B{Vhmg B. 11 dr

B{Vhmg B. 11 dr B{Vhmg B. 11 dr The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-2020.

HISTORY Standard Eleven

2019

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, .

The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP on a Smartphone by using Q. R. Code given on title page of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning material of all lessons will be also available through the Q. R. Code given on the title page. First Edition : 2019 © State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004. The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

History Subject Committee Authors Dr. Sadanand More, Chairman Dr. Shubhangana Atre Dr. Shubhangana Atre, Member Dr. Priya Gohad Dr. Somnath Rode, Member Dr. Satish Chapale, Member Translation Dr. Priya Gohad, Member Dr. Nalini Waghmare, Member Dr. Shubhangana Atre Dr. Prashant , Member Dr. Priya Gohad Smt. Varsha Sarode, Member-Secretary Cover and Illustrations Shri. Devadatta Balkawade History Study Group Cartographer Prof. Shivani Limaye Shri. Vaijnath Kale Shri. Ravikiran Jadhav Dr. Dhananjay Choudhari Prof. Shridhar Ghundare Typesetting : DTP Section, Shri. Sameer Mankar Balbharati, Pune Dr. Dhanaji Masal Paper : 70 GSM Creamwove Shri. Krishna Deshmukh Print Order N/PB/2019-20/10,000 Dr. Siddhartha Jadhav : Prof. Anurath Kale Printer : Sahil Print Arts , Dr. Mushir Shaikh Shri. Sandip Doiphode Coordination Shri. Balasaheb Chavare Smt. Varsha Sarode Shri. Dengale Assistant Special Officer, History and Civics Smt. Shivkanya Kaderkar Prof. Nagesh Kadam Production Dr. Ravsaheb Shelke Sachchitanand Aphale Shri. Mohan Shete Prof. Ashwini Bedge Chief Production Officer Prof. Sushama Nangude Prabhakar Parab, Production Officer Shri. Balkrishna Chopade Shashank Kanikdale, Asst. Production Officer Chief Coordinator Mrs. Prachi Ravindra Sathe Publisher Invitees Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller Dr. Ganesh Raut Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau, Shri. Mogal Jadhav Prabhadevi, - 400 025.

NATIONAL ANTHEM Preface

Friends, From this year, as students of the XIth Standard, you will be studying ‘History’, not jointly with ‘Political Science’ but as a separate subject. Starting from the times before ‘Common Era’ till the ‘Mediaeval Period’, the continuous social and cultural history of , with special reference to Maharashtra, is unfolded in this textbook. We are glad to present this book to you. The chain of continuous actions-reactions in the history of human progress, from the first stone tools created by Homo habilis to modern robotics and artificial intelligence, is instrumental in shaping the social-cultural history. If we understand this chain of actions-reactions in its entirety, then studying history leads to a bridge that connects our present to our past. With it studying history becomes pleasant, a source of gaining knowledge and a medium of creating knowledge. We studied history of several stages of human journey from the to the Modern Era. It included several events that happened in the historical time span. We completed this study as a continuous series from the Vth Standard to the Xth Standard. Events happening in the historical time are just the markers of major shifts happening at various stages of human history. It is necessary to pay attention to various social, cultural, political, technological processes, which are responsible for creating the shifts. These processes are vital in the shaping of history. If the students are competent to understand the unending chain of processes, then their capability of constructing knowledge will also be nourished. This textbook is written with this thought in mind. The material made available with QR code, the informative boxes, coloured illustrations, maps and various suggestions for activities in this textbook will help you in your studies. You will be able to gather additional information with the help of various web links provided in the lessons. This textbook will help you guide you in the right direction to reach your future goal . We wish you the best in your journey toward higher education.

(Dr. Sunil Magar) Pune Director Date : 20 June 2019 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Curriculum Research, Pune - For the Teachers -

At this stage the students of Std. XI have crossed the threshold of school life. They are now at the threshold of a new world. It’s a transitional phase for them. They need to review all that they have already learnt and to get ready to dive deeper in their chosen subjects, to help them in chalking out their career. What they learn in Std. XI is their first step toward this goal. Keeping this in view, the history textbook of Std. XI has been designed to help the students to revise and review all that they learnt about history starting from Std. VI. This would be like revisiting the familiar lanes of history of the ancient and medieval periods and to brace up to understand their subtleties and splendours; to get new insights to enjoy history as an academic subject. Through this textbook it would be achieved as a matter of natural course, as the students at this stage are already competent to analyse and synthesise information and go deeper. At the cognitive level students of Std. XI are mature enough to peep into the psychological processes at collective level, which form the base of socio-political processes. Thus, this textbook will gently lead them into independent thinking and help them in holistic comprehension of these processes. It would be useful for them in all walks of life and in their respective fields of future specialisation. The ability to read map and to place the historical information in its geographic context is crucial for a history student. Hence, historical maps are incorporated in this textbook, wherever necessary. In order to enable the students to supplement the information in these maps, appropriate weblinks have been also provided. As it will become clear from the contents of this textbook, it encompasses an enormous time-span of about 10000 years. It opens with the beginning of cultivation in various regions of the around 8000-7000 B.C.E. and continues till the medieval period. Each lesson in this textbook forms a marker of a broader step of socio-cultural progression in history. In other words, the emphasis is more on the conceptual and processual continuation while planning the lessons, rather than sequential arrangement of historical events. The first four lessons cover a span of more than 9000 years of proto-history, from about 10000 B.C.E. to 700 B.C.E. Next five lessons from no. 5 to 9 take us through the ancient period of Indian history. Lesson 10 and 11 deal with the transitional and hence an overlapping period between the ancient and medieval period of history. Lesson 12 and 13 highlight the adventurous history of the ancient Indians, when the Indian culture spread far and wide in the world, over the span of more than 4500 years. The last three lessons focus on the mediaeval times. The historical context of Maharashtra as a geographic region is also the prime focus of this textbook. The textbook strives for a new and more objective outlook of history to emerge as a natural outcome. In order to achieve it, additional boxes of information regarding the latest research in the field and supplementary information is provided for making the learning process more interesting and self-motivated. Even the teachers may find the information helpful and interesting. We are glad to give this book in your hands with a belief that it will be appreciated by you.

(F) Competency Statement

Unit Competency Unit 1: • Explains the meaning of the term ‘Proto-history’. India in the proto-historic • Explains the transition from nomadic to settled life in proto-historic period. period (with special • Explains the processes like beginning of cultivation, stages in the development reference to Maharashtra) of agricultural production and consequent changes in the life style of proto- historic people. • Explains the establishment of permanent settlements and their organisation. • Explains the process of urbanisation. • Explains the interdependence between development of trade and urban centres. • Finds correlation between the interdependence of decline in trade and decline of urban centres. Unit 2: • Explains the relationship between written sources and historical period. India before 6th Cent. • Critically analyses the early political institutions and social institutions in B.C.E. (with special ancient India. reference to Maharashtra) • Comprehends the transitional processes in the political and social, technological, economic, religious fields during the period of second urbanisation. • Explains about the contacts established by the early Indians with distant regions with the help of maps. • Explains the rise of the first Empire of India and its background. • Describes India’s relations with other countries by using a map. Unit 3: • Explains the characteristics of the empires that emerged in the post-Mauryan India from 6th Cent. Period and changes in various fields during the Mauryan Period. B.C.E. to 13th Cent. C.E. • Explains the nature of changes. (with special reference to • Critically reviews various dynasties in South India in detail and their extent. Maharashtra) • Critically reviews the fact that Indians had established strong trade relations with Rome during this period. • Develops sense of pride in the history of ancient India as within a span of few centuries Indian trade had expanded far and wide reaching Southeast Asia and with the expansion of trade the Indian culture also spread in the distant regions. Unit 4: • Explains the political environment in mediaeval India. India from 13th Cent. C.E. • Explains the advent of Arabs. to 19th Cent. C.E. • Explains political conflict between Allauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Deogiri. (with special reference to • Explains the progress in trade and commerce. Maharashtra) • Traces trade routes in ancient India on Map. • Shows places of cultural impact of India on map. • Explains the process of Urbanisation in the Mediaeval Period. • Describes the information about the developments in the field of art, architecture, literature, etc. • Analyses the causal factors that led to the establishment of Mughal rule in India. • Explains the land revenue systems of this period. • Analyses the factors leading to establishment of ‘Swarajya’ by Chhatrapati Maharaj. • Understands the political and administrative systems in ‘Swarajya’. • Describes ‘’ period. Contents

Sr.No. Lesson Name Pg. No.

