138 Global Education Review 3(3)

Holocaust Studies in Austrian Elementary and Secondary Schools

Philipp Mittnik Pädagogische Hochschule Wien University of EducationVienna

Abstract This article presents arguments in support of teaching about the Holocaust and Nazism in Austria at an early age. To accomplish this, Austrian and German elementary school textbooks were analyzed for the amount of content dealing with the Holocaust and Jews; the results showed that since 1980 the amount of content on the Holocaust increased in Germany, and to a lesser extent in Austria. The article reviews some of the criticism in Europe of the term Holocaust Education and explores some of arguments about why that is. The author argues that moral education and teaching of Human Rights are important components of, but ought not be the main goal of teaching about the Holocaust. The role of Austria after World War II, and exploration of the so called victim myth, prevalent until the 1990s are important to understanding history and to how history textbooks were created. After a discussion of how the Holocaust can be taught to elementary and early secondary school aged children, some suggestions are made about approaches to teaching the Holocaust to students in these age groups.

Keywords National Socialism, holocaust education, human rights, victim myth, didactics of history, history textbooks, schooling

Introduction politicians nor society want to be associated Holocaust Education is included in most with this “dark chapter,” therefore the Hitler- history curricula of the western world (Carrier, cult (and centrism) is very comfortable for 2013), but this era is still controversial in Austrians. Austria and Germany. Hitler centrism is one History textbooks are an instrument that of the challenges for the didactics of history, can create identities and deny unpleasant because it implies that only one person incidents in a nation’s past. One very committed these crimes and cruelties. While it important goal for researchers is to provide is clear that in Austria and Germany students ______Corresponding Author: already have some prior knowledge of Adolf Philipp Mittnik, Pädagogische Hochschule Wien, Hitler and World War II, in Austria neither Grenzackerstraße 18 , 1100 Wien, ÖSTERREICH Email: [email protected]

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Mittnik, Philipp (2016). Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools. Global Education Review, 3(3). 138-152 Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 139

guidance about how the Holocaust and been progressively reduced over the last years, National Socialism can be taught at the therefore resulting in a reduction of the different grades in a sustainable way. This representation of the history of National article article presents guidance for teaching Socialism. Students are provided textbooks this topic at elementary and secondary levels. that contain unreflected data, facts, and Conclusions at the end of the article present pictures which are mostly not contextualized suggestions about what should derived from (Langer & Windischbauer, 2010, p. 47). Holocaust Education. In 2014 Mittnik analyzed all approved Austrian textbooks on societal learning/civic Teaching About the Holocaust in education for elementary schools. Following Elementary Schools the method of Mayring, categories were built and a content analysis was conducted The teaching of complex topics like the (Mayring, 1990, p. 14). The categories were: Holocaust at an early age generates feelings of  Words: the number of words which are uncertainty. What is the right age to confront used to present this topic in the children with such burdensome content? textbook. Weninger (1949) wrote that students at a  Figures: figures that contribute to the primary level are not able to understand that textbook narrative. difficult issue. But according to Konevic (2007, p.11) he had no evidence for such a statement.  Hitler: how often the name ‘Hitler’ was In the following, the author will not provide a mentioned. simple answer to that question; instead, some  Jews: how often the term ‘Jew’ was ways to deal with this challenge will be mentioned. explored. While it is possible to live in the  National Socialism (NS): how often United States of America without finding the item ‘National Socialism’ was evidence of the history of National Socialism, mentioned. that is definitely not conceivable in Austria, or  Holocaust: how often the item Germany. If Austrian elementary students live ‘Holocaust’ was mentioned. in urban areas they are most likely confronted  Suffering: the suffering of Austrians with monuments, memorial plaques or media mentioned in the text. reports which relate to this “dark past” of  Perpetrators: Austrians were Austrian history (as it is often referred to) in represented as perpetrators. everyday life. None of the books analyzed included the terms In Austrian elementary schools the Jew or Holocaust. In one of the textbooks the topics, National Socialism and World War II, topic did not appear at all. The number of are presented on the occasion of the Austrian words of text ranged between 39 and 194. In National Day, October 26th. Because of the only one book, were Austrians presented as decreasing importance of holiday culture in perpetrators. Austria, related textbook representations have

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Textbook Words Figures Hitler Jews NS Holocaust Suffering Perpetrators

