1965. Davis, Robert B. Discovery in Mathematics. Reading,Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1964. Music Recording and Book Freeman, Mae, and Ira Freeman. Fun with Figures. New York: Random House, Inc., 1946. Instruments of the Orchestra. Album, E.M.I. Records, Ltd.: HMV, mono 7 eg 8672-5; stereo GES 5820-3. Accom- Glazener, Everett R., and Coly Clark. Industrial Arts panying book, Instruments of the Orchestra, by John Drawing. Austin, Tex.: Steck-Vaughn Co., 1963. Hosier. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1961.

Gundlach,BernardH.TheLaidlawGlossaryof Arithmetical-Mathematical Terms.River Forest,Ill.: Reference Books Laidlaw Brothers, 1961. Britannica Junior Encyclopaedia. 15 vols. Chicago: Ency- Harman, Earl W. An Introduction to Mechanical Drawing. clopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1967. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1963. Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact-Index. 15 vols. Hogben, Lancelot. The Wonderful World of Mathematics. Chicago: F. E. Compton Co., 1967. Garden City, N.Y.: Garden City Books, 1955. Comstock, Anna. Handbook of Nature-Study. (Twenty- Marks, John L., and Others. Enlarging MathematicalIdeas. fourthedition).Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publishing Boston: Ginn & Company, 1961. Associates, 1939. 173

Debenham, Frank.The Global Atlas: A New View of the Space Launch Vehicles.No. NF 8. NASA FACTS. Washing- World from Space.New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., ton, D. C.: U. S. National. Aeronautics and Space Admin- 1958. istration, 1967.

Goode, John.World Atlas; Physical, Political, and Eco- Turner, Dorothy.The Book of Scientific Discovery: How New York: Barnes & nomic(Tenth edition). Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., Science Has Aided Human Welfare. 1957. Noble, Inc., 1961.

Hechtlinger, Adelaide.Modern Science Dictionary for the Verne, Jules.From the Earth to the Moon and Round the Space Age.Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Moon.New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1962. Inc., 1959. What Is Science?Edited by James Newman. New York: Janson, Horst, and Dora Janson.The Story of Painting for Washington Square Press, Inc., 1961 (paperback). Young People: From Cave Painting to Modern Times. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1952. Wilkins, Hugh Percival.The Prentice-Hall Book About the Stars.New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955. Tannenbaum, Beulah, and Myra Stillman.Understanding Maps: Charting the Land, Sea, and Sky.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957. Social Science Books New World Series Encyclopedia.Edited by Don Schiffer. Cam- Huntington, Ellsworth.Mainsprings of Civilization. den, N.J.: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1961. York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1945.

Readings in World History.Edited by Leften S. Stavrianos and Others. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1962. Science Books, Magazines, Maps Watson, Jane.The Sciences of Mankind: Social Scientists at Work Today in Many Challenging Fields.New York: Beiser, Arthur, and the Editors ofLife. The Earth.New Golden Press Inc., 1960. York: Time, Inc., 1962.

Bergamini, David, and the Editors ofLife. The Universe. -Sound Motion Pictures New York: Time, Inc., 1962. High Temperature Materials.No. HQ4. MoffettField, Branley, Franklyn M.Reader's Digest Science Reader,Red Calif.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Book. Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader's Digest Services, Inc., Ames Research Center Technical Library, 1965. Educational Div., 1962. The Story of Our Money System.11 min., color.Fifth and Bush-Brown, Louise.America's Garden Book(New revised Sixth Grades Audio-Visual Materials.Publication No. edition). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958. EC-211 (with teacher's guide). Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, Division of Instructional Ser- vices, 1962. (Distributed by Coronet Films.) De Santillana, Giorgio.The Origins of Scientific Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. The Story of Weights and Measures.10 min., color and black and white.Fifth and Sixth Grade Audio-Visual Dryden, Hugh, "Footprints on the Moon,"National Geo- Materials. Publication No. EC-211 (with teacher's guide). graphic Magazine,CXXV(March, 1964), 357-401. Los Angeles:Los Angeles Unified School District, Division of Instructional. Services, 1962. (Distributed by Hoyle, Fred.The Nature of the Universe.New York: New Coronet Films.) American Library, Inc., 1962. The True Story of an Election.Color and black and white. Oddo, Nick.Exploring Balance.Vol. 1, Science Kit. New Part I, 30 min.; Part II, 26 min. Los Angeles: Churchill York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1964. Films. (Kit includes teacher's handbook.) Part Four Program Evaluation Chapter XV Overview and Summary