1. First Farmers ...... 1 2. First Cities of India ...... 11 3. Villages in India ...... 21 4. ...... 28 5. and Republics ...... 34 6. Second Urbanisation in India ...... 38 7. India and Iran (Persia) ...... 48 8. India during Mauryan period ...... 56 9. Post Mauryan India ...... 64 10. Changing Times ...... 69 11. Kingdoms in South India ...... 77 12. India, Nations in the northwest of ...... 84 the Indian Subcontinent and China 13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia ...... 91 14. Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 102 15. India during Mughal period ...... 110 16. Swarajya to Empire ( period) ...... 117

• S.O.I. Note : The following foot notes are applicable : (1) © Government of India, Copyright : 2019. (2) The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. (3) The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. (4) The administrative headquarters of , Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh. (5) The interstate boundaries amongst , Assam and shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971,” but have yet to be verified. (6) The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. (7) The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & , Bihar & Jharkhand and Chattisgarh & have not been verified by the Governments concerned. (8) The spellings of names in this map, have been taken from various sources. 1. First Farmers

1.1 River Valley Civilisations of the most ancient river valley civilisations 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation : of the age. The river valley Agricultural Production civilisations grew in four regions of the 1.3 The First Farmers in India world. Those regions were Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indian Subcontinent and China. How 1.4 Agricultural Settlements : did this all happen? We shall briefly review Organisation and Administration it in this lesson. 1.5 Trade and Transport 1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation You would like to know : Scientists in the Bar Elan University of Israel 1.1 River Valley Civilisations have found out that ancient people had attempted cultivation, some 23000 Homo habilis made the first stone tools. years ago. They have recovered its These tools were useful only for simple jobs archaeological evidence from ‘Ohalo’, like scraping meat from the hides of dead animals, splitting bones to extract marrow, a palaeolithic camp site near the Sea breaking nuts, etc. To strike the stone with of Galili. At Ohalo the evidence of just enough impact and to remove flakes Barley and some other cereals, seeds from a stone in order to shape a tool, was of fruits has been found along with the mankind’s first big step in the field of traces of human occupation. There technology. The later species of mankind were also a few seeds of various after Homo h abilis were more advanced. weeds. These weeds are of evolved They advanced human technology much types and they are found only with further. cultivated crops. This fact confirms Through close observation of the seasonal that the cereals found at Ohalo were cycles in the nature, the Mesolithic people the remains of cultivated crops and not could domesticate various plants and animals. of the wild variety. Additional evidence It resulted into the rise of the ‘Neolithic of grinding stones also came forth Age’. Cultivation and pastoralism (animal from this site. They were used to grind husbandry) became a way of life for neolithic the cereals before cooking them. people. It was the end of nomadic-semi nomadic life for them. Settled villages came (1) The Valley of Euphrates and into being. The archaeological evidence Tigris - Mesopotamia : Ancient Mesopotamia shows that systematic agriculture began some included modern Iraq, Syria as well as the 12000-11000 years ago. Beginning of western regions of Iran and south-eastern agriculture and rise of settled villages are the regions of Turkey. two phenomena that are inevitably associated Mesopotamia is the Greek name of the with each other. The progress in the techniques region between the two rivers, Tigris and of systematic cultivation resulted in the rise Euphrates. Mesos means the ‘middle one’.

1 Potamos means ‘river’. The region between two rivers is ‘Mesopotamia’. The Mesolithic You would like to know : Egypt people began to stay in this region for longer was originally known as ‘Kemet’. times because of the availability of ample Egypt got this name because of the water. Also both the rivers flooded annually, black soil that was deposited by the making the soil on their banks very fertile. Nile floods. Later Egypt came to be The camps of Mesolithic people developed known as ‘Hwat-ka-Pta’. It means into the first settled neolithic villages. These the temple of God. The Greeks first villages are dated to 10000 years B.C.E. changed it to ‘Egyptus’. In the course The farmers in these villages grew wheat and of time it was changed to ‘Egypt’. barley. The Arabic name of Egypt is ‘Misra’. (2) The Valley of Nile - Egypt : The country in the northern parts of the African ancient remains in Egypt and published it. continent and in the valley of the Nile river These studies received a momentum because is ‘Egypt’. of the decipherment of the Rosetta inscriptions. Napoleon Bonaparte had taken along It became possible to read the Egyptian many scholars from various fields during his hieroglyphs.* invasion of Egypt in 1798. They studied the *Hieroglyphs = pictorial script

2 The first neolithic villages in Egypt came (4) The Valleys of Sindhu (Indus) and into being at about 6000 B.C.E. The beginning Saraswati - Indian Subcontinent : The region of agriculture in Egypt coincides with the of the valleys of Sindhu and Saraswati is same time. The first crops grown in these now divided between India and . villages were wheat and barley. The archaeological excavations at (3) The Valley of the Huang He - Harappa on the banks of Ravi in Punjab and China : The valley of Huang He river is Mohenjo Daro on the banks of Sindhu in considered to be the region of origin of the Sindh, indicate the existance of a fully Chinese culture. The Chinese culture evolved developed civilisation in the Indian here. subcontinent which was dated to circa 3000 Agriculture in the neolithic villages of B.C.E. China began at about 7000 B.C.E. Wheat, A number of archaeological sites of foxtail millet and rice were grown by the neolithic villages have been now discovered. farmers in these villages. It proves that there were well settled villages in the Indian subcontinent as early as 8000 B.C.E. There is a general consensus among You would like to know : ‘Yellow the scholars that the Harappan cities evolved River’ is the English translation of from these early villages. the Chinese name ‘Huang He’. The yellow silt brought by her has earned Barley was the main crop grown by the her this name. ‘River’ and ‘Mother’ farmers in these villages. However, wheat was also grown on a smaller scale. The are her other names. These names farmers in these villages were the first indicate her extraordinary place in farmers of the Indian subcontinent. They the Chinese culture. The name ‘River’ kept cattle and goat-sheep. They lived in indicates that she is considered to be mud houses. the only river of importance. The fact The archaeological site at in that she is considered to be the Baluchistan has yielded evidence of the mother of the Chinese culture, is continuous human occupation from the obvious in the name, ‘Mother’. neolithic times to the rise of Harappan Huang He and Yangtse in China civilisation and the material culture of the are the rivers, which receive waters respective periods. from the Himalayan glaciers as do 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation : the rivers Ganga, Sindhu and Agricultural Production Brahmaputra. Huang He flows so The transition from hunter-gatherer’s life rapidly that it continuously keeps to the beginning of cultivation was a very changing its course. The torrential slow process drawn over thousands of years. floods caused because of it used to Beginning of cultivation is also the beginning be very disastrous causing great loss of the neolithic age. It spans through 10000 of life and assets. Hence, she had – 8700 B.C.E. It may vary to some extent earned one more name, ‘Sorrow’ or from place to place. This period marked the the ‘River of Tears’. Now the terrible beginning of domestication of animals along river has been brought under control with the beginning of cultivation. Barley was by creating a number of dams and the main crop in this period. Other crops bunds on her. were wheat and flaxseed.

3 The blades used for Mesolithic tools were removed from siliceous stones by the technique known as ‘Fluted Core technique’. These blades are as tiny as our fingernails. So they are called ‘microliths’. The Mesolithic people used wooden arrows fixed with microlithic arrowheads.

Mesolithic Blades (Microliths) Microliths used as arrowheads

Fluted Core

The serrated knife made by hafting microliths The serrated knife made by hafting microliths

It is apparent that the common animals and vegetation for food increased. prerequisites were present in Mesopotamia, This period had also witnessed extinction of Egypt, China and Indian Subcontinent to species of gigantic animals like mammoth. initiate the onset of the Neolithic age and However, varied species of fish, and small agriculture. The last Glacial period in the animals like goat, sheep, deer, etc. were history of our planet came to an end at amply available for food. The heavy tools of about 12000-11000 years ago. It was the Palaeolithic times were of no use either for beginning of a new epoch, which is known fishing or for hunting small animals. as ‘Holocene’. The technique of removing long stone With the beginning of the Holocene, blades had been developed in the Upper glaciers began to melt and the water volume Palaeolithic age. In the Mesolithic age the in the water bodies like rivers and ocean same technique was used and blades as small increased. As a result, the availability of as fingernails were removed to make tools. These blades known as microliths were either hafted* on the tips of wooden/bone shafts or in the grooves made on those shafts. Thus, modified composite tools like fishing harpoons, spears and arrows could be made. Ample cereals and fruits, grown naturally, were available. Tools like sickle and scythe were made by hafting microliths for harvesting the cereals and fruits.

*To haft - fix with the help of rope and resin/gum Mammoth

4 Thus, the technology evolved; the transition was drawn over a prolonged period. techniques of hunting and obtaining food Nevertheless, considering radical changes in improved; food became available in plenty. the way of life during the Neolithic Age, the This resulted in making the Mesolithic people Australian archaeologist Gordon Childe stay at one place for a longer time of the coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’. year. Harvesting of naturally grown cereals 1.3 First Farmers of India led them into systematic cultivation. The Neo means ‘new’. Lithic means ‘of technique of agricultural and pastoral stone’. Neolithic age got its name because of operations (animal husbandry) continued to the stone tools of completely new types. It evolve. The nature of these operations is included short and long heads of axe, made such that the farmer is compelled to settle of polished stone and polished stone rings. down permanently near the cultivated land. The axe heads were hafted on wooden shafts He doesn’t need to go out in search of food. and used for cutting trees, scraping wood to This is how the villages were settled on a give it a desired shape, etc. It was essential permanent basis. This prepared the ground to clear jungles by felling trees in order to for the rise of the Neolithic Age. This obtain land for cultivation and settlement. The new tools came handy for this work. You would like to know : The We have already seen that the site of Palestinian city of Jericho on the banks Mehrgarh came into existence around 7000 of the river Jordan, is a historical city B.C.E. This site is of great importance among with hoary past. It first settled as a the neolithic villages in the Indian subcontinent village in 9000 B.C.E. It was one of established by the first farmers. The Mehrgarh the first neolithic permanent settlements. farmers cultivated barley and wheat. There It started getting organised into a well- is another site of a neolithic village that is knit society at about 8000 B.C.E. The contemporary to Mehrgarh. The site was village at this time had a protective found at ‘Lahuradeva’ in Sant Kabirnagar wall around it, complete with a watch tower. This is undoubtedly an evidence district of Uttar Pradesh. of an organised society. In Maharashtra, the mesolithic man The beginning of cultivation at existed during 10000-4000 B.C.E. He stayed Jericho and in the surrounding region in natural caves and under rock-shelters. He began earlier than the establishment of moved along the river banks. He made the village by a few centuries. Its microliths from silicious* stones. However, evidence has been discovered at Gilgal, no evidence of purely neolithic sites have a site near Jericho. A fire stricken been found in Maharashtra. What we have house at Gilgal was excavated, which instead, are the Chalcolithic villages. The yielded burnt remains of figs. After Chalcolithic people were the first farmers of carrying out laboratory analysis of Maharashtra. , in the Shirur taluka these fig remains, scientists have of , is an important site of the concluded that the neolithic people at village of Chalocolithic farmers in Gilgal had systematically planted fig Maharashtra. cuttings. This stands to be the first attempt of planned cultivation. *Siliceous stones - stones like quartz, chalcedony, agate, etc.

