PARTS OF SPEECH There are eight parts of speech in Latin, as in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition, interjection.

1. A NOUN is a word used to express the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. regina queen charta paper, map insula island fabula story Europa Europe sapientia wisdom Nouns have gender: Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter number: Singular or Plural case: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative

2. A PRONOUN is a word used in the place of a noun.

is he tu you (sing.) The personal pronoun is not ex- ea she ego I pressed if it is clear from the id it vos you (pl.) context who is the subject of the eam her nos we verb, since the verb ending indicates eum him ei they the subject.

3. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to describe a noun. amicus bonus puella pulchra magnum templum a good friend a beautiful girl a large temple

4. A VERB is a word used to express action or state of being. amant they love, they are loving, they do love sunt they are vocamus we call, we are calling, we do call

5. An ADVERB is a word used to describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. ita thus satis enough primum first celeriter quickly plus more tum then

6. A PREPOSITION introduces a phrase which consists of the preposition and its object. in silva in the forest in caelum into the sky cum amicis with friends

7. A CONJUNCTION is a connecting word used to join words, phrases, clauses or sentences. A conjunction can connect equal ideas (coordinate): pueri et puellae boys and girls A conjunction can connect unequal parts (subordinate): Dum lacrimat, Troia ardet, While she weeps, Troy burns.

8. An INTERJECTION is a word showing strong feeling or emotion. o! oh eheu! alas mehercule! by Hercules PARTS OF SPEECH

Latin, as English, has eight parts of speech:

. NOUN . PRONOUN . ADJECTIVE . VERB . ADVERB . CONJUNCTION . PREPOSITION . INTERJECTION

Noun - the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. . Gender: In English gender has faded for most nouns, except for special uses (e.g., ships). Latin retains gender distinctions for all nouns, some natural (e.g., puella) and some grammatical (terra). . Nouns are sometimes called substantives because they were once thought to denote the substantia (essential nature) of a person or thing. Pronoun - a word used in place of a noun. . Personal pronoun - I, you, he, she, it, they, etc. . Reflexive pronoun - refers to subject of sentence (He saw himself). . Interrogative pronoun - Who, whom, whose, what? . Demonstrative pronoun - This, that, these, those. . Relative pronoun - Who, etc. (in subordinate clauses). . Possessive pronoun - My, your, his, etc. . Indefinite pronoun - Some(one), some(thing). Adjective - a word that describes a noun or pronoun. . Descriptive - terra pulchra (a beautiful land). . Possessive - mater tua (your mother). . Interrogative - quae dea . . . ? (what goddess . . . ?) . Demonstrative - hoc consilium (this plan). . Indefinite - aliqua spes (some hope). Verb - a word that expresses an action or condition. . Transitive verb - takes a direct object to complete its meaning. It necessarily affects some person or thing or produces some result. Thus, the statements interficio (I kill) or aedificio (I build) are not complete until it is clear whom I kill or what I build. . The person or thing affected or effected by the action of the verb is the direct object and is always in the accusative case.

. Intransitive verb - does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. The action of the verb does not "pass over" (transire) to another person or thing. Thus, sum (I am), sto (I stand), curro (I run), cado (I am falling), sol lucet (the sun is shining) would all be nonsensical if given a direct object. . But many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive: I run/I run the race. I can stand/ I can stand it no longer. As is clear in the last example, this change from intransitive to transitive often is accomplished by a change in basic meaning (stand vs. endure, bear) that seldom corresponds to the Latin usage. Thus, sto means only "I stand" in Latin and is only intransitive. . Many verbs which are transitive in English were considered by the Romans to be intransitive in force. Thus, "I spare" is considered by us transitive and to require a direct object: "I spare my enemies". To the Romans, however, the idea was intransitive and the person affected must take an indirect object in the dative case: parco meis inimicis ("I am sparing to my enemies"). Adverbs - a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. He fights well. The fight was very long. He lost too easily.

Conjunction - a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses. . Coordinate - connects equal words, phrases, and clauses: Over land and sea Good or evil I see but I don't understand. . Subordinate - joins dependent clauses to the main idea of a sentence: Although the night was dark, we found our way. We found our way until the sun set. We found our way because there was a full moon. Preposition - a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence (in, on, towards, with, by, etc.). . In Latin, as in English, prepositions are almost always placed before (praeposita) the words they define. . Many prepositions have become pre-fixed to verbs and modify their original meaning: trans (across) + portare (to carry) = transportare (to carry across). • Often the preposition is modified for ease of pronunciation, as in in + portare = importare = to carry in. This is known as assimilation. Interjection - an expression of emotion, thrown in (interiecta) among, but grammatically independent of, the other words of the sentence. Alas, poor Yorick, I knew him.

Of the eight parts of speech in Latin, 5 are inflected (noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb); the other 3 (conjunction, preposition, and interjection) are invariable. THE USE OF CASES

Cases in Latin have specific grammatical functions, which must be learned in order to properly understand Latin sentences (which are not dependent, as English sentences are, on word order). The following case uses are fundamental:

Nominative: • Subject of a sentence. Iuppiter circumspectat : Jupiter looks around. Iuppiter is the subject (i.e., the actor) of this simple sentence and is in the nominative. • Predicate nominative (with linking verb “to be” “to seem” “to appear,” etc.). Iuppiter est deus : Jupiter is a god. The predicate noun deus further defines the subject and is in the nominative. Iuppiter erat benignus : Jupiter was kind. The predicate adjective benignus further describes the subject and is in the nominative.

Genitive: • Genitive of possession: expresses simple possession. Regia reginae magna erat : The palace of the queen was large. • Genitive of description: attributes a quality to a noun. Diana dea magnae sapientiae est : Diana is a goddess of great wisdom. This genitive is normally accompanied by an adjective. • Genitive with certain adjectives: dignus, -a, -um + gen. = worthy (of) Delectamenta sunt pretiosa sed digna pretii : The delights are costly but worth the price. N.B. dignus may also govern the ablative case. plenus, -a, -um + gen. = full (of) Oppidum olim plenum virorum erat : The town was once full of men. peritus, -a, -um + gen. = skilled (in), expert (in) Vir peritus sagittarum est : The man is skilled with arrows. N.B.: peritus may also govern the accusative and ablative case. • Partitive Genitive (Genitive of the Whole) A genitive is used to denote the whole to which a part belongs. Deis partem cibi dederunt : They gave part of the food to the gods.

Dative: • Dative of indirect object. Dei dona viris dederunt : The gods gave gifts to the men. • Dative of possession: Nomen mihi Marcus est : My name is Mark. Unus filius Latonae erat : Latona had one son. • Dative with certain adjectives: benignus, -a, -um + dat. = kind (to) Iuppiter erat filio benignus : Jupiter was kind to his son. carus, -a, -um + dat. = dear (to) Terra deo cara erat : The land was dear to the god. gratus, -a, -um + dat. = pleasing (to) Nymphae deis gratae sunt : Nymphs are pleasing to the gods. idoneus, -a, -um + dat. = suitable (for) Tempus idoneum poenis exspectavit : She awaited a suitable time for punishment. • Dative with certain verbs: praesto, -are, -stiti, -stitum + dat. = to surpass Cur Latona mihi praestat : Why does Latona surpass me? impero, -are + dat. = to command, order Accusative: • Direct Object: Poeta fabulas narravit : The poet told stories. • Accusative with prepositions: ad + acc. = to, toward, near per + acc. = through prope + acc. = near, close to trans. + acc. = across propter + acc. = on account of, because of post + acc. = after inter + acc. = between, among in + acc. = into • Subject Accusative in Indirect Speech (with Infinitive): Minerva monstrat se deam esse : Minerva shows that she is a goddess. Deos appropinquare video : I see that the gods are approaching. Ablative: • Ablative of Means: Phoebus liberos eius sagittis necavit : Phoebus killed her children with (by means of) arrows. • Ablative with prepositions: cum + abl. = with sine + abl. = without de + abl. = about, concerning a (ab) + abl. = from, away from, by pro + abl. = in front of, before in + abl. = in, on SUMMARY OF CASE USES

Nominative 1. Subject of a verb Puerï currunt. The boys are running. 2. Predicate Nominative or Subjective Complement Caesar erat consul. Caesar was consul. Puer appellätur Märcus. The boy is called Marcus.

Vocative 1. For direct address Venï, Lücï, ad villam. Come to the farmhouse, Lucius.

Genitive 1. Of possession Mätrës puellärum adsunt. The girls' mothers are here. 2. Objective Noster timor bellï est magnus. Our fear of the war is great. 3. Partitive Pars urbis est pulchra. Part of the city is beautiful.

Dative 1. Of the indirect object Equitibus equös dat. He is giving horses to the horsemen.

Accusative 1. Of the direct object Exercitum videö. I see an army. 2. Of place to which Ad oppidum veniunt. They are coming to the town. 3. Predicate Accusative (Objective Complement) Fïlium meum vocävï Lucium. I have called my son Lucius. 4. Of extent of space Tria mïlia passuum cucurrï. I ran three miles. 5. Of duration of time Duäs horäs mänsit. He waited two hours. Ablative Showing separation: 1. Of place from which Ab ïnsulä navigämus. We are sailing from the island. 2. Of separation Cïvës timöre liberävit. He freed the citizens from fear. 3. Of personal agent Hoc factum est ä Caesare. This was done by Caesar. Showing location 1. Of place where In urbe manet. He is staying in the city. 2. Of time when Tertiä hörä discessërunt. They left at the third hour. 3. Of time within which Tribus diëbus discëdëmus. We shall leave within three days.