Dem Leben auf der 39 0 No No No No No No Spur

Ideenbuch 0 0 No No No No No No

Meine Photo 143 Yes (1) No No No Yes No bunte Welt (2)

Photo (1) Yes Schatzkiste 77 Painting No No No No No (1) (1) Yes Tipi 194 Photo (1) Yes (1) No No No Yes (3) Fig. 1: Frequency analysis in Austrian elementary school textbooks (Mitttnick 2014)

In the analyses of contingence (“Kontingenzanalyse“) the text templates of In contrast to the positions of Heyl, in comparable issues in the analyzed textbooks 2005 the German president, Horst Köhler, were combined and interpreted (Mayring, demanded that anti-Semitism should be fought 1990, p. 15). by age-appropriate lessons about the In the textbooks, Ideenbuch and Holocaust in elementary schools. In Austria, Schatzkiste, the topic World War II did not however, it is still taboo to talk about this time appear. Based on these text templates period with children. Even for Austrian following contingences were built: historians this topic seems to be too complex or too difficult; only one conference was held  Mentioning of Adolf Hitler 1939 (in 2 in Austria in 2010 relating to holocauset of 3) education. (Kühberger & Windischbauer,  Duration of war 1939 to 1945 (in 3 of 2010). 3) Although von Reeken noted that  Austria was occupied by the German contemporary history is an era which seems to Reich (in 3 of 3) be extremely real for students, it is not  Austria is going to be part of the represented in the curricula. Yet for Austria’s German Reich (in 3 of 3), even if the and Germany’s recent history, the Holocaust is correct designation of Deutsches Reich is the dominating historical topic because of the used only once. relevance to present times. (von Reeken, Academia is divided whether the 2007). Holocaust should be taught to 9 or 10 year old Becher conducted interviews with children. In 2004 Beck and Heyl, two German students from elementary schools in researchers in this field, started a debate on Switzerland and found that a massive Hitler- teaching the Holocaust at elementary level. centrism existed in the beliefs of children in Some of these arguments are presented in that country. (Becher, 2013). Hanfland Figure 2. demonstrated in her study that elementary Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 141

school aged children have prior knowledge seen from the results, the students significantly about National Socialism, also with an focussed on the person of Adolf Hitler. extended and unreflected Hitler-centrism These findings underline the necessity of (Hanfland, 2008). Mittnik found in 2014 that discussing that history with students. Even if these non-reflected notions existed in Austrian we agree with Enzenbach, that this topic is too elementary schools as well (Mittnik, 2015) This complex or too difficult to talk about with is shown in Figure 3. In that study 142 students younger students. we have to talk about with of six different Viennese elementary schools our students about this issue in order to avoid were asked what they knew about World War potential fears initiated from this historical II, using a written questionnaire. As can be content (Enzenbach, 2013, p. 137).

Arguments in favor (Beck) Arguments against (Heyl)

Introducing the topic at the beginning of Students may be overtaxed or even traumatized. secondary school is too late due to external influences. Implementing this topic is coherent with the The topic may potentially destroy the children’s curriculum. positive worldview. Frequently, the students’ prior knowledge about Since children may not have any prior knowledge the topic is flawed – teachers can fix that. about the topic, it is not necessary to talk about it in order to protect them. Fig. 2: Teaching the Holocaust at elementary level? (Heyl, 1996) (Beck, 1998)

70 58 60

50 39 40

30 19 20 12 13 7 10 4 4 4 5 5 6 0

n= 142

Fig. 3: Notions of elementary school students, Vienna (Mittnik, 2015) 142 Global Education Review 3(3)