5 1.4 Agricultural Settlements : making of pottery seems to have begun in Organisation and Administration the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Pottery Researchers have attempted to estimate making, along with the polished stone tools, the population of neolithic villages with the is supposed to be an essential characteristic help of various mathematical and statistical of the neolithic cultures. The earthen pots models. With the help of those estimates we were used for the purpose of cooking, serving may gather some idea with regards to food and for storage. In the beginning these population compositions of those villages. pots were handmade. At a later stage, - When Mesolithic people were witnessing the made pottery was introduced. The neolithic transition from nomadic-semi nomadic life to pottery in the beginning was in monochrome settled life, there could have been 25-40 (single colour), with a burnished* surface. people in any given group. Life dependent Some pots had carved designs. Also the on regular cultivation would need that number techniques of stamping and applique work**. to increase at least to 50. A village with at Gradually neolithic people began to decorate least a population of 100 could meet the their pots with painted designs. Thus, in the needs of individual members who would be latter half of the neolithic age, pottery making completely dependent on agriculture and had become an art that required special animal husbandry. skills.

Neolithic villages were small in size. *Burnished - polished by rubbing with a wooden Permanently occupied dwellings (mostly or stone tool round huts) were characteristic of these **applique work - pasting wet clay ribbons and villages. Other than these dwellings, some making patterns on them places in the central part of the village were perhaps used as common storage places of To master the art of pottery-making one food-grains and other things. This internal needs to possess knowledge of following settlement pattern of the village indicates that things: the transactions related to food production (1) To know the source of clay of were centrally controlled. Accordingly a excellent quality. (2) To manage to obtain hierarchical chain of power positions must clay. (3) To knead and prepare the clay for have been established. At the same time pottery production. (4) To be able to turn the other social norms were also established. For pot to the desired shape. (5) To have artistic example: boundaries of individual households- skill for decorating the pottery. (6) To know families, ownership of land, food production the technique of baking pottery at proper to meet the needs of individual household- temperatures (approximately 850º-900º family and rules of kinship. The tradition of Celsius). imparting training of unique family skills of The class of skilled potters, equipped production to the younger members is with essential knowledge of all stages of supposed to have begun as early as the pottery-making, was already established in neolithic times. In other words, it may be the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Ancient said that the hierarchical social and family pottery can throw light on various aspects of structure and the concept of inheritance have ancient cultures. We get to know about the its roots in the neolithic times. cultural history, the material richness of the The culture known as ‘Jomon Culture’ place where it was found. With the help of of Japan was a mesolithic culture, which has pottery we can also know about the contacts yielded evidence of pottery making. Except of the residents of the place with other this example, everywhere else in the world cultures.

6 The neolithic period also saw rise of Excavations at neolithic sites yield beads, other skilled artisan classes based on waste material cast away during bead making specialised crafts. It is apparent that the skill process, faulty and incomplete beads and the of making beads of various types was tools used by the bead maker. The following acquired by neolithic artisans from the are the stages of bead making: beginning. They made beads of various types (1) To know the sources of siliceous of siliceous stones and chank shells. stones and chank shells. (2) To obtain the raw material. (3) To transport the raw For additional information : material to the manufacturing site. (4) To Some important Neolithic sites in India manufacture finished beads from the stones of irregular shape and the core of chank 1. The northwest region of the shells. The artisan has to be conversant with Indian continent : Phase I (7000- every stage of the bead manufacturing. 6000 B.C.E.) No evidence of pottery (earthen pots). Phase II (6000-4000 In brief, agricultural production, as well B.C.E.) Beginning of pottery as production of agricultural tools, pottery, making, e.g. Mehrgarh. beads etc. is a chain of various skill based 2. Jammu and Kashmir - around operations, which are completed step by step. 2500 B.C.E. neolithic settlements It is a complex system, which calls for established at the sites of Burzhom systematic division of labour and training of and Gufkral. people for various skills. This process leads to craft specialisation and creates various 3. Uttar Pradesh - around 6000 classes of skilled artisans. B.C.E. neolithic settlements established at the sites of Chopani 1.5 Trade and Transport Mando, Koldihwa and Mahagara. The nomadic-semi nomadic groups of 4. Bihar - around 2000 B.C.E. Mesolithic people had a system of barter neolithic settlements established at among themselves. The wheel was not yet sites like Chirand, Senuwar, etc. invented. It means that the means of 5. Northeast India - The evidence of mechanical transport were not available to neolithic settlement was first them. In the latter half of the neolithic age discovered at the site of Daojali people had started using beasts of burden for Hading in Assam. The village was transporting goods. established around 2700 B.C.E. The Tools like axe, scrapers and chisels neolithic tools found here show enabled neolithic people to cut trees and to more affinity to neolithic tools work on wood. Most probably round shaped found in China. pieces of wooden logs were used as . 6. South India - The neolithic Such round pieces can easily gain momentum. settlements in Karnatak, Andhra The neolithic people invented wheel and Pradesh and Tamilnadu first came the technology they had developed so far, into being around 4th - 3rd century underwent a revolution. B.C.E. Karnatak sites - Sangankallu, The neolithic people began to produce Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalkota, wheel-made pottery. The wheel technology Piklihal, Hallur, etc. made it possible to produce pottery on mass site - Nagarjunikonda. Tamilnadu scale. The invention of wheel also made it - Payyampalli possible to obtain raw material from distant places in much lesser time. It became easier

7 to send the finished goods to distant markets social organisation and administration. where it was in more demand. It helped to Eventually the villages expanded. Along with develop trade and transport on a greater it, awareness of collective land holdings and scale. the village boundaries became prominent. Thus, it was felt that the village community had a natural right over the immediate By the Way : territory around the village periphery. This The neolithic wheel kind of awareness of natural right over a might have been particular region is known as ‘territoriality’. similar to the wheel Rules and social norms were created in order seen here. We do to manage the collective resources, water not know, how old sources, crafts dependent on it, trade and is this wheel. It community life, etc. Consequently rituals and appears here as an their details gained importance. The need of illustration, only to managing and keeping records of trade, give some idea of a rituals, writing systems and administrative wooden wheel, made by using a round machineries developed. It gave rise to shaped piece cut from a wooden log. administrative centres. Such administrative centres attract large number of population 1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation which includes officials, people from various occupations. As a result, periphery of the After settling down at one place for a original settlement kept expanding and cities long time, a feeling of ownership arose came into being. Thus began the process of among the neolithic people. This feeling was urbanisation in the neolithic age. focused on their individual dwellings and the piece of land cultivated by them. This has In the next lesson we shall learn about been already mentioned in the context of the first cities of India.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (3) The neolithic people at Gilgal had complete the sentence. systematically planted trees. (1) ‘Yellow River’ is the English (a) Guava (b) Sapodilla translation of the Chinese name (c) Fig (d) Indian blackberry . (4) in the Shirur taluka of (a) Kemet (b) Mother Pune district, is an important site of (c) Sorrow (d) Huang He the village of Chalocolithic farmers (2) The Australian archaeologist in Maharashtra. coined the term ‘Neolithic (a) Saradwadi (b) Ranjangaon Revolution’. (c) Pabal (d) Inamgaon (a) Gorden Willey (B) Find the incorrect pair and write (b) Gorden Childe the correct ones. (c) Herodotus (1) The valley of Tigris and Euphrates (d) Collingwood - Mesopotamia

8 (2) The valley of Nile - Iran Q.4 State your opinion. (3) The valley of Huang He - China (1) There were radical changes in (4) The valley of Sindhu (Indus) and the way of human life during the Saraswati - Indian subcontinent neolithic age. (2) The neolithic people invented Q.2 (A) Write correct chronological order. wheel and the technology they (1) Making of microliths had developed so far, underwent a (2) Beginning of the Neolithic Age revolution. (3) Beginning of the ‘Holocene’ epoch (4) Beginning of agriculture and Q.5 Observe the map on page 2 of your domestication of animals. textbook and answer the following questions based on it. (B) Complete the concept map. (1) What is the name of the sea at the north of the African continent? (2) In which continent did the Harappan civilisation originate ? (3) What is the name of the ocean at Stage 1 Stage 2 the south of India? Bead-making Q.6 Write short notes. Method and Stages of production (1) Neolithic ‘Jericho’ Stage 3 Stage 4 (2) ‘Holocene’ epoch

Manufacturing finished Q.7 Answer the following questions in beads from the stones of detail. irregular shape and the core of chank shells. (1) Write in detail about the ‘first farmers’ and beginning of agriculture in India. (2) What knowledge was essential for (C) Find the odd man out. the neolithic people to make pottery? Countries with ancient civilisations : (3) Write about the trade and transport Egypt, China, India, England in the neolithic age. (4) Write about the beginning of Q.3 Explain the following statements with urbanisation in the neolithic age. reasons. (1) The camps of Mesolithic people Activity developed into the first settled Write in detail about any of the ancient villages of neolithic people in civilisations. Mesopotemia. (2) ‘Huang He’ river is considered to be  the mother of the Chinese culture. (3) In the latter half of the neolithic age, pottery-making had become an art that required special skills.