Showing instrument or circumstances 1. Of means or instrument Tëlö vulnerätus est. He was wounded by a weapon. 2. Of accompaniment Vënï cum meïs amïcïs. I came with my friends. 3. Of manner Dönum magnö gaudiö accëpit. He received the gift with great joy. DECLENSION OF NOUNS

In English, the relationship between words in a sentence depends primarily on word order. The difference between the god desires the girl and the girl desires the god is immediately apparent to us. Latin does not depend on word order for basic meaning, but on inflections (changes in the endings of words) to indicate the function of words within a sentence. Thus the god desires the girl can be expressed in Latin deus puellam desiderat, puellam deus desiderat, or desiderat puellam deus without any change in basic meaning. The accusative ending of puellam shows that the girl is being acted upon (i.e., is the object of the verb) and is not the actor (i.e., the subject of the verb). Similarly, the nominative form of deus shows that the god is the actor (agent) in the sentence, not the object of the verb. The inflection of nouns is called declension. The individual declensions are called cases, and together they form the case system. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles are declined in six Cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, and vocative and two Numbers (singular and plural). (The locative, an archaic case, existed in the classical period only for a few words). . Nominative Indicates the subject of a sentence. (The boy loves the book). . Genitive Indicates possession. (The boy loves the girl’s book). . Dative Indicates indirect object. (The boy gave the book to the girl). . Accusative Indicates direct object. (The boy loves the book). . Ablative Answers the questions from where? by what means? how? from what cause? in what manner? when? or where? The ablative is used to show separation (from), instrumentality or means (by, with), accompaniment (with), or locality (at). It is often used with a preposition: The boy went to the store with the girl. . Vocative Used for direct address: Son, pick up the book. . Locative Also answers the question where? in what place? In classical Latin the locative was nearly obsolete, replaced by the ablative of location, and was confined to cities, small islands, and a few others words (Romae, at Rome; domi, at home; ruri, in the country; humi, on the ground). Because the possible relationships between words far exceed six or seven cases, Latin uses other devices to vary meaning: . Prepositions are common with the accusative and ablative cases, with special meanings (trans flumen, across the river; coram populo, in the presence of the people). .The cases themselves serve different functions, the genitive, dative, and ablative being particularly rich in meaning. For example, even in English the phrase "man of steel" does not imply literal possession (i.e., it doesn't mean "the steel's man"), but is a genitive of description. Similarly puella magnae sapientiae ("a girl of great wisdom") is a genitive of description, not of possession. . Verbs sometimes "govern" or require the use of a particular case, often with idiomatic meaning. These must be learned as they are encountered. FIRST DECLENSION NOUNS (-a)

Formation: Nouns of the First Declension are declined thus:

Singular Plural

Nom. -a -ae Gen. -ae -ārum Dat. -ae -īs Acc. -am -ās Abl. -ā -īs

N.B.: The long -ā of the ablative singular distinguishes it from the nominative singular, which has a short -a.

Example:

Nom. silva (the forest) silvae (the forests) Gen. silvae (of the forest) silvārum (of the forests) Dat. silvae (to the forest) silvīs (to the forests) Acc. silvam (the forest) silvās (the forests) Abl. silvā (in or by the forest) silvīs (in or by the forests)

N.B.: Because Latin has no article (the or an), silva may mean the forest, a forest, or simply forest.

Gender: Nouns of the first declension are overwhelmingly feminine. A very few nouns in the first declension are masculine: 1) Some natural genders such as agricola (farmer), nauta (sailor), pīrāta (pirate), poēta (poet), scrība (scribe or clerk). 2) Some personal or family names: Catilīna, Mūrēna, Dolābella, Scaevola. 3) And Hadria (the Adriatic). Even fewer nouns are of common gender: incola (inhabitant) and advena (stranger). Adjectives, of course, will always agree with gender: pīrāta malus (evil pirate), poēta clārus (famous poet).

Dea and Fīlia: For the dative and ablative plural of dea (goddess) and fīlia (daughter) the endings -ābus (deābus and fīliābus) are used to distinguish these nouns from the second declension nouns deus (god) and fīlius (son).

Familiās: An old genitive in -ās is preserved in the word familiās (of the family), often with pater, mater, fīlius, or fīlia. Thus, pater familiās (father of the family = head of the household).

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Singular Plural

Nom. -a -ae Gen. -ae -ārum Dat. -ae -īs Acc. -am -ās Abl. -ā -īs

2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine Neuter

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. -us (-er) -ī Nom. -um -a Gen. -ī -ōrum Gen. -ī -ōrum Dat. -ō -īs Dat. -ō -īs Acc. -um -ōs Acc. -um -a Abl. -ō -īs Abl. -ō -īs

Some Second Declension nouns ending in -er will retain the e, such as (puer, puerī). Others will drop the e (ager, agrī).

Memorize the following regularities:

1. The Dative and Ablative are always alike in the plural. In the First and Second Declensions they end in -īs.

2. The Accusative singular of all masculine and feminine nouns ends in -m and the plural in -s.

3. In Neuters of all declensions, the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.

4. The Genitive plural of all declensions always ends in -um.

5. The Nominative and Vocative are alike in all declensions, except for the singular of Second Declension nouns and adjectives ending in -us, which show -e in the Vocative: Et tu Brute? THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

1) Masculine and feminine third declension nouns are declined alike:

Masculine Feminine Nom. pater patrēs vox vōcēs Gen. patris patrum vōcis vōcum Dat. patrī patribus vōcī vōcibus Acc. patrem patrēs vōcem vōcēs Abl. patre patribus vōce vōcibus

Third declension nouns have a variety of nominative endings, but the genitive singular always ends in -is.

2) Neuter nouns differ only in the accusative singular and nominative and accusative plural. Neuter Nom. nōmen nōmina Gen. nōminis nōminum Dat. nōminī nōminibus Acc. nōmen nōmina Abl. nōmine nōminibus

3. I-Stems of the Third Declension:

Masculine & Feminine Neuter Nom. nox noctēs mare maria Gen. noctis noctium maris marium Dat. noctī noctibus marī maribus Acc. noctem noctēs mare maria Abl. nocte noctibus marī maribus

· Masculine and feminine I-Stems carry the distinctive i in the genitive plural. · Neuter I-Stems carry the i in the ablative singular, the nominative, and genitive accusative plural. I-Stems can be recognized by the following general rules: 1) Parisyllabic nouns (having the same number of syllables in nominative and genitive singular) with the following exceptions: · Pater, māter, frāter, senex, iuvenis, canis have the genitive plural in -um. · Sēdēs (seat), mēnsis (month), vātēs (bard) appear with both -um and -ium 2) Monosyllabic nouns (having one syllable in the nominative singular) with two consonants before the -is of the genitive singlular. (pars, partis, partium). 3) Neuter nouns in -e, -al, -ar (animal, animālis, animālium) decline like mare. Some Common I-Stem Nouns:

cīvis, cīvis, cīvium (m.&f.) citizen mors, mortis, mortium (f.) death hostis, hostis, hostium (m.) enemy pars, partis, partium (f.) part, share nāvis, nāvis, nāvium (f.) ship urbs, urbis, urbium (f.) city fīnis, fīnis, fīnium (f.) end; nox, noctis, noctium (f.) night pl.boundaries, territory arx, arcis, arcium (f.) citadel clades, cladis, cladium (f.) defeat mare, maris, marium (n.) sea mōlēs, mōlis, molium (f.) mass, structure animal, animalis, animalium (n.) animal ars, artis, artium (f.) art, skill exemplar, exemplaris, exemplarium (n.) copy dēns, dentis, dentium (m.) tooth

Pure I-Stems show the -i not only in the genitive plural, but also in the accusative singular, ablative singular, and often in the accusative plural:

Thus: turris (f.) tower vīs (f.) force, power febris (f.) fever turris turrēs Tiberis (m.) Tiber turris turrium puppis (f.) stern (of a ship) turrī turribus pelvis (f.) basin, turrim turrīs (or -ēs) secūris (f.) axe turrī turribus tussis (f.) cough sitis (f.) thirst restis (f.) rope FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus: Singular Plural Nom. -a -ae Gen. -ae -arum Dat. -ae -is Acc. -am -as Abl. -a -is

2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus: Masculine Neuter

Singular Plural Singular Plural Nom. -us (-er) -i Nom. -um -a Gen. - -i -orum Gen. -i -orum Dat. -o -is Dat. -o -is Acc. -um -os Acc. -um -a Abl. -o -is Abl. -o -is

3. Third Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine & Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nom. ------es Nom. ------a Gen. -is -um Gen. -is -um Dat. -i -ibus Dat. -i -ibus Acc. -em -es Acc. ------a Abl. -e -ibus Abl. -e -ibus

Remember the Neuter Rule: The Nominative and the Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.

Remember: i) The Accusative singular always ends in -m for masculine and feminine nouns. ii) The Ablative singular always ends in a vowel. ii) The Dative and Ablative plurals are always alike within each declension.

The Fourth Declension

Fourth declension nouns carry a characteristic -u- throughout their declension (except in the dative and ablative plural) and are identified by the -ūs in the genitive singular.

Masculine Neuter

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Nom. cursus cursūs cornū cornua Gen. cursūs cursuum cornūs cornuum Dat. cursuī (ū) cursibus [cornū] cornibus Acc. cursum cursūs cornū cornua Abl. cursū cursibus cornū cornibus

Arcus (bow, arch), tribus (tribe) and quercus (oak) always show -ubus in the dative and ablative plural. Artus (joint), lacus (lake), partus (birth), verū (spit), genū (knee) and a few others will occasionally show it.

Gender: Fourth declension nouns are generally masculine, although a few feminines and even fewer neuters appear. Feminine and masculine nouns are declined alike.

The following are the only common 4th Declension feminine nouns:

acus, -ūs, needle pecus, -ūs (also, -ī), food, provisions anus, -ūs, old woman porticus, -ūs, colonnade, porch domus, -ūs, house socrus, -ūs, mother-in-law īdūs, -um (plural), the Ides specus, -ūs, cave manus, -ūs, hand tribus, -ūs, tribe nurus, -ūs, daughter-in-law, young girl

The following are the only 4th Declension neuter nouns:

cornū, -ūs, horn pecū, -ūs, herd, flock genū, -ūs, knee verū, -ūs, spit, tip of javelin gelū, -ūs, frost, chill specus, -ūs, cave (also masc. and fem.)

Domus (f.), house, shows forms of both the 4th and 2nd declensions (but is always feminine in gender). The Fifth Declension

Fifth declension nouns carry a characteristic -e- and are identified by the -eī in the genitive singular.