Historians who were mentioned before pedagogical-didactic discourse about the demonstrated that the issue “Holocaust” is teaching about the genocide of the European relevant to elementary school aged students, Jews (Kühner, Langer, & Sigel, 2008, p. 78). but in Austrian and in German academic Genocide should also be part of the German communities, it is not discussed seriously. One language and Claussen noted that this term reason could be that the easiest way to escape was used already in the Middle-Ages to ridicule unpleasant discussions is to mention the topic Jews (Claussen, 1995, p. 21). In addition and avoid an in-depth treatment (Friedländer, singular focus on Jews is a denial of other 1994). victim groups such as homosexuals or Romani In particular, based on the fact that people. At the beginning of the Nazi-terror (in National Socialism should be taught differently Germany in 1933, in Austria in 1938) political in a multi-ethnic society like in Austria, this opponents were persecuted. The largest victim view is still not really accepted. In many group in the Austrian concentration camp, Islamic immigrant families anti-Semitism Mauthausen, were the Russians (Marsalek, exists on a to a large extent; in some cases 1995, p. 144). Two German historians listed there are also sympathies for the National the murdered people during the period of the Socialist regime. Mansour classified three National Socialism, Benz (Benz, 1996) and different manifestations of Anti-Semitism in Pohl (Pohl, 2003). Even if the Jews had the Islamic families. First, conspiracy theories are largest number of victims, it is not appropriate very popular among young Turks. Jews are or even professional to deny other victim presented as rich, reckless and part of the groups. worldwide neoliberal finance system. The The publication Guidelines for teaching Turkish government led by Recip Erdogan, about the Holocaust (USHMM, 2015) by the especially, reinforces these prejudices. Second, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum young Arabs link the Middle-East conflict to (USHMM) in Washington D.C. suggested a Jews. Mansour describes this as an anti- ten-point checklist to be considered in teaching Zionistic Anti-Semitism. Third, the Islamic about the Holocaust. However, these argued Anti-Semitism- radical groups of suggestions are very general and do not really Muslims, like the Salafists, present the Jews as offer any support for teachers. Together with their “biological” enemy, based on the Teacher Guidelines (IHRA, 2015) by the controversial passages of the Koran (Mansour, International Holocaust Remembrance 2014, p. 49). The didactics of history should be Alliance (IHRA) they seem to be the most encouraged to take this problem seriously important resources for teaching about the (Alavi, 1998). Holocaust in English speaking countries. The US-historian Lindquist tried to Criticism of the Term Holocaust create a checklist of the most important Education elements ofsustainable Holocaust Education, to help teachers to focus on the central The term Holocaust Education is not accepted meaning. in the German-speaking scientific community. In 1995 Claussen wrote that the term 1) Situating the Holocaust as a central Holocaust, should not be used because it is not event in world history part of the everyday language in Austria or 2) Defining patterns of human behavior Germany and, as a loanword, not useful in a 3) Viewing Holocaust education as a perpetrator nation. Kühner, Langer and Sigel motor for social and educational change defined the term Holocaust Education as a Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 143

of the set of civic values democratic to Bloxham, knowing about the genocide could societies are built on. be very important for a better understanding of 4) Examining the Holocaust as a catalyst history, but it may have no value for an for fostering intellectual and personal individual student (Bloxham, 2009). growth in both students and teachers In the German-speaking academic due to the subject’s complexity and the community there are also counter-theses high level of response the topic creates which reject the relationship between teaching 5) Situating the Holocaust as a primary about the Holocaust and an efficient Human focus of contemporary education Rights education. One is, “The History of the (Lindquist D. , 2008, p. 5). Holocaust is not suitable for a sustainable treatment of contemporary racism and The Council of Europe (COE) (Lecomte, xenophobia” (Ehmann, 2000), The second is 2001) and e UNESCO (UNESCO, 1974) tried to that the increasing moralization of the formulate central guidelines for teaching about Holocaust in education is more preaching than Holocaust. In most cases, the concepts of teaching. “ (Salmons, 2003). Holocaust Education followed three dominant principles: Learning About the Crimes of the  To counter contemporary racist and National Socialists: Obligation in anti-Semitic sentiment, students have to learn about the cruelties of the Nazis a Perpetrator Nation?  Learning about the Holocaust will In Austria or Germany it may be argued that make students aware of the teaching about the holocaust is a moral significance of Human Rights obligation, and even a pedagogical duty to prepare students of all age groups to reach a  Learning about the Holocaust should fundamental understanding on this time have value for students’ lives. period because of its high societal significance.

However, it is acceptable not to work within The American view on the Holocaust was the two aforementioned areas, and there are no described by Deckert-Peaceman as The alternative concepts or guidelines in German- Americanization of the Holocaust. The speaking academia. following points can be seen as a link to it: In 1943 the allied forces’ Treaty of  Correlation between the Nazi cruelties Moscow, included the passage ‘Austria was and a general moral education the first victim of Nazi-Germany’ was included  Focus on the teaching of values and but in the same treaty you ist also says that tolerance, without mentioning genocide Austrians (were also) perpetrators and that a  Prevention of anti-Semitic and new Austria had to bring these persons to extreme right-wing tendencies in society justice after the end of World War II (Verosta, (Deckert-Peaceman, 2002) 1947, p. 52). However, it was not possible to deal with Many textbook narratives suggest a link the war crimes of the Austrian society after between Human Rights Education and World War II.. This political agenda of the Holocaust Education. The belief is that if government In a very famous speech in students are confronted with the history of the August 1945 , Leopold Figl, the first Austrian Holocaust , human rights will be more relevan chancellorstated “Seven years did the Austrian for them. However, even the point that nation suffer from the Hitler-barbarianism. Holocaust education should have value for the Seven years were the Austrian people enslaved students’ lives has been challenged. According and oppressed, here was no freedom of speech, 144 Global Education Review 3(3)