9 Neolithic Age

8000-3000 B.C.E.

First Farmers You womenfolk began to grow food in the yards. Now there is no need to go hunting everyday.

Yes ! There is always some food available.

‘s’

The villagers have chosen me as their Is there any ‘Chief ’. It’s a problem ? great responsibility.

Yes ! Now There should Our ancestors I need to be equal had to wander in complete a few justice to all. the wilderness for chores. food and water.

Our coming generations will We should take be here in this village. good care of We are well-rooted in our land, water this soil, now. and cattle.

I took a round There used to be a small village here. in the village market. Now look ! We are a big city ! Let’s pray ! Saw some people May our city be safe forever ! from neighbouring May there never be any hard times ! villages.

Good ! We will have better trade with them.

10 2. First Cities of India

2.1 Characteristics of Harappan Harayana. The total area covered by it is Civilisation about 1500000 Sq. Kms. The Harappan 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities civilisation belonged to ‘’. So far, and Villages more than 2000 sites of the Harappan 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation civilisation have been recorded. The remains and Administration found at cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, 2.4 Decline of the Cities Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc. are the evidence of the past glory of this 2.1 Characteristics of Harappan civilisation. Civilisation The history of these cities had three It has been mentioned earlier that the stages: (1) Early Harappan period roots of the Harappan civilisation are to be (2) Mature Harappan (urban) period (3) Late found in the pre-Harappan culture of Neolithic Harappan period. times at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. This The question regarding the authors of the culture is known as ‘Togao culture’. It shows Harappan civilisation still remains mysterious. traces of the beginning of the Harappan Some of the main characteristics of the culture. Jean Francois Jarrige and Richard Harappan cities are noted below. Meadow conducted the excavations at (1) Systematic Town Planning : Mehrgarh. Another neolithic culture of the Houses of baked bricks complete with pre-Harappan period is known as ‘Ravi or bathrooms, toilets, wells, etc., existance of Hakra culture’. Its remains have been found granaries, Impressive public monuments, during the excavations at sites like Harappa English bond masonry (method of using two (Punjab, Pakistan), Kunal, and headers and two stretchers alternatively while Farmana (Harayana). building a wall – this method is specially A few years ago it was strongly believed useful in earthquake prone regions), Excellent that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at drainage system, public baths, two or more about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information divisions of the city with each division was available regarding the period before enclosed by independent fortification walls, that. This situation continued till the discovery Streets crossing each other in right angles of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in and the resulted blocks used for building 1922. The discovery of the Harappan houses (grid pattern). Civillisation at these two places stretched the (2) Central Administration : antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 Administrative control over the distribution of B.C.E. At that time a well-developed and water and other resources, Standardisation : rich civilisation had flourished in the Indian For example, the size of bricks in the ratio subcontinent. It extended from Afghanistan to of 1:2:4, weights increasing in the proportion Maharashtra and from Makaran coast to of 8, set style of shapes and painted designs

11 of pottery, majestic and non-residential is important. At that time, he was the buildings for public administrative offices. Director General of the Archaeological (3) Social organisation : Social hierarchy Survey of India. During the excavation he based on position of power, classes of skilled could trace the fortification wall around the artisans and individuals based on craft citadel of Harappa. specialisation, belief systems and artefacts/ The first settlement of the Early Harappan architecture indicative of them, evidence of period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It burials indicative of rituals after death. evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban) (4) Economy : Mass production of goods phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its for trading purpose : For example, well- peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E. Around 1900 shaped, beautiful earthen pots, statues, metal B.C.E. some internal changes begin to appear objects of gold, silver, copper and bronze, in the Harappan cities. This is the time of various types of beautiful beads, etc., the onset of the Late Harappan phase. This concentration of factories and residences of phase indicates the decline of Harappan artisans in a particular area of the city for civilisation. the sake of convenience of production, The evidence of the first excavations at flourishing internal and distant trade, Harappa had indicated that the city of administrative control over trade transactions. Harappa was divided into two parts - the (5) Use of Developed Writing System : ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However, The script on Harappan seals. recent excavations show that it had four divisions. Apart from the citadel and the Some Cities of the Harappan lower town there were factories and the Civilisation quarters of artisans in the Southeast part of Harappa : Harappa is situated on the the city. The area toward the north of the banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in citadel had a granary and the quarters of the Punjab, Pakistan). The ancient site of Harappa workers working there. It is obvious that the had spread on 150 Hectares. The first officials staying in the citadel supervised excavation at Harappa began in 1921. More over the granary and the workers working excavations were conducted at the site, from there. A few working platforms were found time to time. Among them the excavations near the granary. conducted in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler

For additional Information : 1. The bed remains dry through the year except archaeological cultures are named after the during the monsoon. It is known as site where the characteristic pottery and Ghaggar in India and as Hakra in Pakistan. artifacts of the culture were discovered for A number of Harppan settlements were the first time. discovered along its dry beds during 2. The river known as ‘Ghaggar- exploratory surveys. Hakra’ flows only during the monsoon. It 3. Many scholars are of the opinion originates in the Siwalik hills in the that the dry beds of Ghaggar-Hakra are Himachal Pradesh and flows to Rajasthan the traces of the vanished river ‘Saraswati’. through Punjab and Haryana. From there Satellite images of are being studied in it enters the desert of Cholistan in Pakistan. depth by scholars to gather more Ultimately it enters the Rann of Kutch. Its information about these dry beds.

12 You would like to know : Before the of Harappa by the reports written by Masson discovery of the Harappan civilisation, and Burnes. He conducted excavations at Alexander’s invasion in 326 B.C.E. was the Harappa during 1872-73 C.E. After that for only evidence available in the context of next 48 years no excavations were conducted ancient and Pakistan. How at the site. However, during this long interval this situation entirely changed because of the the curiosity for Harappan site among the discovery of the Harappan cities, is a fascinating European scholars had not vanished. A story. It began in the year of 1829. Charles general impression prevailed among them Masson, a British traveller was the first one to that the Harappan seals had some connection visit and write about the archaeological remains with the Mesopotamian civilisation. at Harappa. He thought that these remains could be that of the capital of King Porus who The drawing of a fought with Alexander. Lieutenant Alexander Harappan seal published by Sir Alexander Burnes, a British officer was the next one to Cunningham. The visit this site. Harappan seal here Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first appears to be rectangular. However, Harappan Director General of the Archaeological Survey seals, in reality are of India. His attention was attracted to the site square in shape.

13 Mohenjodaro : The excavations at Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began in 1921-22. He concluded, because of the similarity between the seals and other artefacts, that the ancient civilisations of Mesopotamia and Harappa A multi-roomed house at Mohenjodaro had cultural Harappan Pots Chandigarh. Considering the economic and ties with each human resources required for the creation of other. In 1923- a pre-planned city like Mohenjodaro, it is 24 to gather more information about obvious that it was created to serve a Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath distinctive purpose. Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others Kalibangan : The site of Kalibangan is conducted further excavations under Sir John 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is Marshall’s direction. He was the Director located in the Hanumangarh district of General of the Archaeological Survey of Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban India at that time. During these excavations centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated various artefacts, houses and public on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P. monuments were unearthed. Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of Kalibangan during his study tour of the the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District region. He had reported that Kalibangan is Larkana, Sindh). It was not possible to reach an ancient site and it could be prehistoric. It the bottom layer during the excavations was confirmed to be a Harappan city only because of the high levels of groundwater. after the excavations began there in 1960. It However, it is likely that a neolithic settlement was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi contemporary to the one at Mehrgarh existed Lal, the then Director General of the there. Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna Areawise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest Thapar. city, among those discovered in Pakistan so At Kalibangan two settlements, one of far. It was thought that the city was divided the Mature Harappan period and the other of into two fortified sections, namely the the Early Harappan period, were found. ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However, Kalibangan was a small city compared to there was an additional section of the market. Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The division of In this section were found various workshops, the city into the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower kilns for baking pottery and beads. Town’ was found here also. The site of The remains at Mohenjodaro were Kalibangan is important for two things. The considerably intact. So the glory of the city first is the ploughed field of the Early was revealed in way of the houses, majestic Harappan period. This field is dated to about buildings, wide streets, etc. Thus the evidence 2800 B.C.E. The furrow marks in this ancient of the impressive town planning, and public field are similar to the furrows of modern administration, characteristic of the Harappan fields in the surrounding area. The other civilisation came into light. The town planning thing is the series of six to seven fire altars of the Harappan cities can be easily compared in the citadel. Evidence of fire alters inside with the town planning of a modern city like the houses of common people has also been