In allocating funds for California Project Talent, the gifted in addition to the regular courses of study; (b) use of Cooperative Research Branch of the federal Officeof advanced materials accessible within the school building or Education stipulated that the Enrichment Demonstration classroomtogenerateideasandhypotheses;and Center in Los Angeles, like the other centers for the gifted (c) provision of special help to pupils directly and indirectly funded under the California project, should stimulate from resourcepersons. (2) Specialistsworking in the improvements in educational programs for intellectually classroom rendered pupils direct assistance as needed; other superior pupils. (8)1 To aid in assessing the accomplish- specialists worked regularly, albeit indirectly, with classes ments of the Los Angeles center, approximately3,000 through the inservice training program. questionnaires were submittedto educators, including administrators, supervisors, teachers, and college professors, and to industrialists and other lay persons. Their responses This publication delineates the enrichment program to the queries on the enrichment program indicated that the superimposed on the regular curriculum and indicates the instructional materials used in the Los Angeles center. The staff of the Los Angeles Demonstration Center had realized its objectives in enriching the course work of gifted pupils. document begins with an operational definition of enrichment prepared by committee members working on programs for the gifted in the LosAngeles Unified School PROJECT TALENT CONTRACT SPECIFICATIONS District. (See Chapter I.) In accordance with that definition, the demonstration center staff provided classroom The contract for California Project Talent specified that environments conducive to original pupil explorations. an enrichment program forgifted children should be Together with the Project Talent filmstrip and guide, the (a) developed at the Los Angeles Demonstration Center; descriptions, photographs, and other elements contained (b) presented at teacher training sessions; (c) reported in a herein graphically portray the provisions for individual publication;(d) demonstratedintheclassroom; and differences afforded in the classrooms. Curricular materials (e) disseminated through meetings, workshops, a filmstrip, were illustrated in the filmed observationlessons and have and a film series. (7) Itself a requirement in fulfilling that been listed in the course outlines presented in the preceding contract, the present volume describes how thosespecifica- three chapters of this report. Those chapters and the film tions were met at the Los Angeles center in the main series indicate the depth and scope of learning oppor- content of its enrichment program as well asinits tunities provided in the study units for developing the companion program for teacher training. The demonstra- gifted pupils'abilities to solve problems and to think tion center staff arranged for 12S different observation creatively, logically, and reflectively. periods for about 3,000 visitors to view classes in progress. Innumerable other persons attended conferences and workshops where the enrichment activities of the Los. Angeles center were described and illustrated with a colorfilmstrip RATIONALE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT accompanied by a phonograph record and guide (4), or with filmed observation lessons. (3) Underlying the enriched curriculums were the following factors: (a) subject content; (b) data sources; (c) objectives regardinglevelsofcontentanddesiredbehavior; CITY AND STATE CRITERIA (d) cumulativeinformationprocuredonthepupils; (e) levels of difficulty and logical sequence of learning The enrichment standards established at the California opportunities; and (f) evaluation of the program in terms of State Department of Education follow: (a) extra educa- a general diagnosis of strengths andweaknesses in groups of tional activities to meet special interests and abilities of the pupils, analyses of individual learners, clarification and redefinitionof objectives,pupil achievement, learning stimuli, growth of teachers, morale of staff, and assessment 1Numbers in parentheses refer to entries in the list of "Selected References" at the end of this chapter. of educational hypotheses.

177 178

QUERIES TO EDUCATORS AND TO PARENTS concern regarding the possibility implied by one of the questions that the program might terminate in their schools The evaluation of the work performed at the enrichment after the grant from the Cooperative Research Branch had center also included the appraisals, both solicited and been expended. Administrators and supervisors wished to unsolicited, from educators who participated in the enrich- continue the inservice training program and stressed the ment program and from parents of gifted pupils enrolled at need for further preparation of teachers in the content the center. areas related to enrichment. Teachers requested (;ontinu- ance of their training classes to consolidate the gains they School administrators and supervisorswere asked the had realized in their professional skills. following questions: Many unsolicited letters indicated interest in obtaining Has participation in Project Talent stimulated the information about the program and the techniques and adoption of enrichment in the local school? materials used in enrichment. Other correspondenceper- tained to classroom observations at the center, to presenta- Havepupilsevinced an increaseineducational tions by the project staff, and to the proven effectiveness of achievement? the program.