no possibility to commit to an idea; brutal perpetrators were judged. The Nuremberg terror and power forced the people to be Trials between 1945 and 1949 sentenced more subjects of the regime. But the deep belief in than 60.000 people (Erdmann, 1999, p. 106). nation of Austria was a drive for a patriotic In total, preliminary proceedings were initiated resistance carried by all parts of society. In the in Germany against 172,294 people between factories and offices, at the frontline and at 1945 and 2005 (Eichmüller, 2008, p. 624); In home, the people attempted to sabotage the Austria only 17% of the accused were Hitler-state. We true Austrians were in one sentenced (Hanisch, 1994, p. 423). front with the soldiers of the Allies” (Pohn- Prior to1986 very few people openly Weidinger, 2013, p. 71) . discussed the role of Austrians in the NS- But the De-Nazification was not regime. However, in 1986 Kurt Waldheim, an thorough in Austria at all (Botz, 1996). In the Austrians People Party (ÖVP) candidate for same era, our History Textbooks told the Austrian presidency was accused by the generations of Austrians that a huge number of popular Austrian news journal, profil , , of Austrians had joined the resistance and had having been a member of the SS and of the fought against the Nazi-regime. For example, Wehrmacht (Kontanko, 1986),. The opposition text passages as the following often appear in party, the Social Democrats (SPÖ), used that Austrian history textbooks of the 1980s that fact to talk about Austrian collective memory. mention Austrian suffering, but fail to mention For the first time in Austria, 40 years after the cruelties committed by Austrians: “The failure ending of World War II, this election opened a of Stauffenberg’s attempted assassination also broad discussion about the cruelties meant for our country that the (Austrian) committed during that period by Austrians. suffering had not come to an end.” (Scheucher, Also in the United States of America This issue 1982, p. 32). The textbooks obviously had the was also very controversial in the United States purpose of helping to form a new Austrian of America. The New York Times published an identity article, accusing Waldheim of having been a To underscore Austria’s involvement in member of the SA (Tagliabue, 1986). Though this era, some facts help: 10% of all Kurt Waldheim was elected president of commanders of concentrations camps were Austria, the USA set him on the “Watchlist”, Austrian, 14% of all SS-members and 20% of making it impossible for him to enter the the KZ-guards were Austrian, but Austrians United States. No politician from a Western accounted for only 8% of the population of the state came to his inauguration; Waldheim was Third Reich was only. Additionally, two out of completely isolated (Gehler, 1996, p. 41). The five death camps (Treblinka, Sobibor) were election of Waldheim to Austrian president commanded by Austrians (Steininger, 2008), brought the discussion about Austrians past andsome of the most brutal perpetrators were “to the middle of Austrians society” (Gehler & Austrians, including Adolf Eichmann, Ernst Sickinger, 1996, p. 632). The ensuing Kaltenbrunner, Odilo Globocnik andAugust discussions gave rise to the first serious Eigruber. controversy about Austria’s part in the Third Even if it can be argued that Austria was Reich more than 40 years after the end of the not a sovereign state between 1938 and 1945, war (Uhl, 2001). It was no longer possible to the people of this country as it existed before maintain the position that Austria was the 1938, had a responsibility for their crimes and “first victim of the German Reich.” It has for their role in the genocide. Whereas in taken years for this change of perspective Germany there were a proceedings at different about Austria’s past to find its way into courts all over the country where the NS- Austrian history textbooks. Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 145