Singular Plural Nom. rēs rēs Gen. reī rērum Dat. reī rēbus Acc. rem rēs Abl. rē rēbus

Gender: All 5th declension nouns are feminine, except dies, and compounds of dies, which are masculine. Dies, however, can also be feminine when it refers to a specific day: constitūtā diē, on the appointed day. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined fully. Most lack plural forms, which are, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes. The 5th declension noun dies is used to form certain common adverbs and expressions of time:

hodie, today pridie, the day before perendie, day after tomorrow

Note the following common 5th declension nouns: aciēs, -eī (f), keenness, edge, line of battle faciēs, -ēī (f), shape, form, figure, face effigiēs, -ēī (f), an image, likeness, effigy glaciēs, -ēī (f), ice fides, -eī (f), pledge, trust, faith spēs, speī (f), hope eluviēs, -ēī (f), flowing, discharge, flood seriēs, -ēī (f), row, chain, series; descent speciēs, -ēī (f), sight, view; shape, form SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES SHOWING LOCATION

1. Of place where In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.

2. Of time when Tertiä hörä discessërunt. They left at the third hour.

3. Of time within which Tribus diëbus discëdëmus. We shall leave within three days.

SHOWING MEANS OR CIRCUMSTANCES

1. Of means or instrument Tëlö vulnerätus est. He was wounded by a weapon.

2. Of accompaniment Vënï cum meïs amïcïs. I came with my friends.

3. Of manner Dönum magnö gaudiö accëpit. He received the gift with great joy.

SHOWING SEPARATION:

1. Of place from which Ab ïnsulä navigämus. We are sailing from the island.

2. Of separation Cïvës timöre liberävit. He freed the citizens from fear. Defendimur a ferocibus Gallis. We are defended from the fierce Gauls.

3. Of personal agent Hoc factum est ä Caesare. This was done by Caesar.

MISCELLANEOUS CASE USAGES:

1. Showing Comparison: Haec via longior illä est. This road is longer than that one.

2. Showing Degree of Difference Paulö post discëssit. He left a little later. (“afterward by a little bit”)

3. Ablative of Specifiction or Respect Rex nomine erat. He was king in name (only).

4. Ablative of Cause Hoc fëcï amöre vestrï. I did this from (out of, because of) love of you. SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES

With Preposition Fabulam de deis narrat. He is telling a story about the gods. Ambulo cum amicis. I am walking with friends. In urbe manet. He is staying in the city. Ab insula navigamus. We are sailing from the island.

Place from which (without preposition) Roma venit. He comes from Rome.

Time when (without a preposition) Autumno folia de arboribus cadunt. In autumn leaves fall from the trees.

Time within which (without a preposition) Tribus diebus discedeamus. We shall leave within three days.

Instrument or means (without a preposition) Marcus pugno Titum pulsat. Marcus hits Titus with his fist.

Manner (sometimes with cum, often without) Donum magno gaudio accipit. He receives the gift with great joy. Caesar magna cum laude Romam intrat. Caesar enters Rome with great praise.

Separation (without preposition) Cives timore liberat. He frees the citizens from fear.

Personal agent (always with a or ab and a passive verb) Servus verberatur a domino. The slave is beaten by his master.

Comparison (without preposition) Haec via longior illa est. This road is longer than that one.

Degree of Difference (without preposition) Paulo post discedit. He leaves a little after. (“afterwards by a little bit”)

Specification or Respect (without preposition) Rex nomine est. He is king in name (only).

Cause (without a preposition) Hoc facio amore patriae. I do this out of (because of) love country.

Ablative Absolute (without preposition) Urbe capta Aeneas fugit. The city having been captured, Aeneas flees.

Description (Quality) (without preposition) Est puella eximia forma. She is a girl of exceptional beauty.

Source (Origin) (without preposition) Dea natus est. He is goddess-born. Nobili genere ortus est. He is high-born.

Price (without preposition) Annulum decem sesteriis vendit. He sells the ring for 10 sesterces.

Route (without preposition) Via Latina it. He is going by way of the Latin Road.

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

One of the most common uses of present and perfect participles in Latin is a construction called the Ablative Absolute.

The ablatives of a participle and a noun (or pronoun) are used to form a substitute for a subordinate clause defining the circumstances or situation in which the action of the main verb occurs. The ablatives are only loosely connected grammatically to the remainder of the sentence, hence its name absolute (absolütus = free or unconnected).

An Ablative Absolute with a perfect passive participle was widely used in classical Latin to express the cause or time of an action:

Hïs verbïs dictïs, Caesar descëdit. With these word having been said, Caesar departs. Acceptïs litterïs, Caesar descëdit. With the letter having been received, Caesar departs. Leöne vïsö, fëminae discessërunt. With the lion having been seen, the women departed.

Equally common was an Ablative Absolute with a present active participle:

Leöne adveniente, fëmina discëssit. With the lion approaching, the woman left.

On occasion, another noun may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:

Caesare duce vincëmus. With Caesar as leader, we shall conquer.

Note: The noun (or pronoun) expressed in the Ablative Absolute is never the subject of the sentence. If we wish to say “When she was departing, the woman saw the lion”, we cannot use the Ablative Absolute, because the subject of each clause (“she” and “woman”) is the same. Instead, a simple participle must be used: Fëmina discëdëns leönem vïdit.

Because the participle in an Ablative Absolute retains its verbal force, it may govern its own direct object:

Duce militës vocante, hostes fügërunt. With the general calling his soldiers, the enemy fled.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. Pronouns have special declension forms, which may vary between substantive and adjectival use. They are divided into seven classes:

Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I. Reflexive Pronouns: as, se, himself. Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, his, this; ille, that. Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who. Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who? Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.

I. Personal Pronouns:

ego, tu, I, you

II. Reflexive Pronouns:

sui, sibi, se, se, himself, herself, itself

III. Possessive Pronouns:

meus, tuus, suus, my, your, his, her, its noster, vester, suus, our, your, their

IV. Demonstrative Pronouns:

is, ea, id, he, she, it; this, that hic, hace, hoc, this ille, illa, illud, that ipse, ipsa, ipsum (emphatic), himself, herself, itself idem, eadem, idem, the same

V. Relative Pronouns:

qui, quae, quod, who, which

VI. Interrogative Pronouns:

quis, quid, who, what?

VII. Indefinite Pronouns:

aliquis, aliqua, aliquid, someone, something quidam, quaedam, quodam, a certain quisque, quaeque, quodque, each quisquam, quaequam, quodquam, anyone, anything quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, someone, something uterque, utraque, utrumque, each (of two) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque, every single one

Personal Pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun is, ea, id (he, she, it):

Singular Plural

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. is ea id eī (iī) eae ea Gen. eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum Dat. eī eī eī eīs (iīs) eīs (iīs) eīs (iīs) Acc. eum eam id eōs eās ea Abl. eō eā eō eīs (iīs) eīs (iīs) eīs (iīs)

The form of the personal pronoun is governed by its use in the sentence and will show number, gender and case, as appropriate:

Puer eam pulsat. The boy beats her. (Direct Object Accusative) Puella eum pulsat. The girl beats him. (Direct Object Accusative) Puella eos pulsat. The girl beats them. (Direct Object Accusative)

Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is used for commands and corresponds to our use of go!, look!, come!, etc. Like English, the imperative mood does not show person or (generally) tense; but, unlike English, number is distinguished between singular and plural.

The singlular imperative is formed by dropping the -re from the infinitive: vocāre, to call docēre, to teach discēdere, to leave venīre, to come

vocā, call! docē, teach! discēde, leave! venī, come!

The plural is formed as follows (note the third conjugation in particular);

vocāte, call! docēte, teach! discēdite, leave! venīte, come! DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

I. Hic, haec, hoc (this, these)

Singular (this) Plural (these)

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. hic haec hoc hï hae haec Gen. huius huius huius hörum härum hörum Dat. huic huic huic hïs hïs hïs Acc. hunc hanc hoc hös häs haec Abl. höc häc höc hïs hïs hïs

II. Ille, illa, illud (that, those)

Singular (that) Plural (those)

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. ille illa illud illï illae illa Gen. illïus illïus illïus illörum illärum illörum Dat. illï illï illï illïs illïs illïs Acc. illum illam illud illös illäs illa Abl. illö illä illö illïs illïs illïs

Demonstrative adjectives will, of course, agree with the noun they modify in number, case and gender:

Puer has puellas pulsat - The boy beats these girls. Puellae hos pueros pulsant - The girls beat these boys.

The demonstrative adjective may also act as a pronoun (in substitution for a noun):

Puer has pulsat - The boy beats them (feminine). Vir haec dicit - The man says these things (neuter plural). Relative & Interrogative Pronoun 1. Relative Pronoun qui, quae, quod (who, that, which): Singular Plural Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus

The relative pronoun agrees with some word (its antecedent) expressed or implied in a preceding clause. It agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case depends on its use in its own clause:

a) Video puellam quae in regia habitat. (I saw the girl who lives in the palace). The relative pronoun quae is feminine singular because its antecedent (puellam) is also feminine singular. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the relative clause (the girl who lives in the palace). b) Liber quem puellae dedi bonus est. (The book which I gave the girl is good). The relative pronoun is masculine singular because its antecedent (liber) is masculine singular. It is accusative, because it is the direct object in the relative clause. Note that English often omits the relative pronoun, but it is always expressed in Latin. c) Puellae quibus libros dedi callidae sunt. (The girls to whom I gave the books are clever). The relative pronoun is feminine plural because its antecedent (puellae) is feminine plural. It is dative, because it is the indirect object of dedi in the relative clause.

2. Interrogative Pronoun quis, quid (who?, what?): Singular Plural Masc./ Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. quis quid qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quid quos quas quae Abl. quo quo quibus quibus quibus Most singular and all plural forms are identical to the relative pronoun. 3. Interrogative Adjective (what?) The interrogative adjective is declined like the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod. Carefully distinguish the meaning: Quis es Minerva? Who is Minerva? (Interrogative Pronoun). Quae dea est auctor amoris? What goddess is the author of love? (Interrogative Adjective) Quid est consilium hostium? What is the plan of the enemy? (Interrogative Pronoun). Quod consilium hostes habuerunt? What plan did the enemy have? (Interrogative Adjective) Conjugation of Verbs

The inflection of a verb is called a Conjugation. Most verb inflections in English have disappeared, although we still distinguish between I go, he goes, etc. Latin, however, retains full inflections for most verbs, the forms of which must be mastered in order to distinguish meaning.

Through conjugation a verb expresses: Person, Number, Tense, Mood and Voice.

1. PERSON & NUMBER: A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. There are Three Persons and Two Numbers, arranged thus:

1st person singular (I) 1st person plural (we) 2nd person singular (you) 2nd person plural (you) 3rd person singular (he, she it) 3rd person plural (they)

In English person and number normally cannot be determined without the aid of pronouns (I, you, we, they, etc.) except in the 3rd pers. sing.: I go, you go, we go, they go; but he goes.