14 unearthed. Apart from this there was a house with a series of fire altars outside the fortification wall. Some of them contained animal bones. According to some archaeologists, this might be indicative of fire worship. Lothal : The centre of the Harappan civilisation at Lothal was situated near the Gulf of Kutch, in , 80 kilometres away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the The Water Tank at Dholavira supervision of S.R. Rao. sites, extentwise Dholavira is the fifth largest The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at city. Its town planning is somewhat different Lothal do not have separate fortification compared to other Harappan cities. walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single An Early Harappan settlement was fortification wall. discovered at Dholavira. There was a Lothal was established on the banks of protective wall built around it by using mud the river Bhogao. The presence of platforms bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones. built for stalls, a warehouse, and the dock The layers above this settlement had the confirm that Lothal was an important Harppan city of Mature Harappan phase. It Harappan port and trading centre. The was surrounded by an outer fortification wall. architecture of the dock at Lothal is an The settlement within the outer fortification example of the engineering excellence of was divided into four sections. ancient people. At present Lothal is away (1) Citadel (2) The adjacent section from the sea. However, in the ancient times reserved for high officials (3) Lower Town Lothal was in the delta region of the gulf of – These three sections had walls, which Kutch. It is clear that the Harappan settlers separated them from each other. (4) The of Lothal had a good knowledge of the high fourth section inside the outer fortification and low tides and accordingly the rising and did not have any additional separating walls. receding pattern of Bhogao waters. The dock This fourth section was perhaps meant for was built to facilitate the entry of boats the workers. A dam of baked bricks and during the high tide and their exit during low stone was built to obstruct the water of two tides. Once the boats entered the dock, the streams, which flowed near the closed city water was drained out through a sluice gate and the water was diverted to canals and into a canal. The sluice gate of baked bricks lakes. This was the most ancient system of was built to reduce the water level in the planned water management. dock as and when required. Then the repair Rakhigarhi : In the Hissar district of work of the boats was completed and with Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a the rise of water the boats could sail back. Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150 Dholavira : Dholavira was discovered kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the by J.P. Joshi, the Director General of banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river). Archaeological Survey of India. The site is Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site, in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch). among all the sites from India and Pakistan. Excavations at the site were started by R.S. Its total area was more than 350 Hectares. Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in

15 1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, administration. The raw material needed for Dr.Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Harappan industrial production included clay, Pune also conducted excavations at the site. various siliceous and semi-precious stones, At Rakhigarhi, all characteristics of the metals, etc. The interrelationship between Harappan cities were present. It was the Harappan cities and villages was dependent main centre of the Harappan civilisation in on the mechanism of making available, its eastern region. At this site too, evidence things like food grains and the raw materials. of fire altars like Kalibangan have been Not that all the pre-Harappan settlements found. were transformed into cities and towns. Indeed, cemeteries were found at various Some of them did not change notably. There other Harappan sites, but the human skeletal was a network of small towns, small and big remains from there were not studied to villages and camp sites of semi-nomadic analyse the hereditary characteristics of the people, which functioned to cater to the needs population. However, the human bones from of major urban centres of the Harappan Rakhigarhi were subjected to genetic analysis. civilisation. It included villages in remote Scientists believe that in due course it would regions as well. The best example of it is provide satisfactory answers to the question the Harappan settlement of ‘Shortugai’ in the of the origin of Harappan people. Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This region is rich with mines of lapis lazuli. For Additional Information : (1) Many There was a great demand for this semi- sites of the Early Harappan and Mature precious stone in Mesopotamia. The Harappan (Urban) phases have been found Mesopotamian epics in the basin of the river Ghaggar. The describe Goddess Inanna’s latest research based on the evidence from palace, the walls of which sites like Kunal, Bhirrana, Farmana, were embedded with this Girwad and Mitathal, etc. indicate a stone. This stone was a possibility of the rise of the Mature very important commodity Lapis lazuli stone Harappan more than 5000 years ago. If in the Harappan trade this is proved in due course, then it may with Mesopotamia. be said that it first developed in the Ghaggar basin. Evidence from Rakhigarhi 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation may prove to be instrumental in reaching and Administration positive conclusion in this context. In the early phase of agriculture, making (2) The Harappan sites of Mohenjodaro, earthen pots and farming were the jobs of Harappa, Ganweriwala in Pakistan and women. The pots fashioned by women were Rakhigarhi and Dholavira in India have handmade. They used a digging stick for been declares as World Heritage sites. sowing the seeds. With these methods women could manage production, just enough to 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities meet the family needs or at the most those and Villages of the extended family. Surplus production We have seen that the Harappan cities was not possible with their methods. arose as a result of the process of the The use of bullocks as draft animals (for development and expansion of the pre- ploughing and transport) had begun in the Harappan settlements. The city people are Early Harappan period. The use of wheel dependent on the natural resources and enabled speedy and mass production of pottery. villages in their vicinity in order to meet the Use of ploughs pulled by bullocks enhanced needs of urban way of life and urban the agricultural production. The clay replicas

16 of ploughs are recovered from the Harappan were also exclusively industrial settlements. site at Banawali in Harayana. It became Chanudaro in Sindh was an important possible to obtain necessary commodities in industrial town. It is apparent that the exchange of agricultural produce. This was outposts in Gujarat were specially established the beginning of barter system. The food grains for the convenience of trade. It was easier were exchanged, especially to obtain salt, to reach the sources of copper, chank shells metals and precious objects. and semi-precious stones from the outposts During the Mature (urban) Harappan like Kuntasi, Nageshwar, Bagasara, etc. in period the sphere of commodity exchange Kutch-Saurashtra. It was also easier to ship expanded and their import-export increased out the finished goods from these outposts to a great extent. The internal and distant located near the coast of Saurashtra. Carrying trade received momentum. Trade with distant out all the operations like procurement of the places like Mesopotamia became regular. raw material, production of finished goods Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during and its export from one and the same region, Early Harappan times. The Akkadian empire certainly proves to be beneficial for trade. was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Harappan people built the trading outposts Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan with this view in mind. These were small in trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the extent, but were important industrial centres. Harappan cities reached their peak. One of Dholavira was the city built to oversee the the administrative records of emperor Sargon trading transactions. Lothal was an important describes the trade with distant places. It sea port. seems that the importance of trade by land routes passing through Iran and Central Asia For Additional Information : had diminished in the Mature Harappan Mesopotamia is known for its grand period and the sea trade had become the temples. The administrative system of preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and Mesopotamian cities revolved around the ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important administration of these temples. Mesopotamian temples are known as centres on the sea route. Dilmun is identified ‘ziggurats’. The high priest of the temple with Bahrain, Makan with the coastal region used to be the ruler of the city. The social of Oman-Iran-Baluchistan and Meluhha with life, cultural events, power and hierarchy the region of Harappan civilisation. Copper of officials, etc. were organised in was available in large amounts in Meluhha. accordance with the rituals and festivals of The name Meluhha is supposed to have its the presiding deity of the temple. The origin in the red colour of copper. The notion of a ‘Priest-King’ of the Harappan commodities exported from Meluhha to civilisation was formulated by presuming Mesopotamia included copper, ivory objects, its close similarity with the Mesopotamian lapis lazuli, carnelian beads, textiles, timber culture. Mesopotamia was rich in as well as monkeys and peacocks. The bodies agricultural production. However, it did not (mummies) of dead royalties in Egypt were have enough sources of precious metals, wrapped in blue coloured cloth. Indigo, gems and timber. These things were necessary for dyeing this cloth was exported imported there. Many of the Mesopotamian by Harappan traders. Harappan traders are brick inscriptions contain the lists of imported commodities and the place names likely to have received wool, gold and silver from where they were imported. The in exchange for these commodities. exports from Mesopotamia included textiles, The Harappan cities had a reserved pottery and leather products. section for the industrial production. There

17 It is clear that a well organised continuous internal conflicts in Mesopotemia. administrative system existed to manage the Along with it increasing salination of industrial production, import-export, the agricultural land was the main reason of the interrelationship between cities managing decline of the Mesopotamian civilisation. It trading operations and villages around them. weakened the Mesopotamian market that was The town planning, standardisation of bricks, available to the Harappan goods. weights, seals, shapes and ornamentation of 2. Deteriorating environment was the various objects, etc. confirm the presence of main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia. such administrative system. However the Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating nature of Harappan polity, whether it was a environment were the main reasons of the single state or a federation of small states, decline of the Harappan civilisation too. is not yet known. The cities like Mohenjodaro, Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became Harappa, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi were increasingly arid and there were frequent perhaps regional capitals. Cities like famines. Degradation of cultivable land was Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal and on the increase. It is mentioned earlier that Rakhigarhi were important religious centres. sites of Harappan civilisation have been 2.4 Decline of the Cities discovered in large numbers in the basin of 1. When Harappan civilisation was Saraswati, which is now known as Ghaggar/ discovered, it was presumed that its cities Hakra. The interrelationship between were destroyed by invading tribes who came Harappan cities and villages that formed the from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ support system of the socio-economic life of meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The the cities dwindled in this period. The Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting devastating earthquake in the Saraswati basin the definition of ‘pura’. Sir Mortimer Wheeler was the major reason responsible for it. The on this basis concluded that Indra destroyed earthquake raised the ground level of the the Harappan cities. In turn, he declared that river bed causing a barrier causing Sutlaj the Vedic Aryans destroyed the Harappan and , the tributaries of the Saraswati cities under the leadership of Indra. This to change its course. As a result the Saraswati declaration by Wheeler received a general dried up and the Harappans had to migrate approval among the scholars at that time. elsewhere. Harappan cities were abandoned. However, more concrete evidence in the The settlements that came up on the context of Harappan civilisation is available remains of the Harappan cities were not now, which does not agree with Wheeler’s developed and rich. These settlements opinion. It is now known that the Harappan belonged to Late Harappan people. The civilisation began to decline around 2000- pottery, houses, funerary customs of these 1900 B.C.E. People had to migrate elsewhere. people were different. The Late Harappan With this, began the Late Harappan period. people were also forced to migrate because The Harappan civilisation deteriorated as of natural calamities. New villages were the cumulative effect of various factors such settled by the Mature Harappan and Late as decline in trade, climatic changes, Harappan people wherever they went. It gave weakening of the economy, etc. rise to new rural cultures. The spread of The Harappan trade with Mesopotamia these new cultures is seen in Rajasthan, was on the decline in the Late Harappan Gujarat, Malawa and Maharashtra. These period because the Mesopotamian economy new cultures are known as ‘Chalcolithic had weakened. One reason of it was Cultures’. We will learn about these cultures in the next lesson.