Modern Austria is one of the richest New Jersey it says: “Every board of education countries in the world, but there are still shall include instruction on the Holocaust and problems with democracy or the principle of genocides in an appropriate place in the equality. In 2014 a survey documented that curriculum of all elementary and secondary 29% of Austrians want to have a strong school pupils. The instruction shall enable political leader (´Führer`) who could rule pupils to identify and analyze applicable without a parliament and 56% of Austrians do theories concerning human nature and not want to discuss National Socialism and behavior: to understand that genocide is a World War II (Rathkolb & Ogris, 2014). The consequence of prejudice and discrimination: didactics of history are neither able to solve and to understand that issues of moral this problem, nor is it the job of the profession dilemma and conscience have a profound to find the reasons, but these facts highlight impact on life. The instruction shall further the importance of creating new perspectives of emphasize the personal responsibility that teaching this topic. These realities underscore each citizen bears to fight racism and hatred the importance beginning academically whenever and wherever it happens” (N.J.S., supported Holocaust Education at an early age 2015). to educate a society that does not sympathize with authoritarianism or the Nazi Regime. Learning About the Holocaust and Teaching About Human Rights. Curricular Aspects of Teaching In the Austrian academic community it is the History of National Socialism disputed if curricula are the approprate instruments to modify or improve teaching. In Though teaching about the Holocaust is not Austria’s lower secondary, unqualified teachers required in Austrian elementary schools, , in frequently have to teach History because of a lower secondary (10 to 14-year-old students) it lack of teachers. If they are not interested in is. Each history teacher has to teach the topic. history, they do not use the textbooks for what In contrast tro the United Stated, Austrian they have been designed - as a teaching curricula are uniform nationwide. The history support. In such a scenario, students have to curriculum for lower secondary, comparable to learn the textbooks contents, chapter for the American Middle School, prescribes chapter, without reflection.. In the higher following mandatory content: grades( age 18) the questions for the final  National Socialism as an example of a exams in History have been analyzed and most totalitarian regime of them are aligned with the contents of the  Ideology, propaganda, mobilization of textbook. At this point it is important to note the youth, persecution, organized mass that teachers in Austria are able to write their murder, resistance own exam questions for their own students. So,  Jewish life before and after the in theory, they can emphasize their own Holocaust interests. Questions about National Socialism  World War II were formulated very often, but,  Commemorative cultures (BMBF, predominantly, textbook narratives dominate 2015) exams (Mittnik, 2014). As in Germany, a national uniform curriculum does not exist in the United States. The Basis of Teaching: History There are states New Jersey, for example, Textbooks where the topic is mandated in the curriculum, So it seems that History textbooks could be the but in other states there is no requirement for instrument to change lessons. They are teachers to address it. In the curriculum of 146 Global Education Review 3(3)

constructions of history and designers of Austrian history textbooks prior to 1990 public knowledge- and they are a political almost as many pages were devoted to issue. Knowledge and values have been defined resistance as to the genocide of Jews. This by historians in order to be passed on to future could give students the impression that generations (Lässig, 2010). In Austria, resistance against fascism was as important as textbooks for students are the most important the cruelties of the Nazi regime. In fact, very teaching support for History lessons, because few people were active in the Austrian every student gets his own textbook for each resistance movement, but hundreds of subject every year, with costs borne by the thousands were perpetrators. The proportion state. of pages devoted to “resistance” and In Austria there is an Approbation “genocide”in contemporary textbooks in Committee for all textbooks. This committee Germany has changed very clearly. In Austria decides if a textbook can get access to the the numbers of pages devoted to genocide and market. The members, predominantly teachers resistance is almost the same as in the of the subject, define what content must be textbooks of the early 1980s, while in Germany included in textbooks. If content which is it has changed considerably. This is shown in favoured by the commission is missing, the Figure 4. book will not be approved. So, teachers paid by The quantitative inquiry of textbooks the Federal Ministry of Education , not (Fig. 4) shows the comparison of the topics researchers, determine the most important genocide and resistance in Austrian issues and central methodological basic (henceforth abbreviated as A 1 to A5 for the approaches.. This situation was improved in books of the early 1980s and G1 to G5 for the 2010 when new guidelines which defined a German books). A 6 to A 10 are current high academic standard was commissioned by Austrian books, G6 to G10 are the current the Ministry (Krammer & Kühberger, 2011). German books. The numbers in the cells An important issue for this commission represent the amount of pages in the to deal with was the topic of Austrian corresponding books (Mittnik, 2015, p. 82). resistance against the Nazi-regime. In most