Has the elementary school adopted any of the lessons and guides produced for the enrichment project? APPRAISALS OF BEHAVIORAL CHANGES

Has the local staff increased its awareness of the The evaluation of the enrichment program involved educational needs of gifted pupils? assessing changes in the pupils' intellectual behavior and in the teachers' ability to stimulate the children to think. Would you recommend continuing the project? Evaluators of performance at the center used checklists of data to measure pupil growth in creative writing, critical Teachers answered the following questions: appreciation, and application of the scientific approach. Teachers also evaluated their own participation with the aid Have you improved your instructional techniques as a of a check sheet. Copies of these check sheets are included result of participating in the inservice workshops? in this chapter.

Have you engaged in more reading or studying about the gifted as a result of your experiences in Project Use of Films in Evaluating Behavior Talent? Teacher and pupil behavior as evinced in demonstration Have other teachers sought your advice about teach- lessons and in the three series of 14 films also servedas a ing gifted pupils effectively? basis for evaluation. (3) Prepared in black and white, the films each portray a separate lesson featuring a discussion Did this project help you to discover and develop of the seminar type, together with a commentary by Mary pupils' abilities? P. Broderick. Each of the six films comprising Series 1 is devotedtoamajorclassof goals drawn from the Would you recommend continuing the project? Taxonomy of Educational Objectives handbook on cognition, edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. (9) Named for those What comments and suggestions do you have? classesof objectives, the filmtitlesinSeries1 are: Knowledge,Comprehension,Application,Analysis, Parents responded to three questions: Synthesis, and Evaluation.

Have personal contacts with the Project Talent staff Each of the five films in Series 2 presentsa different contributed to your understanding? type of intellectual operation, based on J. P. Guilford's "Structure of Intellect" model as portrayed and discussed Has your 'child been more enthusiastic about his in Chapter II of this work. (5) The film titles,corres- school work since attending enriched classes? ponding tothetype of operation illustrated by the respective film, are the following: Cognition, Memory, Would you recommend continuing the project? Convergent Thinking, Divergent Thinking, and Evaluation.

Nearly all the responses to the various questionnaires Jerome Bruner's discription of learning stages servedas were positive and enthusiastic. Some parents expressed the basis for the third series of films focusingon enriched 179

classes at the center. (1) Named for each of the learning The course outlines in chapters XII, XIII, and XIV illustrate stagesrepresented,thefilmsinSeries3arecalled the manner in which teachers phrased their queries to Acquisition, Transformation,andEvaluation. correspond to specific levels of intellectual behavior. Lesson plans and course outlines give examples of these leading Entitled "Development of Scientific Discovery, Method- questions, which are also portrayed in the guides accom- ology, and Investigation Through a Study of Graphic panying the filmed observation lessons. The filmed lessons Representation of Statistical Information," the first film illustrate the use of a seminar type of discussion in assessing series on cognitive goals aided teachers both in specifying the intellectual growth of pupils at the center. The teachers learning opportunities and in measuring their effects. The also used written questions to evaluate pupil progress in six lessons pictured in that series are founded on the course course content. outlines contained in Chapter XIV of this publication.

The second series of films, "Development of Creative The Consultant as an Evaluator Expression Through a Study of the Literary Element of C ha racter iz a tion,"illustratesfivelessonsapplying The project consultant evaluated the growth of teachers Guilford's theories to the classroom as presented in Chapter as well as that of pupils. The consultant assessed the XII of the present work. teachers'subjective and objective measurements of the pupils' intellectual development, recorded the intellectual Chapter XIII provides the course outline used as a basis behavior of teachers and pupils, and charted the dimensions for the three films in the third series, entitled "Develop- of their growth. ment of Critical Appreciation Through a Study of the Fundamental Forms of Music," as based on Bruner's educational philosophy. EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS

Each of the 14 films comprising the three series is The following pages present five evaluative instruments approximately 28 minutes long; they all record actual that were used by teachers in the Los Angeles enrichment classes in session and feature comments by the project program. consultant; and all are discussed in separate film guides. The threefilmseriesarealsoavailable on videotape for The firstof these, "Diagnostic Information About reproduction on television. The California State Depart- Cluster Groups," was a work sheet which was used to ment of Education appointed the 'Acme Film and Video- discover the composition of cluster groups within the tapeLaboratories(1161NorthHighlandAvenue, classes in the program. The information provided by this Hollywood, California 90028) to process and distribute the sheet aided teachers in promoting their pupils' abilities. films and videotapes on enrichment. Only mailing charges are made by that firm for preview prints of the films, which The second instrument, "Checklist for Evaluating the may also be rented or purchased. Creative Writing of Pupils," contained criteria suggested by E. Paul Torrance. (10) These were usedin evaluating In collaboration with the Hollywood concern, the Great creative expresssion to improve the children's ability to Plains Instructional Television Library of the University of write creatively. The factors in this checklist were evaluated Nebraska at Lincoln, Nebraska 68508, also distributes the on a continuum, with 0 representing no evidence, 1 filmedseries,together with theViewer's Guide.The indicating a limited degree, 2 designating a considerable Nebraska library will send interested persons a representa- degree, and 3 indicating a marked degree of creativity in tive filmed lesson and a copy of theViewer's Guidefor writing. previewing for one week; the library also sells the films either individually or as a series. The third evaluation tool, "Checklist for Evaluating Critical Appreciation," was based on objectives prepared by Besides their evaluative functions, the film series also David Krathwohl and others in their handbook on the serve to train leaders for subsequent programs; to provide affective domain. (6) The teachers used this check sheet as audio-visual aids in university education courses or inservice aguideformeasuring pupilprogressinthecritical teacher training; and to acquaint educators and parents appreciation of music, painting, and sculpture. The ratings with the philosophy, objectives, methodology, and mate- were made on a continuum, with 0 representing a negligible rials of enrichment. degree, 1 indicating some, 2 designating considerable, and 3 indicating a marked degree of such appreciation. The teacher's level of intellectual behavior in interacting withpupils,guiding discussions, and asking questions The fourth device, "Checklist for Evaluating Application determined the pupils' levels of intellectual functioning. of the Scientific Approach," helped teachers of enriched 180

classesto evaluatepupil application of the scientific ment objectives. The factors in this checklist weregrouped approach. Here again, the factors were rated on a con- under headings that indicated three major program areas: tinuum; 0 represented no evidence, 1 indicated some, 2 lesson planning, classroom environment, and application of designated considerable, and 3 indicated a marked degree of theories. In the third area, theoretical knowledge pertained ability to apply the scientific attitude. to characteristics of gifted children, levels ofintellectual functioning, and levels of subject matter content. As in the The fifth instrument, entitled "Checklist for Teachers' evaluative aids described in the foregoing, the factors in this Self-Evaluation," was found to be most useful, inasmuch as checklist were weighted along a continuum; 0 represented the teachers in the Enrichment Demonstration Center were no evidence, 1 indicated some, 2designated considerable, continually evaluating their own implementation of enrich- and 3 indicated a marked degree of implementation.

DIAGNOSTIC INFORMATION ABOUT CLUSTER GROUPS

Room number

Teacher

Entire class

Age levels

Grade levels

Cluster group

Number in cluster group

Number of pupils verified as gifted

Number of pupils to be tested

Range of IQ: low high

Stanines

Low High

Achievement scores

Range of reading comprehension

Range of reading vocabulary

Range of arithmetic fundamentals

Range of arithmetic reasoning

English 181

Levels of thinking (number of pupils at following levels according to the teacher's observations):

4.4 et .4 1 c..) = 04 >, ...1 :4 "M <4 cn A EI u.4 Reading comprehension

Reading vocabulary

Arithmetic fundamentals

Arithmetic reasoning

Language

Problem solving

Discussion

Number of pupils considered capable of higher achievement:

General Specific area

Number of pupils having the following special talents:

Leadership qualities Music

Written expression Sculpture

Painting Dance

Literature

Comments: CHECKLIST FOR EVALUATING THE CREATIVE WRITING OF PUPILS

0 1 2 3

Organization Balance Arrangement Consistency Conciseness Clarity

Sensitivity Stimulus perception Association Relevancy of idea Specificity Empathy

Psychological Insight Causal explanation Perspective Meaningfulness Ego-involvement Understanding

Richness Expression Ideas Emotion Curiosity Fluency

Originality Choice of topic or idea Organization Style of writing Sense of humor Picturesqueness Vividness and flavor Personal element Original setting, plot, solution, or ending Invented words, names, and so forth Conversational tone Use of quotations Variety in sentence type, length Personal touch and naturalness Questions and answers Feelings of characters 183

CHECKLIST FOR EVALUATING CRITICAL APRECIATION

0 1 2 3

Receiving (attending) Awareness Willingness to receive Controlled or selected attention Responding Acquiescence in responding Willingness to respond Satisfaction in response Valuing Acceptance of a value Preference for a value Commitment to a value Organization Conceptualization of a value Organization of value system Characterization by a value or a value complex Generalized Characterization

CHECKLIST FOR EVALUATING APPLICATION OF THESCIENTIFIC APPROACH

0 1 2 3

Exploration of existing knowledge

Identification of the problem

Definition of the problem

Statements of hypotheses

Collection of data

Organization of data

Analyses of data

Elimination of some hypotheses

Modification of some hypotheses

Extension of some hypotheses

Formulation of conclusions Rejection, modification, or acceptance of hypotheses by testing

Communication of results 184

CHECKLIST FOR TEACHERS' SELF-EVALUATION

Lesson Planning

Clear knowledge of purposes, including level of content and intellectual behavior to be observed Many experiences with pupils so that they feel free to verbalize and utilize background (example: "When we read.. I thought that. .") Provision for each child in the enrichment group to work on one or more individual projects related to the enrichment units Use of guiding questions at identified intellectual levels Opportunities for children to summarize and generalize Follow-up work (independent study) regularly offered. Introduction of new, related opportunities for work at the learning centers

Classroom Environment

Social science center Informational pictures (on a bulletin board, in a file box, on a book rack, in a folder) Periodical file in upper grades Globe Long-range, problem-solving question Manipulativematerialswithassignmentfor independent work Realia (objects authentic to unit) Textbooks Single-copy books Construction work and organized materials System for independent work storage (folders in file, one large folder, card-file record) Science center Experimental materials and equipment Reports on science experiments Single-copysciencematerials (books, magazines, folders of information) Independent work in question form Science diagram System for organizing children's independent work (folders, files, and the like) Music center Collection of phonograph records Music books Music notation (on charts or posters) Musical instruments Long-range, problem-solving question Follow-up for independent study Art center File of artists' biographies for children who can read them Art prints for appreciation CHECKLIST FOR TEACHERS' SELF-EVALUATIONContinued

0 1 2 3 SEM

Art center (Continued) Manipulative materials Organization of art work materials (paints, crayons, clay, brushes, paper, and the like) Question related to area of study Art books if children can read them Independentstudyquestionswithsystemfor organizing children's work Mathematics center Textbooks and single-copy enrichment books Problems for independent study Manipulative materials (equipment for experimentation or measurement) Long-range, problem-solving question Language center Spelling materials Dictionaries and other appropriate referencebooks. Typewriter Word drill materials Independent work on reading skills Collections of children's stories Environment reminders for teachers: Correlate one subject to another. Put all captions on the bottom ofbulletin board area Block allbulletin boards neatly, using strips of tagboard at ends of captions or pictures. Don't paste or tape anything on painted wall area. . Any mobiles should be arranged in oneuncrowded area. If bulletin board is large,use large picture or diagram Have a variety of bulletin boards: children's work; diagrams (mathematics,science); informational pictures (social sciences); art prints; time lines; maps. Use cursive writing consistently (depending on grade level);showsigns,labels,captions,writing examples of excellent quality. Use envelopes, file cards, or folders for organizing independent work in centers.