Latin always distinguishes number and person: amo (I love), amas (you love) amat (he loves), etc. Because person and number are contained in the endings themselves, the personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc.) are used mainly for emphasis.

The personal endings in Latin distinguish the person and number of the verb, and must be mastered early:

1st person singular -o, -m 1st person plural -mus 2nd person singular -s 2nd person plural (you) -tis 3rd person singular -t 3rd person plural (they) -nt

2. TENSE: Latin tenses have the same general meaning as the corresponding English tenses:

Continued action: Present: I love, I am loving, I do love. Imperfect: I loved, I was loving, I did love. Future: I will love. Completed action: Perfect: I have loved, I loved. Pluperfect I had loved. Future Perfect I will have loved.

Note that the emphatic (I do love) and the progressive (I am loving) tenses do not exist as separate forms in Latin.

3. MOOD: Latin has four Moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.

a) Indicative: The Indicative is used for statements and questions: I love that book. Are you reading that book? b) Subjunctive: The Subjunctive has many uses, including commands, conditions, wishes, possibility, and dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English indicative; frequently by auxiliary verbs indicating uncertainty or wish (may, might, would, should); sometimes by the (now rare) subjunctive (I wish I were in Rome); sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative.

c) Imperative: The Imperative is used to express command or exhortation: Go! He shall be set free!

d) Infinitive: The Infinitive is chiefly used as an indeclinable noun (To err is human) or as a complementary infinitive to complete the meaning of another verb (I want to go). Note that the basic idea of a verb expressed by the Infinitive is not limited (infinitivus) by person or number (though it is limited by tense and voice).

4. VOICE: Latin has two Voices (Active and Passive) with uses corresponding to English: I love (Active); I am loved (Passive).

a) The Active Voice expresses what the subject of the verb is or does: I am well. I love.

b) The Passive Voice expresses what is done to the subject of the verb: I am loved. The subject "I" is no longer the actor in the sentence, but the recipient of the action. Note that only transitive verbs can have a full passive voice. A little thought will show that such forms as "I live" or "we persevere" can have no meaning in the passive voice. But meaning can attach to 3rd person singular forms of some intransitive verbs: His life was lived well.

The Verb to Be: The verb "to be" is irregular in English and Latin. Learn the forms for the Present Indicative:

sum sumus es estis est sunt

Principal Parts: The complete conjugation of a verb can be obtained from its Principal Parts, which must be memorized when a verb is first encountered. The Four Principal Parts are: 1) Present Indicative, 1st pers. sing. 2) Infinitive 3) Perfect Indicative, 1st pers. sing. 4) Perfect Passive Participle.

Thus: amo (I love) amare (to love) amavi (I loved) amatus (loved) PERSONAL ENDINGS FOR VERBS

Verbs in English take their meaning from the personal pronouns attached to them: “I walk” and “they walk” mean different things. In Latin the personal pronouns are not necessary to complete the meaning of the verb. Instead, the meaning is determined by the endings attached to the verb stem. These “personal endings” are used in virtually all tenses and must be memorized.

I. Learn the personal endings of Active Verbs:

Person Singular Plural 1st -o (-m) (I) -mus (we) 2nd -s (you) -tis (you) 3rd -t (he, she it) -nt (they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has the following personal endings:

-i -imus -isti -istis -it -erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and 2nd person singular.

II. Learn the personal endings of Passive Verbs:

Person Singular Plural 1st -r (I) -mur (we) 2nd -ris (you) -mini (you) 3rd -tur (he, she it) -ntur (they) VERBS: PERSONAL ENDINGS AND TENSE INDICATORS

I. Personal endings of Active Verbs:

Person Singular Plural 1st -o (-m) (I) -mus (we) 2nd -s (you) -tis (you) 3rd -t (he, she it) -nt (they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has the following personal endings:

-i -imus -isti -istis -it -erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and 2nd person singular.

II. Personal endings of Passive Verbs:

Person Singular Plural 1st -r (I) -mur (we) 2nd -ris (you) -mini (you) 3rd -tur (he, she it) -ntur (they)

III. Tense Indicators:

Indicative:

Imperfect: -ba- Future: -bi- for 1st & 2nd conjugations, -e- for 3rd & 4th conjugations. Perfect: -i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, -erunt (add to perfect stem). Pluperfect: -eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant (add to perfect stem). Future Perfect -ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).

Subjunctive:

Present tense: He beat a friar. (Characteristic vowels for the 4 conjugations). Imperfect: Add personal endings to the infinitive. Pluperfect: -issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent (add to perfect stem). Perfect: -erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).

Present Tense – All Conjugations – Active and Passive

Active Voice:

-o≠ -a≠mus Thus: amo≠ I love ama≠mus we love -a≠s -a≠tis ama≠s you love ama≠tis you (pl.) love -at -ant amat he loves amant they love

-eo≠ -e≠mus Thus: moneo≠ I warn mone≠mus we warn -e≠s -e≠tis mone≠s you warn mone≠tis you (pl.) warn -et -ent monet he warns monent they warn

-o≠ -imus Thus: peto≠ I seek petimus we seek -is -itis petis you seek petitis you (pl.) seek -it -unt petit he seesk petunt they seek

-io ≠ -|mus Thus: venio≠ I come ven|mus we come -|s -|tis ven|s you come ven|tis you (pl.) come -it -iunt venit he comes veniunt they come

Passive Voice:

-or -mur -ris -mini -tur -ntur

Thus:

portor doceor mittor capior audior portaris doceris mitteris caperis audiris portatur docetur mittitur capitur auditur portamur docemur mittimur capimur audimur portamini docemini mittimini capimini audimini portantur docentur mittuntur capiuntur audiuntur

FIRST & SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS

I. First Conjugation Verbs (-āre) in the present tense are formed as follows:

-ō -āmus Thus: amō I love amāmus we love -ās -ātis amās you love amātis you (pl.) love -at -ant amat he loves amant they love

The Imperative is formed with -ā (sing.) and -āte (pl.): amā, amāte.

Principal Parts: amō, -āre, -āvī, -ātum

There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most formed directly from a noun or adjective stem. Thus, arma, arms - armō, I arm; amor, love - amō, I love. Their conjugation is usually regular (like amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum) but note the following irregularities in the 3rd and 4th Principal Parts (those marked with * also have regular forms):

crepō, -āre, crepuī*, crepitum - to make noise necō, -āre, necuī*, necātum - to kill cubō, -āre, cubuī*, cubitum* - to lie down plicō, -āre, plicuī*, plicitum - to fold dō, dāre, dedī, datum - to give pōtō, -āre, pōtāvī, pōtum - to drink domō, -āre, domuī, domitum - to subdue secō, -āre, secuī, sectum - to cut fricō, -āre, fricuī, frictum* - to rub sonō, -āre, sonuī, sonitum - to sound iuvō, -āre, iūvī, iūtum - to help stō, stāre, stetī, statum - to stand lavō, āre, lāvī, lautum* - to wash tonō, -āre, tonuī, tonitum - to thunder micō, -āre, micuī, — - to glitter vetō, -āre, vetuī, vetitum - to forbid, veto

II. Second Conjugation Verbs (-ēre) in the present tense are formed as follows:

-eō -ēmus Thus: moneō I warn monēmus we warn -ēs -ētis monēs you warn monētis you (pl.) warn -et -ent monet he warns monent they warn

The Imperative is formed with -ē (sing.) and -ēte (pl.): monē, monēte.

Principal Parts: moneō, -ēre, -uī, -itum.

There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, many of them verbs of condition with corresponding noun and adjective forms (timor, fear; timidus, fearful, shy - timeō, -ēre, timuī, to fear). The Perfect Stem often ends (like moneō and timeō) in -uī, but -evī, -ī, -sī, and -xī are also found. Note the following:

ārdeō, -ēre, ārsī - to burn, be on fire pendeō, -ēre, pependī, pēnsum - to hang augeō, -ēre, auxī, auctum - to increase persuādeō -ēre, persuāsī, persuāsum - to persuade fleō, -ēre, flēvī, flētum - to weep respondeō, -ēre, respondī, responsum - to reply doceō, -ēre, docuī, doctum - to teach rīdeō, -ēre, rīsī, rīsum - to laugh iubeō, -ēre, iussī, iussum - to order sedeō, -ēre, sēdī, sessum - to sit maneō, -ēre, mansī, mansum - to wait for teneō, -ēre, tenuī, tentum - to hold misceō, -ēre, miscuī, mixtum - to mix torqueō, -ēre, torsī, tortum - to twist moveō, -ēre, mōvī, mōtum - to move videō, -ēre, vīdī, vīsum - to see

THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS

Third Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ere. (Note the difference from the -ere of the 2d conjugation).

1. Present tense has the characteristic vowel -i:

-o -imus Thus: peto petimus -is -itis petis petitis -it -unt petit petunt

Note that the characteristic vowel -i- of the third conjugation in the present tense changes to -unt in the 3rd person plural.

2. The Imperfect tense is completely regular (with the short -e- of the infinitive lengthening to -e- before the characteristic -ba- ending): petebam petebamus petebas petebatis petebat petebant

3. The Future tense differs significantly from what we have seen in the first and second conjugations. There the characteristic symbol was -bi-, inserted before the personal ending. For the Third Conjugation the characteristic vowel is -e- (with -am in the first personal singular): petam petemus petes petetis petet petent

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, forming normally from the stem of the third principal part. The Perfect Stem, however, varies widely. Note the following:

bibo, -ere, bibi, bibitum, to drink mitto, -ere, misi, missum, to send claudo, -ere, clausi, clausum, to close pono, -ere, posui, positum, to put, place cresco, -ere, crevi, cretum, to grow peto, -ere, petivi, petitum, to seek, ask desisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum, to desist, stop quaero, -ere, quaesivi, quaesitum, to dico, -ere, dixi, dictum, to say, speak seek, inquire figo, -ere, fixi, fixum, to fasten, affix, quaeso, -ere, to beg, ask transfix relinquo, -ere, reliqui, relictum, to leave lego, -ere, legi, lectum, to read; gather; behind choose traho, -ere, traxi, tractum, to draw, drag A few verbs show reduplication in the Perfect Stem:

cado, -ere, cecidi, casum, to fall parco, -ere, peperci, parsum, to spare caedo, -ere, cecidi, caesum, to cut pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum, to drive curro, -ere, cucurri, cursum, to run tango, -ere, tetigi, tactum, to touch disco, -ere, didici, to learn tendo, -ere, tetendi, tentum or tensum, fallo, -ere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive to stretch

5. Third -io verbs: Some 3rd conjugation verbs end in -io in the 1st pers. sing., present tense. They show -iunt in the 3rd pers. pl., present tense. The -i- also appears throughout the imperfect and the future tenses. The perfect tenses are regular, formed from the stem of the third principal part. Note the paradigm for facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, do:

Present Imperfect Future Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perf. facio faciebam faciam feci feceram fecero facis faciebas facies fecisti feceras feceris facit faciebat faciet fecit fecerat fecerit facimus faciebamus faciemus fecimus feceramus fecerimus facitis faciebatis facietis fecistis feceratis feceritis faciunt faciebant facient fecerunt fecerant fecerint

Note the following common third conjugation -io verbs: facio, -ere, feci, factum, to make, do rapio, -ere, rapui, raptum, to seize, fugio, -ere, fugi, fugitum, to flee carry off FOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS

Fourth Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ire.