German Genocide on Austrian Genocide on Books Resistance Jews Books Resistance Jews Pages Pages Pages Pages G1 4 4 A1 2 4 G2 3 5 A2 2 1 G3 1 5 A3 4 5 G4 5 3 A4 3 2 G5 4 6 A5 1 Average 3.4 4.6 Average 1.4 2.6 G6 4 13 A6 2 3 G7 3 7 A7 2 6 G8 4 14 A8 2 8 G9 4 4 A9 4 4 G10 4 8 A10 3 5 Average 3.8 9.2 Average 2.6 5.2 Fig. 4: Quantitative inquiry of textbook pages relating to the issues Resistance and Genocide on Jews (Mittnik, 2015, p. 91) Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 147

It is remarkable that already in the books These two examples demonstrate the of the 1980s these issues are higher problem in the German-speaking academic represented in German books than in the community. Respectable historians attempting Austrians. The German history textbooks try to to establish minimum standards for teaching offer a lot of more information. the Holocaust, are so unspecific that they are

not very helpful for History lessons. In Austria Teaching about the Holocaust in Lower and Germany, National Socialism is extremely Secondary Grades sensitive; so no historian wants to create In Austria, Krammer (nes) made five teaching guidelines that would not be accepted suggestions for teaching the Holocaust in in academia. Von Borries concluded that history lessons. These are: especially on this important issue history  Provide information about the past lessons often do not engage students in a deep and differentiate between factual intellectual or emotional discussion. The judgement and value judgement consequence is superficial processing in this  Avoid emotional approaches to field (Von Borries, 2005, p. 113). learning Henke-Bockschatz identified three goals  Intensive guided discussion by for History lessons about National Socialism teachers to develop“correct” attitudes which could serve as guidance for the are counterproductive production of new textbooks. Textbooks should  An “overdose” of a topic is problematic enable students to: and counterproductive. Teachers should  Acquire knowledge about the rise of strike a balance the NSDAP and the followers of the NS-  Narrations of NS-history must be re- regime organized in history lessons (Krammer,  Understand which acts of cruelty nes) people at that time have committed and Though simple, these suggestions create empathy for the victims represent important principles to be  Fight against a renewal of similar considered when teaching the history of contemporary political movements and National Socialism. The following concepts by ideologies and resist them (Henke- Lücke and Brüning are also under-represented. Bockschatz, 2004) Accordingly, History lessons which include  Pingel asked questions about teaching that content should be: the history of the National Socialism in all grades. The questions represent  Planned: To develop historical important considerations for educators knowledge, it is necessary to provide but he provides no answers. How can history lessons that structure the prior emotional overload be avoided? concepts of students  What explicit lesson preparation do  Students-orientated: Learning about teachers need to speak about gas that era should contribute to a historical chambers? identity, despite increasing sociocultural  Who should dominate the view of the diversity. past: perpetrators or victims?  Productive: To counteract increasing  How can students be taught, that the NS and Holocaust-lethargy, action- system was enabled by the large number orientated learning is sugested (Lücke & of bystanders in the society? Brüning, 2013). 148 Global Education Review 3(3)

 Is it possible to talk about other victim are similarities, and differences in suggested groups, without relativizing the suffering didactic approaches. In Austria or Germany of Jews? the view of the perpetrators and  Can the National Socialism be comprehension why such tragedies could compared to other genocides in history happen should be essential; in the United without calling the singularity of the States or Great Britain the link to a Human Holocaust into question? Rights Education in order to avoid these  Can Jews be portrayed as people, not historical mistakes appears to be crucial. only as victims? Good textbooks should However, it seems impossible to frame also present the pre-Holocaust life of didactical approaches which will be valid in all Jews,i.e., they were part of Austrian or societies worldwide. A new national process German society. (Pingel, 2002) should be initiated to define the central principles for teaching the Holocaust. To start The Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) this discussion a preliminary proposal is of the European Union provided a “toolkit” to offered below. offer didactic approaches to teaching the