Application of Theories

Knowledge of specific theoretical structures Knowledge of how you have fulfilled thedefinition of enrichment: Learning environment (conducive toexploration and originality) Provision for individual differences Depth and scope of enrichment experiences 186

CHECKLIST FOR TEACHERS' SELF-EVALUATIONConcluded

0 1 2 3 Knowledge of how you have fulfilled the definition of enrichment: (Continued) Opportunities for children to do reflective thinking, problem solving, and critical thinking Opportunities for children to be creative .... Knowledge of how you have provided for attributes of the gifted, particularly for the following abilities: To work with abstract concepts To summarize and generalize To learn independently To work for an extended time span To interrelate !earnings Appreciation of the fact that although the course of study is basic, "the ceiling is off" for children who are gifted

SUMMARY Selected References

The basic approach to enrichment at the Los Angeles 1. Bruner,JeromeS.The Process of Education. Demonstration Center was to set realistic goals, to take Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960. well-researched advice, and to allow sufficient time for Also, paperbackNew York: Vintage Books, 1963. results. In implementing the program, the center's faculty emphasized the following factors: (a) a sense of perspective, 2.Education of Educationally Gifted Pupils in Los with alertness to new developments; (b) a regard for human Angeles City Schools. Prepared by the Committee on growth; (c) a respect for scholarship and academic learning; EducationofIntellectuallyGiftedPupils.Los and (d) cooperative efforts to meet the pupils' needs. Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School District, 1962.

To promote the maximum development of the gifted 3.ENRICHMENT PROGRAMS FOR INTELLECTU- children'spotentials, the enrichment program afforded ALLY GIFTED STUDENTS. Presented by California wide opportunities for interaction among its faculty and Project Talent. Includes 14 films contained in three staff members, the pupils, the parents, and other persons of series.Sound,28 min.eachfilm.Series 1, the community. A heightened awareness of the impact of "Development of Scientific Discovery, Methodology those interactions on classroom learning gave teachers a and Investigation Through a Study of Graphic Repre- moremeaningfulconstructoftheteaching-learning sentation of Statistical Information," consists of six processa construct at once more complicated and more films based on the work edited by Benjamin Bloom: helpful than previous models. (1) Knowledge; (2) Comprehension; (3) Application; (4) Analysis; (5) Synthesis; and (6)Evaluation. Series The Education Research Consultanttothe center 2, "Development of Creative Expression Through a focused her attention on establishing the teacher training Study of the Literary Element of Characterization," program; implementing the operational program in the consists of five films based on the work of J. P. schools; producing filmed observation lessons and a film- Guilford: (7) Cognition; (8)Memory; (9) Convergent strip with guides; publishing the Viewer's Guide; dissemi- Thinking;(10) DivergentThinking;and(11) nating information on the enrichment center through Evaluation. Series 3, "Development of Critical Appre- meetings, workshops, and demonstrations; and preparing ciation Through a Study of the Fundamental Forms this publication. Inherent in the program were continual of Music," consists of three films based on the work evaluative procedures, which served to verify the soundness of Jerome Bruner: (12)Acquisition; (13) Transforma- of the many facets of the program and their effectiveness in tion; and (14) Evaluation. Hollywood, Calif.: Acme enabling gifted children to realize their intellectual poten- Film and Videotape Laboratories, 1964. (Also video- tials in selected elementary schools. taped for use on television.) 187

4.Enrichment Programs forIntellectuallyGifted forMentallyGifted Minors." CaliforniaProject. Students. Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Talent,ProgramAdministration 1.Preparedin Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, cooperation with the Office of Education, U.S. Office of Education, and the California State Depart- Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, ment of Education. Presented by California Project Sacramento:CaliforniaStateDepartmentof Talent. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Unified School Education, 1964. District (n.d.].Filmstrip, color, 73 frames; sound on phonograph record, two sides, 33% rpm LP; and Talent: A State's Resource, a State's Responsibility. filmstrip guide. Edited by J. Ned Bryan. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1963. S. Guilford, J.P. "Three Faces of Intellect," American Psychologist, XIV (August, 1959), 469-79. 9.Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Q Handbook 1: Krathwohl, David, and Others. Taxonomy of Educa- Cognitive Domain. Edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. tional ObjectivesHandbook H: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1956. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1964.

Plowman, Paul D., and Joseph P. Rice, Jr. "Revised 10.Torrance,E.Paul.GuidingCreativeTalent. Guidelines for Establishing and Evaluating Programs Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.

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