18 Note : Terminology (1) Pre-Harappan Cultures - Cultures of the period preceding the Harappan civilisation (2) Early Harappan period - Early (beginning) Harappan phase (3) Mature (Urban) Harappan period - Fully developed phase of Harappan civilisation (4) Late Harappan period - Period after the decline of the mature (Urban) phase (5) Post Harappan cultures - Rural cultures that came up after the Harappan civilisation vanished.

Exercise

Q.1 Choose the correct alternative and (3) Shortugai (c) Mesopotamia complete the sentence.. (4) Meluhha (d) Region of Harappan (1) In the early phase of agriculture, civilisation making pots and farming were the jobs of women. Q.3 Explain the statements with reasons. (a) copper (b) bronze (1) The remains found at cities like (c) earthen (d) stone Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc. (2) Lothal is known for its ancient are the evidence of the past glory of . this civilisation. (a) agriculture (b) dock (c) textiles (d) tools (2) Lapis lazuli had a very important (3) A general impression prevailed that the place in the Harappan trade. Harappan seals had some connection (3) Harappan civilisation declined. with the civilisation. Q.4 State your opinion. (a) Chinese (b) Greek (c) Mesopotamian (d) Egyptian (1) The Harappan cities and villages in the vicinity were interdependent. (4) The bodies (mummies) of dead (2) The Harappan cities seem to have a royalties in Egypt were wrapped in well-organised administrative system. coloured cloth. (a) white (b) black Q.5 Answer the following question with the (c) red (d) blue help of given points. Q.2 (A) Choose the correct reason and Write about the characteristics of complete the sentence. Harappan cities with the help of given The major reason for the decline of the points. Mesopotamian civilisation was - (a) Town planning (a) foreign invasion (b) Social organisation (b) deteriorting environment (c) Administration (c) loss in trade (d) Economy (d) migration Activity (B) Find the incorrect pair and write Collect information and illustrations with the correct ones. the help of internet about the town (1) Dilmun (a) Bahrain planning of the Harappan cities and (2) Makan (b) Oman-Iran- Chandigarh. Compare them. Baluchistan coastal region 

19 20 3. Chalcolithic Villages in India

3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India 3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra 3.3 Megalithic Period in India

3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India Design on Harappan Jar - Cemetery ‘H’ When the Mature (urban) Harappan civilisation collapsed completely, the people on the Mature Harappan pottery. On one of of Late Harappan cultures who had settled the cemetery ‘H’ pots dead humans are seen on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had carried by peacocks in their stomach. In brief to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans the characteristics of the Late Harappan and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever culture were different. these people reached, new rural cultures came Some archaeologists are of the opinion into being. that the Late Harappans were perhaps Vedic The discipline of architecture, town Aryans. However, more research is required planning of the Mature Harappan period was to know whether the Late Harappans were absent in the Late Harappan settlements, the successors of the Mature Harappan people established on the ruins of the Harappan or whether they were the Vedic Aryans. cities. The designs found on the burial pots in ‘Cemetary H’ at Harappa were different. Rajasthan These designs include motifs like sun, moon, (1) ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture : The fish, deer and peacock, which do not occur chalcolthic cultures in India generally belong

Revision in Brief : There were these things to the local people wherever Neolithic villages before the rise of the they went. Thus, new rural cultures with Harappan cities. Neolithic people had regional variations came into being. the technology of making copper objects. These cultures are known as Chalcolithic They were also skilled potters. Eventually, culture. Chalcolithic cultures belonged to their technology improved and the people who used tools of copper as well progress led to the origin of the Harappan as stone. However copper was used cities. sparingly by chalcolithic people. People of the Mature Harappan and A number of Chalocolithic sites have the Late Harappan culture had the been found in Rajasthan, the Ganga knowledge of wheel-made pottery, valley, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, cultivation of wheat and barley, making Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. of copper objects. They must have taught

21 to the post-Harappan period. However, the was surrounded by a fortification wall. These ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad characteristics confirm that Balathal people region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the were in close contact with the Harappans. Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund The Balathal people obtained copper near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar from the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. They culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated knew the technology of smelting copper. It to 4000 B.C.E. seems Balathal was the source for the It was first discovered at Ahar near Harappans to obtain copper and copper Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture. objects. Ahar is located on the banks of Ahar, a (2) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture : tributary of the river Banas, So it is also Many sites of the culture known as known as ‘Banas’ culture. ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been The archaeological evidence shows that found in the vicinity of the copper mines at Balathal was a centre of mass production of Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than pottery. The pottery made at Balathal was the Harappan civilisation. During the supplied to other settlements of Ahar culture. excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts Along with pottery, terracotta bull figurines, like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons, objects made of chank shell, stone blades, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found. chisels, arrowheads, copper tools, etc. were The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture found here, in large quantities. The houses at supplied copper objects to the Harappans. Balathal were built of baked bricks, by The Ganga Valley placing two headers and two stretchers Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper alternatingly (English bond method). Balathal Hoards : Initially the Ochre Colured Pottery (OCP) was mostly found in river beds. By the way : An archaeological Generally the potsherds of OCP are found in culture is usually named after the worn out, rounded and brittle conditions as site where it was discovered first. they remained in flowing water for a long Every culture has its characteristic time. Now, a number of sites of the OCP pottery. The pottery is the main clue culture are found in Punjab, Haryana, to identify a particular culture. Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar Pradesh. Among the types of pottery of House floors the Ahar culture Black-and-Red type of these people pottery is important. It is made on were made by wheel. The inner side and the outer ramming. On the portion near the neck is red and rest house floors were of the pot is black. If the pot is kept found traces of in a reverted position while baking hearths, terracotta its inner side turns black and the male figurines outer surface turns red. Or else, the and bull figurines. portion, which is covered by husk or Remains of cattle hay becomes black and the uncovered bones, rice and portion becomes red. Copper Hoard - Harpoon, barley were also axe head, ring etc. found. This

22 evidence indicates that people of this culture troughs of various sizes. stayed in settled villages and practiced Madhya Pradesh agriculture. (1) Kayatha Culture : Kayatha is a site The OCP culture in Rajasthan is dated situated on the banks of the river known as to about 3000 B.C.E. The same culture Chhoti Kali Sindh, at a distance of 25 existed in Ganga-Yamuna Doab around 2000 kilometres from in Madhya Pradesh. B.C.E. Kayatha culture was contemporary to The Copper Hoards found in India come the Harappan civilisation. The people of from various regions, such as Uttar Pradesh, Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh. animal husbandry. They mainly used The copper objects found in these hoards handmade pots and microliths. Artefacts like indicate that the artisans who fashioned them copper axes and bangles, necklaces made of were very highly skilled. The archaeological beads of semi-precious stones and small disc sites of OCP and the find-spots of the copper beads of steatite were found in the Kayatha hoards are often seem to be situated in the houses. People of Kayatha culture and same vicinity, not very distant from each Harappan culture seem to have been in other. Hence, OCP and copper hoards are contact much before the rise of the Harappan supposed to belong to one and the same cities. culture. After the Kayatha culture people of Ahar Some archaeologists are of the opinion culture arrived in Madhya Pradesh from that this culture belonged to the Harappan Rajasthan. It is quite possible that both the people who migrated after the decline of the cultures co-existed in Madhya Pradesh for a Harappan civilisation. Some scholars linked short time. Remains of culture are the copper hoards to the Vedic Aryans. found in Madhya Pradesh in the times after However, some other scholars reasoning on Ahar culture. the basis of the proximity of OCP and copper (2) : The name ‘Malwa’ hoards, believe that it must have been an obviously tells us that this culure originated independent culture. and spread first in the Malwa region. It Bihar, Bengal, Odisha existed in Madhya Copper hoards have been found in Bihar, Pradesh during 1800- Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. 1200 B.C.E. However, OCP is not found in these regions. ‘Navadatoli’ situated Chalcolithic sites have been discovered on the river in these regions. The excavations at sites like Narmada, on the Chirand, Sonpur, etc. yielded earthen pots of opposite bank of black-and-red ware. Shapes of these pots are Maheshwar, is an similar to those of Harappan culture. It seems important site of that the Harappan people had gone as far as Malwa culture. The other important sites Bihar and the local cultures were influenced A chalice of Malwa by them. In Bengal and Odisha also some culture - Navadatoli are Eran (District chalcolithic sites have yielded pottery that Sagar) and Nagda shows Harappan influence as far their shapes (District Ujjain). They were surrounded by are concerned. They include, bowls and protective walls.