Holocaust. The European perspective that Conclusions FRA suggested empasized: What are appropriate steps to narrow adaquate  Raising awareness of the ideological teaching of the National Socialism in Austria? background of the National Socialist To start with the elementary schools, discrimination and extermination policy The following are guidelines about how the  Centrality of the Personalization of teaching of Holocaust Education might be History presented, successfully, in elementary schools: o Victims  Individual cases: Show students the o Perpetrators and Accomplices to individual suffering, without dwelling on murder cruelties. Talk or read about children of o Bystanders their own age, who lived at that time and  Escalation of Discrimination and be prepared to talk with students about Persecution death and murder. Develop connections  Human rights as a frame of reference to the present, as with stories about exile for the analysis, reflection, discussion and refuge. and the educational process  Anti-Semitism: The increasing number  Interdisciplinary Approach of anti-Semitic criminal acts in Austria  Age-appropriate Approach (FRA, and Germany demonstrates the 2009). importance of this issue. Combat student prejudices by explaining the Glanz provided 10 instructionally nature and purposes of stereotypes. oriented suggestions for teaching the Point out that we import Arabinformed Holocaust from an American standpoint anti-Semitism because of immigration. (Glanz, 1999). Lindquist also criticized aspects  Austrians as perpetrators: Explain of American Holocaust Education. He and the historical truth that previous suggested five basic instructional approached generations committed many war for teachers, to teach this topic (Lindquist D. crimes, without speaking about them in H., 2006) (Lindquist D. H., 2008). detail, we have to emphasize societal

responsibility. Dispell the myth that Which issues are seen as particularly important varies with the nation, though there Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 149

most of Austrians were involved in seriously and present concepts that work resistance movements. against these prejudices. If students are  Contemporary significance: Explain apprehensive or afraid and they start to the approach of Austrian society towards cry when teachers talk about National events of the past as many isues are Socialism, teachers should recognize that important today, including the use of they are not able to extend their language, the awareness of public space knowledge because of affective factors. and, the importance of an efficient  Limit focus: Teachers should focus on judiciary and democracy. Also, children 8-10 topics dealing with this part of need education in Human Rights. history, including the genocide of the European Jews, and the youth In order to achievethe goal of a more movements of the NSDAP, It is reflective learning experience about National necessary to limit the content in order to Socialism for elementary school aged students, to avoid superficiality, provide focus, and three general principles are relevant. Firstly, in depth discussion Teachers should also students should develop empathy for the plan to allocate sufficient time as it is not victims of that time and should be able to possible achieve even a brief overview of understand the suffering of people in the the history of National Socialism i four to present. Secondly, and probably most sixperiods. important, is to develop interest for era in  Nazi support: Teachers should attempt elementary schools. Many students by the time to explain why Austrians predominantly they are 14 have the impression that they have supported the Nazis. Even if there are a broad knowledge of the Holocaust and that no satisfactory answers the question the topic is boring (Lücke & Brüning, 2013, p. should be discussed with students. The 167). It is necessary to dispel these impressions explanation that unemployment was by creating interest among students. Thirdly, it extremely high and that Austrians and is essential to present this topic to students in a Germans were unsatisfied with the way that helps them to recognize the political situation cannot allowed to significance for Austrian society. Students stand unchallenged, for example, there should learn about their own national history, are no “Führers” in contemporary even if it is sometimes unpleasant, and it can Greece or Spain, where more than 50% be done without moralizing or shocking them of the young people are unemployed? with pictures of cruelties, In order to achieve the goal of a more  Contemporary historical connections: reflective learning experience about National Create connections to contemporary Socialism for lower secondary school aged historical events. Define the NS-history students, the following general principles are not as part of the past but as part of our relevant: time. Visit memorials or monuments related to National Socialism with  Prior knowledge: Build on the prior students. Talk about single persons in knowledge of students. Determine what the past and create common biographies gaps in knowledge exist and which issues to current persons. Discuss the Middle- students are already familiar with. If for East conflict with students. Anti- instance, students make comments like Semitism is often based on criticism of “Hitler built the highways” or “Not the state of Israel. everything was bad back then” or “He had the right solutions for Jews,”  Hitler-centrism: Do not argue in teachers should discuss such statements history lessons that Hitler committed