1. Present Tense: -io -imus Thus: venio venimus -is -itis venis venitis -it -iunt venit veniunt Note that -i is the characteristic vowel of the fourth conjugation in the present tense, changing to -iu in the 3rd person plural.

2. The Imperfect Tense has regular endings, but with the characteristic -i-: veniebam veniebamus veniebas veniebatis veniebat veniebant

3. The Future Tense also shows the characteristic -i-, as well as the future tense sign -e- as in the 3rd conjugation (instead of the -bi- of the lst and 2d conjugations). Note, however -iam in 1st person singular: veniam veniemus venies venietis veniet venient

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, forming normally from the stem of the third principal part. Note the following:

aperio, -ire, aperui, apertum, to open sentio, -ire, sensi, sensum, to feel, know, sense audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum, to hear venio, -ire, veni, ventum, to come nescio, -ire, nescivi, nescitum, to be ignorant of, convenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to meet, assemble not to know pervenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to arrive

Thus: Perfect: veni venimus venisti venistis venit venerunt

Pluperfect: veneram veneramus veneras veneratis venerat venerant

Future Perfect: venero venerimus veneris veneritis venerit venerint THE PASSIVE VOICE

Present Passive Voice: Latin use of the Active and Passive Voices corresponds generally to the English use. The passive forms for present, imperfect and future are based on present stems for all conjugations, with these personal endings: -r -mur -ris -mini -tur -ntur

-äre -ëre -ere -ere (io) -ïre portor doceor mittor capior audior portäris docëris mitteris caperis audïris portätur docëtur mittitur capitur audïtur portämur docëmur mittimur capimur audïmur portämini docëminï mittiminï capiminï audïminï portantur docentur mittuntur capiuntur audiuntur

Imperfect Passive: The imperfect passive is formed by inserting -ba-: portäbar docëbar mittëbar capiëbar audiëbar portäbäris docëbäris mittëbäris capiëbäris audiëbäris portäbätur docëbätur mittëbätur capiëbätur audiëbätur portäbämur docëbämur mittëbämur capiëbämur audiëbämur portäbäminï docëbäminï mittëbäminï capiëbäminï audiëbäminï portäbantur docëbantur mittëbantur capiëbantur audiëbantur

Future Passive: Formed by inserting -bi- for first and second conjugations, -ë- for third and fourth: portäbor docëbor mittar capiar audiar portäberis docëberis mittëris capiëris audiëris portäbitur docëbitur mittëtur capiëtur audiëtur portäbimur docëbimur mittëmur capiëmur audiëmur portäbiminï docëbiminï mittëminï capiëminï audiëminï portäbuntur docëbuntur mittentur capientur audientur

Passive Infintives: Change the final -e of the infinitive ending to -ï, except in the third conjugation where the entire infinitive ending becomes -ï. portärï docërï mittï capï audïrï

Spectätörës procul audïrï possunt, the spectators can be heard at a distance. Perfect Passive System The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is formed by adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal part). The perfect passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject in number and gender.

Perfect Passive (I was carried . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle: portatus sum doctus sum missum sum captus sum audïtus sum portatus es doctus es missum es captus es audïtus es portatus est doctus est missum est captus est audïtus est portatï sumus doctï sumus missï sumus captï sumus audïtï sumus portatï estis doctï estis missï estis captï estis audïtï estis portatï sunt doctï sunt missï sunt captï sunt audïtï sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been carried . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect passive participle: portatus eram doctus eram missum eram captus eram audïtus eram portatus eras doctus eras missum eras captus eras audïtus eras portatus erat doctus erat missum erat captus erat audïtus erat portatï erämus doctï erämus missï erämus captï erämus audïtï erämus portatï erätis doctï erätis missï erätis captï erätis audïtï erätis portatï erant doctï erant missï erant captï erant audïtï erant

Future Passive (I will have been carried . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect passive participle: portatus ero doctus ero missum ero captus ero audïtus ero portatus eris doctus eris missum eris captus eris audïtus eris portatus erit doctus erit missum erit captus erit audïtus erit portatï erimus doctï erimus missï erimus captï erimus audïtï erimus portatï eritis doctï eritis missï eritis captï eritis audïtï eritis portatï erunt doctï erunt missï erunt captï erunt audïtï erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender: Vir ab agricolä in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer. Virgö a virö in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man. Animal ä puerö in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy. FUTURE TENSE

I. Tense Indicators: The future tense indicator for the 1st and 2nd conjugations is -bi-. The future tense indicator for the 3rd and 4th conjugations is -e- and -ie-.

II. Formation:

Active Passive

1st Conjugation

amābō amābimus amābor amābimur amābis amābitis amāberis (-re) amābiminī amābit amābunt amābitur amābuntur

2nd Conjugation

docēbō docēbimus docēbor docēbimur docēbis docēbitis docēberis (-re) docēbiminī docēbit docēbunt docēbitur docēbuntur

3rd Conjugation

ponam ponēmus ponar ponēmur ponēs ponētis ponēris (-re) ponēminī ponet ponent ponētur ponentur

3rd Conjugation (-iō Verbs)

capiam capiēmus capiar capiēmur capiēs capiētis capiēris (-re) capiēminī capiet capient capiētur capientur

4th Conjugation

audiam audiēmus audiar audiēmur audiēs audiētis audiēris (-re) audiēminī audiet audient audiētur audientur

III. Future Tense of sum:

erō erimus eris eritis erit erunt

III. Future Tense of possum:

poterō poterimus poteris poteritis poterit poterunt

Imperfect Tense

The Imperfect Tense denotes action going on in the past tense (i.e., continuous action in the past). It is often translated with the past progressive tense in English (I was going to the store). The Imperfect Tense can also denote repeated or customary action in the past (I used to go to the store), as context requires.

The Tense Indicator for the Imperfect is -ba-. The personal endings are regular.

I. Active Voice:

amabam monebam ponebam audiebam amabas monebas ponebas audiebas amabat monebat ponebat audiebat amabamus monebamus ponebamus audiebamus amabatis monebatis ponebatis audiebatis amabant monebant ponebant audiebant

II. Passive Voice:

amabar monebar ponebar audiebar amabaris monebaris ponebaris audiebaris amabatur monebatur ponebatur audiebatur amabamur monebamur ponebamur audiebamur amabamini monebamini ponebamini audiebamini amabantur monebantur ponebantur audiebantur

III. The Imperfect of sum, esse:

eram eramus eras eratis erat erant

IV. The Imperfect of possum, posse:

poteram poteramus poteras poteratis poterat poterant The Perfect Tenses

The tenses of the perfect system (perfect, pluperfect & future perfect) are all formed off the perfect stem, obtained from the third principal part of the verb. Note the regular principal parts for 1st and 2d conjugation verbs: vocö, -äre, -ävï, -ätum and dëbeö, -ëre, -uï, -itum.

I. ACTIVE VOICE

Add to the perfect stem the following endings:

Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect -ï -imus -eram -erämus -erö -erimus -istï -istis -eräs -erätis -eris -eritis -it -ërunt -erat -erant -erit -erint vocävï vocävimus vocäveram vocäverämus vocäverö vocäverimus vocävistï vocävistis vocäveräs vocäverätis vocäveris vocäveritis vocävit vocävërunt vocäverat vocäverant vocäverit vocäverint debuï debuimus debueram debuerämus debuerö debuerimus debuistï debuistis debueräs debuerätis debueris debueritis debuit debuërunt debuerat debuerant debuerit debuerint

The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is formed by adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal part). The perfect passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject in number and gender.

Learn the third principal parts of the following verbs: sum, esse, fuï, futurum, to be iubeö, -ere, iussï, iussum, to order dö, däre, dedï, datum, to give maneö, -ëre, mansï, mansum, to remain iuvö, -äre, iuvï, iutum, to help moveö, -ëre, mövï, mötum, to move stö, stäre, stetï, statum, to stand pendeö, -ëre, pependï, pënsum, to hang vïvo, -ere, vïxï, victum, to live respondeö, -ëre, respondï, responsum, to reply sedeö, -ëre, sëdï, sessum, to sit tendö, -ere, tetendï, tentum (-sum), to extend veniö, -ïre, vënï, ventum, to come videö, -ëre, vïdï, vïsum, to see

Note the perfect tenses of sum, esse, fui:

fui fuimus fueram fueramus fuero fuerimus fuisti fuistis fueras fueratis fueris fueritis fuit fuerunt fuerat fuerant fuerit fuerint II. Passive Voice:

Perfect Passive (I was loved . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus sum doctus sum missus sum captus sum audïtus sum amatus es doctus es missus es captus es audïtus es amatus est doctus est missus est captus est audïtus est amatï sumus doctï sumus missï sumus captï sumus audïtï sumus amatï estis doctï estis missï estis captï estis audïtï estis amatï sunt doctï sunt missï sunt captï sunt audïtï sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been loved . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus eram doctus eram missus eram captus eram audïtus eram amatus eras doctus eras missus eras captus eras audïtus eras amatus erat doctus erat missus erat captus erat audïtus erat amatï erämus doctï erämus missï erämus captï erämus audïtï erämus amatï erätis doctï erätis missï erätis captï erätis audïtï erätis amatï erant doctï erant missï erant captï erant audïtï erant

Future Passive (I will have been loved . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus ero doctus ero missus ero captus ero audïtus ero amatus eris doctus eris missus eris captus eris audïtus eris amatus erit doctus erit missus erit captus erit audïtus erit amatï erimus doctï erimus missï erimus captï erimus audïtï erimus amatï eritis doctï eritis missï eritis captï eritis audïtï eritis amatï erunt doctï erunt missï erunt captï erunt audïtï erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender:

Vir ab agricolä in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer. Virgö a virö in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man. Animal ä puerö in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy.