23 Gujarat : The chalcolithic settlements in (1) Savalda Culture : Savalda is in Gujarat coincide with the following phases district. It is situated on the banks of of the Harappan culture : the river Tapi. Savalda culture is dated to (1) Early Harappan phase (3950-2600 B.C.E.) 2000-1800 B.C.E. This culture seem to have (2) Mature (urban) phase (2600-1900 B.C.E.) arisen by the cultural contact between the (3) Post-Harappan phase (1900-900 B.C.E.) Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra There are ample sources of semi-precious and the Harappan people in Saurashtra. stones in Gujarat. Making beads of these People of Savalda culture at stones was a big industry during Harappan used wheel-made pottery. The designs on times. The neolithic settlements in Gujarat their earthen pots included arrow heads, played a major role in procuring these stones. harpoons and figures of various animals. People residing in the neolithic settlements of People of this culture also used copper Gujarat were mainly pastoral, that is people objects, beads of siliceous stones, arrow whose primary occupation was animal heads made of bones, mortar and pestle husbandry. Probably, some of these pastoral stones, etc. Their village at Daimabad was people were semi-nomadic. protected by a surrounding wall. They built There are regional variations in the mud houses and they made the floors by characteristics of chalcolithic cultures of ramming mud and alluvium together. Gujarat. The chalcolithic pottery of Kutch- There was a cultural contact between the Saurashtra and Northern Gujarat are distinct Savalda people and the Harappans in from each other. The chalcolithic villages in Saurashtra. Its evidence has been found at Kutch-Saurashtra were abandoned by 1900 the site of Kaothe in . The B.C.E. artefacts made of chank shells found at In the post-Harappan period there were Kaothe confirm that the Savalda people and two chalocolithic cultures in Gujarat. The The Harappans in Saurashtra had trade culture in south Gujarat was known as relations. ‘Prabhas’ culture and the one in northeastern (2) Malwa and Cultures : The Gujarat was known as ‘Rangpur’ culture. First Farmers of Maharashtra The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures was The people of Malwa culture reached akin to Late Harappan pottery with regards Maharashtra around 1600 B.C.E. Permanent to the colour, shapes and designs. These villages of farmers were first established in cultures existed till 1800-1200 B.C.E. Maharashtra by the Malwa people. They 3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra were the first farmers of Maharashtra. After The evidence for the Late Harappans in arriving in Maharashtra they came into Maharashtra is found at Daimabad. The contact with the chalocolithic culture before the arrival of the neolithic people in Late Harappans at Daimabad is known as . It ‘Savalda’ culture. The cultures in the resulted into a few succeeding period of the Late Harappan were changes in the pot respectively known as ‘Malwa’ and ‘Jorwe’ making technology cultures. of Malwa people as far as shapes of the For a video on Daimabad, visit: pots and designs are https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= EzHb1n954fo Earthen Jar-Daimabad concerned. This was

24 the beginning of a new culture known as form of round platforms made for storage ‘Jorwe’ culture. Traces of were bins, four flat stones used for resting four first found at Jorwe in district. legged storage jars and underground silos The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra plastered with lime. People sometimes stayed had spread in Tapi, Godavari and Bhima in pit dwellings, though its use was rare. basins. Daimabad, Prakashe, (District Malwa pottery is mostly of buff Nandurbar) and Inamgaon were the large (yellowish) colour. Designs on these pots are villages and the main centres in the respective painted in brown. Jorwe pots are well baked river basins. Other smaller settlements and giving a metallic sound. They are red in farmsteads were linked to the large centre in colour with their vicinity. For example Nevase, Nasik designs were the large centres. Songaon and Chandoli painted in in the Pune district, Pimpaldar in the Nasik black. Jorwe district were smaller settlements. Walki near pottery Inamgaon was a farmstead. Pimpaldar in the includes Bagalan ghats was situated at a vantage shapes like point between Tapi and Godavari basins. spouted pots, Jorwe Pottery Hence, it held an important position in the carinated trade, though it was smaller in extent. Walki bowls and troughs (carination is the central was situated at the confluence of river Ghod ridge on the pot), lota, globular jars, etc. The and Mula. It was a very small site. It was Late Jorwe people made pots of the same a farmstead. shapes, but without any decoration. Potter’s Inamgaon (Taluk Shirur, District Pune) kilns were found in both Malwa and Early was subjected to extensive, horizontal Jorwe period. They were round in shape. The excavations. Therefore, indepth cultural kiln of Early Jorwe period was larger and of information of the site is available. The greater capacity. In the Late Jorwe period cultural chronology at Inamgaon : potters did not have a specially built kiln. (1) Malwa Culture-1600-1400 B.C.E. They baked their pots by directly arranging them on the ground. Inamgaon was the centre (2) Early Jorwe Culture-1400-1000 B.C.E. of pottery production, which supplied pottery (3) Late Jorwe Culture-1000-700 B.C.E. to surrounding villages. ‘Early Jorwe’ was the flourishing phase A house, quadrangular in shape, spacious, of the Jorwe culture that succeeded the having multiple rooms, or just a round shaped Malwa culture. ‘Late Jorwe’ is the phase pit dwelling is the indicator of the economic when the Jorwe culture declined. The condition of the family staying in it. The excavations at Inamgaon has unfolded the number of round pit dwellings was negligible. material culture and the day-to-day life of However, the number of quadrangular the Jorwe people in great details. spacious houses diminished in the Late Jorwe During the Malwa phase people at period and the number of round huts increased Inamgaon lived in spacious, rectangular considerably. These round huts were different houses. The house walls were wattle-and- than the round pit dwellings. These were daub type. Houses were partitioned into two erected by tying a number of sticks at the rooms by a half wall. The evidence of upper end and then pegging the lower ends storage facilities in the houses came in the on the ground by fanning them out. Such

25 huts are usually erected by nomadic people. There was an earlier burial of the same type The climate in the Late Jorwe period without the skeletal remains. It was a increasingly became arid. The round huts is symbolic burial. The Early Jorwe people used the evidence of climatic change that forced globular jars for burying a dead child. In this the Jorwe people to take up nomadic life. type of burial the dead child was placed in The Early Jorwe people at Inamgaon two jars, joined mouth to mouth. dug a canal for storing flood water of the 3.3 Megalithic Period in India river. It is obvious that this was done for At about 700 B.C.E. Inamgaon was irrigation purpose. Distribution of this water completely abandoned by the Jorwe people. was controlled by the chief of the village. Thereafter it was never occupied till the The chief stayed in a five roomed house built historic period. This situation prevailed in at the central part of the chalocolithic most of the Maharashtra. However, a nomadic Inamgaon. There were many underground people of this period erected stone circles by silos, inside the house and in the courtyard, using huge slabs of rock. The space within built for storing food-grains. Inamgaon these circles was used to bury dead people. farmers cultivated wheat, barley, Sorghum, Because of the huge stone slabs used in their lentil, horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), erection, these circles are known as megaliths. etc. meat and fish were also part of their The period of these megaliths is known as diet. Like other chalocolithic sites Inamgaon ‘Megalithic Age’. They were used for various also yielded coloureful stone beads, microliths purposes, but mainly they contain the remains and copper objects. of the dead. They were the memorials of the The rank of the ‘Chief’ of Inamgaon dead. was an inherited one. The burials found near the chief’s house confirm this fact. These burials were completely different from other burials found at Inamgaon. Generally, a dead person was buried in a pit in an extended position. However, in one of the burials found near the chief’s house the dead body was seated in a four legged, bulging jar. Megalithic Burial Try to complete the following activity : With the help of clues provided Such megalithic circles are in many below prepare a flow-chart. parts of the world. Its tradition was prevalent since prehistoric times. A few tribes practice Spread Pots in use it even today. For instance, the Bodos in Odisha, Todas and Kurumbas in South India, Nagas and Khasis in Northeast India. Most The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra of the megalithic circles in India are dated to 1500-500 B.C.E. Some of the megalithic circles in north India are as old as the House plans Means of livelihood neolithic period. The people who erected the megalithic circles in Maharashtra are supposed Burial type Diet to have come from south India. The megalithic

26 circles in Maharastra belong to the . culture were nomadic artisans. They were They are dated to 1000-400 B.C.E. skilled in making iron objects. A furnace of In the region of Maharashtra smelting iron of megalithic period was Megalithic burials are found in large numbers, discovered at Naikund near . especially in the districts of Nagpur, Megalithic people used horse for transport , and . Excavations of and travel. Skeletal remains and copper megalithic burials were conducted at various ornaments of horses were found buried in the sites like Takalghat, Mahurzari, Khapa, megalithic circles. Megalithic people used Naikund, etc. It is notable that most of these Black-and-Red pottery. sites were situated on the ancient trade routes. Megalithic people were certainly However, settlements of artisans of megalithic instrumental to a great extent in introducing culture are rarely found. People of Megalithic the ‘Iron Age’ in ancient India.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 (A) Explain the statements with reasons. complete the sentence. (1) Harappan people had to migrate. (1) On one of the cemetery H pots dead (2) People of ‘Malwa’ culture were the humans are seen carried by ...... in first farmers of Maharashtra. their stomach. Q.3 State your opinion. (a) deer (b) peacock It seems that the Harappan people had (c) fish (d) bull gone as far as Bihar. (2) The archaeological evidence shows Q.4 Write short notes. that Balathal was a centre of mass (1) Banas Culture (2) Malwa Culture production of ...... (3) Kayatha Culture (a) stone pots (b) copper pots (c) earthen pots (d) glassware Q.5 Write about the chalcolithic cultures in (3) Permanent villages of farmers were Gujarat with the help of the given first established in Maharashtra by points...... people. (a) Period (b) Means of livelihood (c) Geographical spread (d) Evidence of (a) Savalda (b) Malwa (c) Harappa cultural contact with other people (d) Kayatha Activity (B) Find the incorrect pair, write the correct ones. With the help of Internet, reference books, (1) Savalda Culture – Daimabad field trips, newspaper articles, etc. obtain pictures of excavated artefacts and (2) Malwa Culture – Navadatoli architectural remains and arrange an (3) Ahar Culture – Sonpur exhibition under the guidance of your (4) Jorwe Culture - Inamgaon teachers. 