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these cruelties. Adolf Hitler was the Benz, W. (1996). Dimension des Völkermords. Die Zahl leader of a political movement. It is der jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus. München: Dtv. absolutely necessary to speak about the Bloxham, D. (2009). The final solution: A genocide. perpetrators who were part of the Oxford: Oxford University Press. society. By focusing on Hitler it is easy to BMBF. (2015). BMBF. Retrieved from forget that these crimes were committed https://www.bmbf.gv.at/schulen/unterricht/lp/lp _ahs_unterstufe.html by persons who survived the war, living, BMBF. (12. 08 2015). Lehrplan für Geschichte und in very many cases, a normal life, Sozialkunde/Politische Bildung. Von without any conviction. Bundesminsiterium für Bildung und Frauen: https://www.bmbf.gv.at/schulen/unterricht/lp/lp _ahs_unterstufe.html abgerufen Summary Botz, G. (1996). Geschichte und kollektives Gedächtnis in The article shows some scientific insights of der Zweiten Republik. „Opferthese“, „Lebenslüge“ the discussion, at what age the teaching about und „Geschichtstabu“ in der Zeitgeschichtsschreibung. In W. Kos, & G. Rigele, the Holocaust should begin. The early Österreich im ersten Jahrzehnt der Zweiten historical learning seems to be important to Republik (S. 51-85). Wien: Sonderzahl. encourage empathy and an early Claussen, D. (1995). Die Banalisierung des Bösen. Über understanding of Human Rights. The analysis Auschwitz, Alltagsreligion und Gesellschaftstheorie. In M. Werz, Antisemitismus of Austrian elementary textbooks make clear und Gesellschaft. Zur Diskussion um Auschwitz, that the content of World War II and the Kulturindustrie und Gewalt (pp. 13-28). National Socialism is mentioned in nearly all Frankfurt/M.: Neue Kritik. textbooks, but the presentation can be defined Deckert-Peaceman, H. (2002). Holocaust als Thema für Grundschulkinder? Ethnographische as superficial. In transition to the lower Feldforschung zur Holocaust Eduacation am secondary the claims in historical learning Beispiel einer Fallstudie aus dem amerikanischen should be increased. Even if the high Grundschulunterricht und ihre Relevanz für die importance of the History of the National Grundschulpädagogik in Deutschland. Frankfurt: Lang, Peter. Socialism for Austria is undoubted, there are Ehmann, A. (2000). Auseinandersetzung mit only a few amount of didactical approaches Nationalsozialismus und Holocaust in der how to teach about the Holocaust. After historisch-politischen Bildung. In B. Fechler, K. presenting them a catalogue of didactical Gottfried, & T. Liebertz-Groß, „Erziehung nach Auschwitz“ in der multikulturellen Gesellschaft. principles was created to suggest how, in Pädagogische und soziologische Annäherungen future textbooks could present that topic in a (pp. 175-193). Weinheim/München: Beltz-Juventa. professional way. Eichmüller, A. (2008). Die Strafverfolgung von NS- Verbrechen durch westdeutsche Justizbehörden seit 1945. Eine Zahlenbilanz. Vierteljahrshefte für References Zeitgeschichte 56, 621-640. Alavi, B. (1998). Geschichtsunterricht in der Enzenbach, I. (2013). Frühes historisches Lernen. multiethnischen Gesellschaft. Eine fachdidaktische Jüdische Geschichte, Nationalsozialismus und Studie zur Modifikation des Geschichtsunterrichts nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung. In H.-F. aufgrund migrationsbedingter Veränderungen. Rathenow, B. Wenzel, & N. H. Weber, Frankfurt am Main: Iko-Verlag. Nationalsozialismus und Holocaust. Historisch- Becher, A. (2013). Das „Dritte Reich“ in Vorstellungen von politisches Lernen in Schule, außerschulischer Grundschulkindern. Fachdidaktische Perspektiven Bildung und Lehrerbildung (pp. 133-147). zur Thematisierung von Holocaust und Schwalbach/Ts.: Wochenschau. Nationalsozialismus im (Sach-)Unterricht der Erdmann, K. D. (1999). Das Ende des Reiches und die Grundschule. In P. Gautschi, M. Zülsdorf-Kersting, Neubildung deutscher Staaten. In B. Gebhardt, & B. Ziegler, Shoa und Schule. Lehren und Lernen Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte (pp. 95-112). im 21. Jahrhundert (pp. 19-37). Zürich: Chronos. München: Benz. Beck, G. (1998, 10). Der Holocaust als Thema für die FRA. (2009). Discover the Past for the Future: The role of Grundschule. In J. Moysich, & M. Heyl, Der historical sites and museums in Holocaust Holocaust – Ein Thema für Kindergarten und Grundschule? (pp. 28-46). Hamburg: Krämer. Holocaust studies in Austrian elementary and secondary schools 151

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About The Author Philipp Mittnik is an Austrian political scientist with a focus on history and political didactics . He is the field coordinator and director of the Centre for Civic Education at the University of Education Vienna (PH Wien).