Infinitive of the Perfect Tense:

The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding –isse to the perfect stem: amavisse, to have loved docuisse, to have taught posuisse, to have placed

The perfect passive infinitive is formed with esse + the perfect passive participle: amatus esse, to have been loved auditus esse, to have been heard Irregular Verbs

1. sum, esse, fui (to be)

Present Imperfect Future Perfect sum eram ero fui es eras eris fuisti est erat erit fuit sumus eramus erimus fuimus estis eratis eritis fuistis sunt erant erunt fuerunt

2. possum, posse, potui (to be able) possum poteram potero potui potes poteras poteris potuisti potest poterat poterit potuit possumus poteramus poterimus potuimus potestis poteratis poteritis potuistis possunt poterant poterunt potuerunt

3. fero, ferre, tuli, latum (to carry, bear) fero ferebam feram tuli fers ferebas feres tulisti fert ferebat feret tulit ferimus ferebamus feremus tulimus fertis ferebatis feretis tulistis ferunt ferebant ferent tulerunt

4. volo, velle, volui (to want, wish) volo volebam volam volui vis volebas voles voluisti vult volebat volet voluit volumus volebamus volemus voluimus vultis volebatis voletis voluistis volunt volebant volent voluerunt

5. nolo, nolle, nolui (to not want) nolo nolebam nolam nolui non vis nolebas noles noluisti non vult nolebat nolet noluit nolumus nolebamus nolemus noluimus non vultis nolebatis noletis noluistis nolunt nolebant nolent noluerunt

6. malo, malle, malui (to prefer) malo malebam malam malui mavis malebas males maluisti mavult malebat malet maluit malumus malebamus malemus maluimus mavultis malebatis maletis maluistis malunt malebant malent maluerunt Infinitives

General: An infinitive is, strictly speaking, an abstract verbal noun.

The infinitive is used in Latin, as in English, as a noun: Errare humanum est = To err is human. When so used, the Latin infinitive is an indeclinable neuter noun.

The infinitive is also used in Latin, as in English, to complete the meaning of another verb (complementary infinitive): Possum videre = I am able to see.

Unlike English, Latin rarely uses an infinitive to indicate purpose.

The infinitive is most widely used in Latin in Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua), which combines an accusative subject with an infinitive in subordinate clauses after a verbs of saying, thinking, and perceiving.

Puto eum sapientem esse = I think that he is wise.

Because the infinitive is widely used in the Indirect Speech, it must in Latin show tense and voice and (where able) gender. Note the forms of the infinitive:

Formation:

Active Passive

Present: amäre (to love) amärï (to be loved)

Perfect: amävisse (to have loved) amätus esse (to have been loved)

Future: amätürus esse (to be about amätum ïrï (to be going to be to love) loved)

Notes:

1) The present passive infinitive is formed by dropping the -e from the active infinitive and adding -ï. But in the third conjugation, the entire infinitive ending (-ere) is dropped before adding the -ï: ducere ducï (to be led).

2) The perfect passive and future active infinitives will show gender where appropriate: Puto eam me amaturam esse = I think she will love me. Puto eos eam ad oppidum ducturos esse = I think they will lead her to the town.

3) The future active infinitive, rare in English, is widely used in Latin for Indirect Speech constructions (see 2 above).

4) The future passive infinitive is rarely seen.

DEPONENT VERBS

There is a group of verbs in Latin which have passive forms but active meanings. They are called deponent verbs because they have “laid aside” (dëpönö, -ere) their passive meanings but have retained their passive forms. They are translated only in the active voice.

Thus: loquor, loqui, locutus sum, to speak, talk loquor = I speak loquitur = he, she, it speaks etc.

The conjugation of deponent verbs is completely regular:

First conjugation: cönor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to try, attempt Second conjugation: polliceor, -ërï, pollicitus sum, to promise Third conjugation: loquor, loquï, locutus sum, to speak, talk Fourth conjugation: orior, orïrï, ortus sum, to rise, arise

Note 1: Deponent verbs, however, have retained a few regular active forms:

a. The present active participle: loquëns, -entis = speaking

b. The future active participle: locutürus, -a, -um = about to speak

c. The future active infinitive: locutürus esse = to be about to speak

Note 2: Because deponent forms are translated actively, they can have no “4th principal part” (i.e., they have no perfect passive participle). Instead, the participle form contained in the 3rd principal part (conatus, pollicitus, locutus, ortus, etc.) is a perfect active particple. This participle fills a much needed gap in the language and accordingly is frequently used. Thus:

conatus = having tried pollicitus = having promised locutus = having spoken ortus = having arisen

SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS:

Four verbs in Latin have active forms in the first two principal parts, but deponent forms in the third principal part (i.e., the perfect tense). They also are translated only in the active voice. These verbs are:

audeö, -ëre, ausus sum, to dare gaudeö, -ëre, gävïsus sum, to rejoice fïdö, -ere, fïsus sum, to trust soleö, -ëre, solitus sum, to be accustomed to COMMON DEPONENT VERBS: lst Conjugation: arbitror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to think cönor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to try, attempt hortor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to encourage, urge moror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to delay mïror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to wonder at, be surprised

2nd Conjugation: polliceor, -ërï, pollicitus sum, to promise videor, -ërï, vïsus sum, to seem vereor, -ërï, veritus sum, to fear mereor, -ërï, meritus sum, to deserve, earn

3rd Conjugation: loquor, loquï, locütus sum, to speak, talk patior, patï, passus sum, to suffer; permit, allow proficïscor, proficïscï, profectus sum, to set out, depart aggredior, -ï, aggressus sum, to approach, attack congredior, -ï, congressus sum, to meet, come together ëgredior, -ï, ëgressus sum, to go out, disembark prögredior, -ï, prögressus sum, to advance, go forward sequor, sequï, secütus sum, to follow ütor, -ï, usus sum, to use, make use of (+ abl.) morior, -ï, mortuus sum, to die (fut. act. part. = moritürus) näscor, -ï, natus sum, to be born; be found revertor, -ï, reversus sum, to go back, return

4th Conjugation: orior, -ïrï, ortus sum, to rise, arise potior, -ïrï, potïtus sum, to get possession of (+ abl.) opperior, -ïrï, oppertus sum, to await, wait for IMPERSONAL VERBS OF FEELING

The following 5 impersonal verbs take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected: piget - it vexes, irks paenitet - it repents taedet - it wearies miseret - it pities pudet - it shames

Piget mē stultitiae meae - I am vexed at my folly.

Paenitbēbit eum stultitiae suae - He will repent his folly.

Taedet nōs vitae - We are weary of life.

Miseret eōs pauperum - They pity the poor.

Nonne tē pudēbat stultitiae tuae - Were you not ashamed of your folly?

The cause of the feeling may also be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:

neque mē paenitet mortālīs inimīcitiās habēre (Rab. Post. 32) - nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.

nōn dedisse istunc pudet; mē quia nōn accēpī piget (Pl. Pseud. 282) - he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.! Independent Uses of the Subjunctive Mood

General: Latin has three moods or “manners of verbal action”. The indicative mood is used for statements of fact and questions. The imperative mood expresses a command. The subjunctive is used to express idea, intent, desire, uncertainty, potentiality, or anticipation. The subjunctive is found primarily in subordinate clauses, but some independent uses also exist. Its use is subtle and best learned from long exposure to the original texts. But general rules do exist.

A. Jussive and Hortatory Subjunctive: The Jussive (iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussus) and Hortatory (hortor, -ari, -atus sum) are used to express a command or an exhortation: Veniat! Let him come! (Jussive) Veniamus! Let’s come! (Hortatory)

The Jussive occurs in the third person, the Hortatory in the first. The negative is introduced by ne: Ne hoc faciat! Let him not do this!

B. Potential Subjunctive: The subjunctive may be used to express an action which might possibly occur: Haec credas. You might believe these things. Dicas eum hominem bonum esse. You might say he is a good man.

Past potentiality is expressed by the imperfect subjunctive: Crederes eum hominem bonum esse. You might have believed he was a good man.

C. Deliberative Subjunctive: The present and imperfect subjunctives are used to deliberate about something, often in a rhetorical question: Quid faciam? What am I to do? Quid facerem? What was I to do? The negative is introduced by non.

D. Optative Subjunctive The Optative (opto -are) is used for a future wish capable of fulfillment, introduced by utinam or ut (negative utinam ne or ne): Utinam veniat! Would that he may come! Utinam ne veniat! Would that he may not come!

Contrary to fact wishes use the imperfect subjunctive for present time and pluperfect subjunctive for past time: Utinam veniret! Would that he were coming (but he is not). Utinam venisset! Would that he had come (but he did not). CONJUGATION OF SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. Present Tense. The present subjunctive is formed by changing the characteristic vowel of the four conjugations (remember: He beat a friar). amem amemus doceam doceamus ducam ducamus audiam audiamus ames ametis doceas doceatis ducas ducatis audias audiatis amet ament doceat doceant ducat ducant audiat audiant The passive is formed with normal personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -mini, -ntur).

II. Imperfect Tense. The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive (i.e., the second principal part). amarem amaremus docerem doceremus ducerem duceremus audirem audiremus amares amaretis doceres doceretis duceres duceretis audires audiretis amaret amarent doceret docerent duceret ducerent audiret audirent The passive is formed with normal personal endings to the present active infinitive.

III. Perfect Tense. The perfect subjunctive is formed much like the future perfect indicative, adding these endings to the perfect stem (third principal part): -erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. amaverim amaverimus docuerim docuerimus duxerim duxerimus audiverim audiverimus amaveris amaveritis docueris docueritis duxeris duxeritis audiveris audiveritis amaverit amaverint docuerit docuerint duxerit duxerint audiverit audiverim

IV. Pluperfect Tense. The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the perfect infinitive. amavissem amavissemus docuissem docuissemus duxissem duxissemus audivissem audivissemus amavisses amavissetis docuisses docuissetis duxisses duxissetis audivisses audivissetis amavisset amavissent docuisset docuissent duxisset duxissent audivisset audivissent The passive is formed in the normal fashion by combining the perfect passive participle with the present subjunctive of esseI: amatus sim, doctus sim, etc.

V. Subjunctive of Esse. Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect sim simus essem essemus erim erimus fuissem fuissemus sis sitis esses essetis eris eritis fuisses fuissetis sit sint esset essent erit erint fuisset fuissent Third Declension Adjectives Third-declension adjectives fall into three classes: 1) Adjectives of three terminations in the nominative singular - one for each gender; 2) Adjectives of two teminations; and 3) Adjectives of one termination. With rare exceptions, third declension adjectives follow the inflection of I-Stem nouns. 1. Third Declension Adjectives of Three Terminations: Masculine Feminine Neuter Nom. acer acres acris acres acre acria Gen. acris acrium acris acrium acris acrium Dat. acri acribus acri acribus acri acribus Acc. acrem acres acrem acres acre acria Abl. acri acribus acri acribus acri acribus celeber, -bris, -bre, celebrated, famous 2. Third Declension Adjectives of Two Terminations: Masc. & Fem. Neuter Nom. omnis omnes omne omnia Gen. omnis omnium omnis omnium Dat. omni omnibus omni omnibus Acc. omnem omnes omne omnia Abl. omni omnibus omni omnibus

brevis, breve, short perennis, perenne, perennial, eternal crudelis, crudele, cruel, bloody puerilis, puerile, boyish fidelis, fidele, faithful regalis, regale, royal gravis, grave, heavy, serious similis, simile, like lamentabilis, lamentabile, deplorable terribilis, terribile, terrible omnis, omne, all tristis, triste, sad, gloomy

3. Third Declension Adjectives of One Termination: Masc. & Fem. Neuter Nom. ingens ingentes ingens ingentia Gen. ingentis ingentium ingentis ingentium Dat. ingenti ingentibus ingenti ingentibus Acc. ingentem ingentes ingens ingentia Abl. ingenti ingentibus ingenti ingentibus

audax, -acis*, bold, daring innocens, innocentis, harmless discors, discordis, inharmonious, discordant multiplex, multiplicis, multiple felix, felicis, happy, fortunate recens, recentis, recent ferox, ferocis, savage, wild sapiens, sapientis, wise infelix, infelicis, unhappy, unfortunate supplex, supplicis, suppliant ingens, ingentis, huge, mighty vetus, veteris, old *The second entry is the genitive singular. Note: Observe where the characteristic -i appears in 3rd declension adjectives: 1) -i in the ablative singular of all genders. 2) -ium in the genitive plural of all genders. 3) -ia in the nominative and accusative plural of the neuter. A few third declension adjectives of one ending are declined without the characteristic -i. Thus, vetus, veteris, old: vetere (abl. sing.), veterum (gen. plu.), vetera (neut. nom. and acc. plu.).

Of course a third declension adjective may be used with a noun of any declension. Note the following patterns: 3 endings 2 endings 1 ending acer vir omnis vir sapiens vir acris regina omnis regina sapiens regina acre animal omne animal sapiens animal

Nine Irregular Adjectives Nine adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension have their genitive singular in -ius and their dative singular in -i in all genders. Otherwise they show the regular endings for adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension (e.g., bonus, -a, -um). Their plurals are regular.

alius, alia, aliud, other* totus, -a, -um, whole alter, altera, alterum, the other nullus, -a, -um, no, none ullus, -a, -um, any neuter, neutra, netrum, neither solus, -a, -um, alone unus, -a, -um, one uter, utra, utrum, which (of two)

Thus: Masc. Fem. Neut. Sing. solus sola solum solius solius solius soli soli soli solum solam solum solo sola solo

Plural: soli solae sola etc.

*Alius has alterius in the genitive singular (to avoid “aliius”). Otherwise, it follows the pattern set forth above.

Note the similarities in the declensions of the pronouns ipse, ipsa, ipsum; ille, illa, illud; iste, ista, istud, all of which show the same pattern as above in the genitive and dative singular. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are compared in Latin in the same manner as in English. There are three degrees of comparison: 1) Positive; 2) Comparative; 3) Superlative:

1) Positive: long short tall 2) Comparative: longer shorter taller 3) Superlative: longest shortest tallest

1. Positive Adjectives: The Positive Degree of Adjectives is the normal form: longus, -a, -um.

2. Comparitive Adjectives

Adjectives are compared by adding -ior (M.&F.) or -ius (N.) to the base. The base is taken from the genitive singular of the adjective. The comparative adjective is then declined as a regular third declension (i.e., not i-stems).

Masc. & Fem. Neuter Nom. longiōr longiōrēs longius longiōra Gen. longiōris longiōrum longiōris longiōrum Dat. longiōrī longiōribus longiōri longiōribus Acc. longiōrem longiōrēs longius longiōra Abl. longiōre longiōribus longiōre longiōribus

3. Superlative Adjectives: Superlative adjectives are formed by adding normal 1st and 2nd declension endings (-us, -a, -um) to the base. The stem is taken from the genitive singular:

longissimus, -a, -um brevissimus, -a, -um felicissimus, -a, -um

Translation of the Superlative: In Latin the superlative is broader in meaning than in English. It can mean longest (as in English); but also rather long, too long, very long.

4. Comparison with Quam: Latin can use quam (than) to compare two words. If quam is used, the words compared are in the same case: Puellae diligentiores quam pueri sunt.

5. Ablative of Comparison:

If the word to be compared is in the nominative or accusative, quam may be omitted and the second word put in the ablative: Puellae diligentiores pueris sunt.

6. Comparison in -er:

All adjectives ending in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus, -rima, rimum to the nominative. The comparative is regular.

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, -ius pulcherrimus, -a, -um celer, celeris, celere celerior, -ius celerrimus, -a, -um

7. Comparison of Adjectives in -eus or -ius:

Adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension ending in -eus or -ius form the comparative with magis and the superlative with maxime:

idoneus, -a, -um magis idoneus, -a, -um maxime idoneus, -a, -um

8. Adjectives in -ilis:

A few adjectives ending in -ilis form their superlative with -limus, -a, -um: facilis, -e (easy) facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e (difficult) difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e (similar, like) similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e (unlike) dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e (slender) gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e (humble, lowly) humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um

9. Irregular Adjectives:

Some adjectives (as in English) are simply irregular and must be memorized: bonus, -a, -um melior, melius optimus, -a, -um malus, -a, -um peior, peius pessimus, -a, -um māgnus, -a, -um maior, maius maximus, -a, -um parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um multī, -ae, -a plūrēs, plura plūrimī, -ae, -a

------exterior, exterius extrēmus, -a, -um ------inferior, inferius infimus, -a, -um (imus) ------interior, interius intimus, -a, -um ------prior, prius prīmus, -a, -um ------proprior, propius proximus, -a, -um ------superior, superius summus, -a, -um ------ulterior, ulterius ultimus, -a, -um multus, -a, -um ------plūrimus, -a, -um senex, senis senior ------

PARTICIPLES

General: When we take a verb and make an adjective out of it, we have constructed a verbal adjective or participle:

The shouting woman departed. The men saw the destroyed town.

A participle, like any other adjective, must agree with the noun it modifies in gender, number and case. But the participle also has attributes of tense and voice: “shouting” is present active; “destroyed” (i.e., “having been destroyed”) is perfect passive.

Because the participle, although an adjective, retains verbal force, it may take a direct object:

We saw Hercules drinking the wine: Vidimus Herculem vinum bibentem.

Formation: Active Passive

Present: amäns, amantis (loving) ------

Perfect: [Deponent Verbs only] amätus, -a, -um (having been loved)

Future: amätürus, -a, -um amandus, -a, -um (about to love) (having to be loved)

Present Active Participle: Add -ns to the present stem (-ntis for genitive singular) and decline like third declension adjectives of one termination. In the case of i-stem verbs, -ie- will appear: capiëns, capientis. If used as an attributive adjective, the present participle will have -ï in the ablative singular. ab amantï fëminä, by the loving wife. If used as a substantive (noun), the present participle will have -e in the ablative singular. ab amante, by a lover.

Perfect Passive Participle: This is the fourth principal part of the verb, declined as an adjective of the 1st and 2nd declension.

Future Active Participle: Take the fourth principal part of the verb, drop the -us and add -ürus, -a, -um. Then decline as a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.

Future Passive Participle: Add -ndus, -a, -um to the present stem. Then decline as a 1st and 2nd declension adjective. In i-stem verbs, -ie- will appear: audiendus, -a, -um; sentiendus, -a, -um.

Uses of the Participle:

The tense of a participle is always relative to that of the main verb. A present participle refers to action contemporaneous with that of the main verb (whether the main verb is past, present or future). A perfect participle refers to action prior to that of the main verb. A future participle refers to action subsequent to that of the main verb. A proper understanding of Latin participles must always bear in the mind their tense and voice.

Present active participle: contemporaneous action, active voice. Fëmina clämäns eum vidit: The shouting woman saw him. Shouting, the woman saw him. When she was shouting, the woman saw him.

Perfect passive participle: prior action, passive voice. Fëmina territa clämävit. The having-been-frightened woman shouted. The woman, having been frightened, shouted. The frightened woman shouted. When she had been frightened, the woman shouted.

Future active participle: subsequent action, active voice. Fëmina dictüra virum vïdit. The about-to-speak woman saw her husband. The woman, about to speak, saw her husband. About to speak, the woman saw her husband. When the woman was about to speak, she saw her husband.

Future passive participle (gerundive): subsequent action, passive voice. Librös legendös in mënsä posuit. He placed having-to-be-read books on the table. He placed books to be read on the table He placed books which should be read on the table.

The Perfect Active Participle of Deponent Verbs: A perfect active participle (having seen, having done, having left, etc.) is a critical syntactical component. It’s absence in Latin for regular verbs is made up for by the frequent use of the perfect participle of deponent verbs (which by nature must be active), the use of the ablative absolute, and the use of cum clauses. Take care to translate the perfect participle of a deponent verb actively (locutus, having said; hortatus, having encouraged; secutus, having followed, etc.).

Notes: 1) Latin participles are often best rendered in English as subordinate clauses (i.e., temporal, causal, concessive, conditional). The context must decide.

2) The future passive participle (gerundive) often carries the notion of obligation, necessity, or propriety. INDIRECT STATEMENT (ORATIO OBLIQUA)

General: The statement “He scatters dragon’s teeth on the land” is a direct statement (ōrātiō recta): Dentēs dracōnis in terrā spargit.

But after words of saying, denying, announcing, telling, showing, knowing, not knowing, believing, thinking, hearing, seeing, feeling, hoping, fearing, and the like, we are able to express statements indirectly (ōrātiō oblīqua):

He says that he scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land. He hopes that he scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land.

Formation: In English indirect statements are introduced by a subordinating conjunction that, which has no equivalent in classical Latin. Instead, a subject accusative + infinitive is used. The subject of the old direct statement (he) is made accusative (eum) and the verb (scatters) is put into its infinitive form (spargere).

This usage also may be found in English (though less commonly than the subordinate clause with that): I believe him (subject accusative) to be (infinitive) a good man.

When dealing with indirect speech, only the subject and the verb are changed - the rest of the sentence remains unchanged.

Direct Statement: Dentēs dracōnis in terrā spargit. Indirect Statement: Dīcō eum dentēs dracōnis in terrā spargere.

Reflexive in Indirect Statement: If the subject of the indirect statement is the same as the subject of the main (introducing) verb, the reflexive pronoun is used:

Dīcit sē dracōnis dentēs in terrā spargere. He says that he (himself) scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land. Dīcunt sē dracōnis dentēs in terrā sparsūros esse. They say that they (themselves) will scatter the dragon’s teeth on the land.

FORMS FOR INFINITIVES:

Each verb has six infinitive forms, five of which are in common use and must be learned:

Active

Pres. laudāre monēre dūcere audīre Perf. laudāvisse monuisse dūxisse audīvisse Fut. laudātūrus esse monitūrus esse ductūrus esse auditūrus esse

Passive

Pres. laudārī monērī dūcī audīrī Perf. laudātus esse monitus esse ductus esse audītus esse Fut. laudātum īrī monitum īrī ductum īrī audītum īrī

The future passive infinitive is rare.

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE

I. The Gerund The Gerund is a verbal noun, always active in force. The infintive of the verbs supplies the nominative case:

Legere est difficile = To read is difficult (reading is difficult)

The other cases are formed by adding -nd- to the present stem of the verb (-iend- for 3rd conjugation I-stems and all 4th conjugation verbs), plus the neuter singular endings of the second declension. The Gerund has no plural.

A. Declension of Gerund:

(Nom.legere reading) Gen. legendi of reading Dat. legendo to/for reading Acc. legendum reading Abl. legendo from/with/in/by reading

B. Gerund as simple noun: The Gerund funtions in grammatical cases like any other noun; but it retains its verbal force and may control a direct object or be modified by an adverb:

Cupidus legendi est. He is desirous of reading. Obj. Gen.

Legendo discimus. We learn by (means of) reading. Abl. of Means

Regi libenter parendo* By obeying the king willingly, Abl. of Means fortiores fiemus. we shall become stronger.

* Note that verbs governing the dative will do so in the gerund form as well.

C. Gerund with ad to express purpose: Ad + the gerund will express purpose:

Ad legendum venit. He comes for the purpose of reading (to read). But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.

D. Gerund with causa to express purpose: The genitive of the gerund followed by causa will express purpose:

Legendi causa venit. He comes for the sake of reading (to read). But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred. II. The Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and is always passive in force. It is formed by adding -ndus, -a, -um (-iendus, -a, -um with I-stems and 4th conjugation verbs) to the stem of the verb. It declines like a lst and 2nd declension adjective. A. Gerundive as simple adjective: The Gerundive carries a notion of necessity, obligation or propriety and can be used (like any adjective) in simple agreement with its noun: Libros legendos habeo. I have books having to be read (that must be/should be read). Fortis et laudandus vir est. He is a brave man and worthy to be praised. Iniuria et non ferenda facta est. An injury not to be borne has been done.

B. Gerundive with Direct Object: The Gerundive is always preferred over the Gerund where a direct object in the accusative case is involved: Libris legendis discimus. We learn by books being read (by reading books). Cupidus librorum legendorum est. He is desirous of books being read (of reading books).

C. Gerundive with ad + acc. and gen. + causa to express purpose: The Gerundive (like the Gerund) may be used with ad + acc. or gen. + causa to express purpose. This is the regular construction where a Direct Object is involved. Librorum legendorum causa venit. He comes for the sake of books being read (to read books). Ad libros legendos venit. He comes for the purpose of books being read (to read books).

D. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation: Finally, the gerundive is used with sum in the Future Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. Here, also, there is always a notion of necessity, obligation, or propriety. The construction is passive; and the gerundive will agree (number, case, and gender) with the subject of the sentence. Since the gerundive here functions in a verbal setting, agreeing with the subject of the sentence, the case will always be nominative (or accusative in indirect speech).

Carthago delenda est. Carthage must (should) be destroyed. Nautae videndi sunt. The sailors must be seen.

Dative of Agent with Passive Periphrastic: If the agent of the action is expressed, the dative case is used:

Carthago nobis delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed by us. Nautae videndi sunt tibi. The sailors must be seen by you. THE SUPINE

The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, appearing only in the accusative singular (-um) and ablative singular (-ü) and limited to two usages.

I. The Supine in -um:

A. The Supine in -um may be used after verbs of motion to express purpose:

Legätös ad Caesarem mittunt rogätum auxilium. They send envoys to Caesar to ask for help.

Stultitia est venätum ducere invïtäs canës. It is folly to take unwilling dogs to hunt.

The construction is found most commonly with the verbs ïre and venïre, followed by many phrases: cubitum, dormitum, sessum, salütätum, etc.

The Supine in -um may take a direct object, though the construction was not very common:

Hannibal patriam dëfënsum revocätus est. Hannibal was recalled to defend his country.

The Supine in -um, very common in early Latin, was not favored by Cicero and Caesar. It was frequent again in Sallust and Livy but in Later Latin was generally supplanted by the infinitive of purpose.

B. The Supine in -um was used with the passive inifinitive of ïre (ïrï) to form the rare future passive infinitive:

Häs litteräs redditum ïrï putäbam. I thought that this letter was going to be returned.

The construction was never common and was often replaced with a futurum esse (fore) ut construction: Nuntiat fore ut foedus fieret. He reported that a treaty would be made.

II. The Supine in -ü.

The Supine in -ü is used with a few adjective (and the nouns fäs, nefäs, and opus) to express an ablative of respect or specification:

mirabile dictü: marvelous to relate facilis factü: easy to do. sï hoc fäs est dictü: if this is right to say. nihil dignum dictü: nothing worthy of mention. Ut Clauses of Purpose, Result and Indirect Command

The expression of purpose, result, and indirect command are distinct:

! He died in order that we might live. (Purpose) ! It rained so hard that my basement was flooded. (Result) ! I requested that he go. (Indirect command).

For each of these constructions, Latin uses a subordinate clause introduced by ut with the verb of the subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

I. Ut Clauses of Purpose:

! A Purpose Clause is preceded by ut (in order that) with the verb in the subjunctive. !! Venit ut eam videat. He comes in order that he might see her (“to see her”).

! A negative purpose clause is formed with ne (in order that . . . not). !! Puella discessit ne videretur. The girl left (in order) that she not be seen.

! N.B. In a relative Purpose Clause, qui, quae, quod may replace ut when the antecedent of the relative pronoun is expressed. !! Viros misit qui hoc facerent. He sent men (who were) to do this.

! N.B. When the Purpose clause has a comparative, ut is often replaced by quo. !! Glaudium abiecit quo facilius curreret. He threw away his sword so that he might run more easily.

II. Ut Clauses of Result:

! A result clause is preceded by ut (so that) with the verb in the subjunctive.

! A negative result clause is formed with ut . . . non (so that . . . not).

! N.B. Tam (so, so very), sic (so, in such a way), ita (so, so very, in such a way), tantus, -a, -um (so large, so great) and the like often precede a Result Clause.

! Tanta fecit ut urbem servaret. He did such great things that he saved the city.

! Tam strenue laborat ut multa perficiat. He works so energetically that he accomplishes many things.

! Erant tot aedificia ut omnia videre non possem. There were so many buildings that I could not see them all. III. Ut Clauses of Indirect Command:

! Sometimes an ut clause simply expresses a command, wish, desire, hope, etc., without any strong meaning of purpose or result.

! A negative indirect command clause is formed with ne.

! Mihi persuasit ut venirem. He persuaded me that I come (to come).

! Me monuit ne venirem. He warned me that I not come (not to come).

! Ab eis petivit ne se vulnerarent. He begged them not to wound him.

IV. Negative Ut Clauses:

Negative ut Clauses use distinctive introducing words. Learn the following:

Negative Purpose!! ! Negative Result!! Negative Ind. Command

that . . . not ne!! that . . . not ut . . . non! that . . . not ne!

! Purpose: ! Celeriter cucurrit ne capi posset. !! He ran quickly in order that he not be caught.

! Result:! Tam celeriter cucurrit ut capi non posset. !! He ran so quickly that he could not be caught.

! Indirect ! Eum oravit ne tam celeriter curreret. ! Command:! I begged him that he not run so fast. Latin Contractions

1. All verbs in -ris (i.e., the 2nd person singular of the present, imperfect, and future tenses of deponents and the passive voice of other verbs) are often syncopated to –re. imitere for imiteris

2. All verbs in the 3rd person plural of the perfect tense may show -ere instead of - erunt. invexere for invexerunt amavere for amaverunt

3. fore = futurus esse essem, esses, etc. = forem, fores, etc. (though not strictly a contraction)

4. -vi- and -ve- are often suppressed in perfect forms: optastis for optavistis audissent for audivissent audisse for audivisse nosti for novisti amarant for amaverant noram for noveram

5. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod contract to quis, qua, quod after si, nisi, num and ne.

6. ac = atque di = dei deum = deorum dis = deis vin’ = visne scin’ = scisne sis = si vis sodes = si audes sultis = si vultis

7. Contractions found in the old poets:

homost = homo est periculumst = periculum est ausust = ausus est qualist = qualis est