27 4. Vedic Period

4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature, the basis of astronomical events. He was Linguistics and Archaeology also of the opinion that the original home of 4.2 Vedic Literature and Social the Aryans was in the Arctic region. organisation of Vedic Times This debate began in the 16th century. 4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not through Vedic Literature known. In the 16th century the European 4.4 Later Vedic Period academics became aware of the similarities between and Latin-Greek languages. It resulted into the notion of the ‘Indo- 4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature, European’ language family, which gave a Linguistics and Archaeology momentum to the search of a Mother It is now confirmed by the research of many years that the Harappan civilisation By the way : The notion of a was not destroyed by foreign invaders but it language group with a common mother declined because of various factors like language seems to have been toyed with natural calamities and the deterioration of by some European scholars since the environment. There are multiple unanswered 12th century C.E. However the awareness questions, such as, who were the Aryans, did of a direct link between Sanskrit and they arrive in India from a distant place or Latin attained the status of academic were they natives of India, which are the discussions on much later in the 18th archaeological sites where the remains of century. We can trace the beginnings of their culture are found, how to identify those this kind of interest to the 16th century. remains, etc. Most of the information about In the year 1583, an Italian merchant by their culture is derived from the Vedic the name Fillippo Sassetti came to Kochi literature. This literature is fundamentally in (Cochin) the port city in Kerala. He the form of the faith systems of the Vedic never returned to his motherland. He tribes and eulogies of their deities. stayed in Kerala and Goa. During his Mention of the material culture occurs in stay he wrote detailed letters to his the Vedic literature as an unintended aspect. family members about Indian life, Also, there are references to god Indra’s language and culture. He happens to be victories over their enemies. It was attempted the first European who wrote about his to find answers to above questions, on the observations of the Indian society. He basis of these details. There are various also studied Sanskrit. He was the first opinions about the chronology of the Vedic one who observed the similarities between culture. However, there is a general agreement Sanskrit and Latin. His observations that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in could be said to be the first, to give India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya impetus to the notion of a family of Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on Indo-European languages.

28 language from which developed the Indo- (urban) Harappan phase was earlier. Many European languages. It further led to the scholars are inclined to accept that succeeding development of a branch of linguistics known Late Harappan culture was equivalent to the as ‘Philology’. Philology is a discipline, Vedic culture. which traces the etymological history and The Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) to the meanings of words. east, Sindhu to the west and the five rivers At about the same time European of Punjab – Shatdru (Sutlaj), Vipasha (Bias), scholars had also developed interest in the Asikni (Chinab), Parushni (Ravi) and Vitasta ancient . As a result of this (Jhelum) – together comprised the region interest ‘Asiatic Society of Bengal’ was known as ‘Saptasindhu’. Besides these rivers established by Sir William Jones in 1784. mentioned in the Vedic literature are Kubha This period saw the beginning of compiling (), Gomati (gomal), Suvastu (Swat), and translating Sanskrit texts in European etc. Vedic people called the region enriched languages. Also, systematic research in the by these rivers as the ‘God’s Country’ field of Vedic literature and archaeological (Devnirmit Desh). However, there is no cultures had gained academic importance. mention of the region of their origin, if they On the basis of the research in these two had arrived in India from outside. fields, notions like the authors of Vedic Some scholars believe that Vedic Aryans civilisation came form the West; they brought had stayed in the region of Saptasindhu from the knowledge of horses and speedy chariots the beginning. Now many scholars are having spoked wheels, as well as the science searching for the answer to the question, of mounted archery, got deeply rooted among whether the Harappans and the Vedics were academics. In brief, it was believed that the one and the same. Apparently no final techniques of Vedic warfare was superior to answer has been found yet. The answer may that of the Harappans, who stayed in fortified be found if researchers could decipher the cities. Also, it was supposed that the Harappan script. Harappans were the enemies of the Vedic 4.2 Vedic Literature and Social people, mentioned as ‘Dasyu’ in the Vedic organisation of Vedic Times literature. The Vedic literature is supposed to be The archaeological research has now the earliest literature of India. Its language proved that the origin, spread and decline of is Sanskrit. The four Vedas namely, Rigveda, Harappan civilisation took place mainly in Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvveda form some parts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the core of the Vedic literature. The texts of Iran as well as in Punjab, Harayana, these four Vedas are known as the ‘Samhitas’. Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Geographic ‘Vid’ in Sanskrit means to know and ‘Ved’ region described in the Vedic literature means the knowledge. concurs with it. However, there is no The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns) agreement among the scholars about the composed to eulogise the deities. The verses chronology of the Vedic Aryans. Therefore, in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number in spite of a number of academic declarations, of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta nothing conclusive can be said about the (hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala. interrelationship between the Vedic and the Harappan cultures. Chronologically Mature The Yajurveda offers explanation of the sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how

29 the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic by dividing the span of human life into four richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is successive stages, namely regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a Brahmacharyashram, Grihasthashram, combined composition of the Rigvedic richa Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram. In the in verse and the explanation of its use as a first stage one was expected to spend an mantra in prose. austere life and earn knowledge and necessary The Samaveda is a text that gives the occupational skills. In the second stage one rules of reciting mantras in a musical form. was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties The Samaveda is regarded as the text that with one’s wife by his side. In the third stage is fundamental in the development of Indian one was expected to retire from the active music. life of the householder and if the need be, The Atharvaveda is about the day-to-day to give advise to the younger people. It was life. It contains information about charms also desirable that one shuld stay away from and medicines for various problems and human settlement. In the fourth and the last diseases. It also talks about the norms of stage one was expected to renounce all the statesmanship. family bonds, accept a wandering life and to go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to Later, Brahmana texts, Aranyaka texts settle at one place for a longer time. and Upanishadas were created. They are also considered as integral part of the Vedic 4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as literature. Vedic literature was created over a unfolded through Vedic Literature prolonged time. Its completion took about The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the 1500 years . It is the only source of Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early information about the life of Vedic people. It Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu offers a glimpse of the organisation of Vedic region have been mentioned in the Rigveda. society, Vedic family and the day-to-day life Among them occur the names like Puru, of the Vedic people. Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc. They Varna System were the tribes who subsited on agriculture. The Vedic society was organized into The Rigveda mentions a battle known as four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely, ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period The varna system is first mentioned in the along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region, the later Vedic period the varna system lost who did not belong to the Rigvedic people. its flexilblity. Also the caste system got They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’. rooted firmly by this period. In the beginning Panis were looked upon as enemies by the the varna or the caste was decided by one’s Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle occupation. Later it came to be determined of the Vedic people. on the basis of birth. Hence it became The tribal settlements and the Vedic impossible to change one’s varna and caste, people residing there have been mentioned as in which he/she was born. ‘Krishtya’ in the Rigveda. ‘Krish’ means Ashrama System ploughing. Hence the people who ploughed The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture and also their settlements were metioned as lays down the norms of living an ideal life ‘Krishtya’. The importance of agriculture is

30 You would like to know : There is certain that the Later Vedic people a school of thought, according to which, migrated by two different routes. The the Late Harappans, that is the Vedic Vedic literature mentions ‘Uttarapath’ people, migrated because of adverse (The northern route) and ‘Dakshinapath’ climatic conditions and natural calamities. (the southern route). Both of these routes They migrated to Ganga-Yamuna Doab in pass through regions, which differed the east and also went toward the west drastically. Accordingly their environment to Iran, Iraq, Egypt, etc. The evidence also differed. Considering this, it becomes of the inscriptions found at ‘Boghazkui’ clear that the ancient people managed to in Iraq is used to confirm it. These traverse through extremely difficult inscriptions contain the text of a treaty terrains. between two tribes called Hittite and The northern route extended from Mittanni. It begins by invoking deities Central Asia to Saptasindhu and from like Indra, Varuna and Nasatya. This and there to Himalayan foothills and then similar evidence is offered by some of the proceeding to Ganga-Yamuna Doab, European and Indian scholars to prove reaching the delta region thereafter. that Vedic people arrived in India from The southern route formed a link the West. This is one of the examples to between the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the illustrate the way the riddles in history are southern regions of India. It extended from created. the southern part of Sindh, through Kutch, So far, scholars have been unable to South Rajasthan, Malwa and from there solve the riddle of the ‘Aryans’ by putting to the . We have seen in together the archaeological and literary the previous lesson that the Harappan evidence. Nevertheless, it seems to be people reached Maharashtra via this route. clearly emphasised in the 10th mandala of the palace of Lord Varuna having 1000 doors. Rigveda. This description is an allegory, indicative of It states, that for the farmer his the imagination of the poet. There is no ploughshare is the means of obtaining food. evidence available so far to support this kind The deities, Ashwins and Indra were supposed of Vedic architecture. to be the gods of agriculture. It is mentioned Along with agriculture the Early Vedic that the Ashwins hold the plough and make people also practised animal husbandry. available food in large quantities. ‘Urvara’ Cattle, Buffaloes and horses formed part of means cultivable land prepared by ploughing. their pastoral wealth. The god who protected Indra is mentioned as the ‘Lord of Urvara’ their animals was known as ‘Pushan’. The (Urvarapati). Barley was the main crop chariot makers in this period were known as grown by the Vedic people. The 10th mandala ‘Rathakara’ and the carpenters were known of the Rigveda mentions well water used for as ‘Takshan’. Rathakar and Takshan were irrigation. According to its description a stone artisans of importance. A Rathakara was wheel tied with earthen jars (Rahatgadage in supposed to have a good knowledge of Marathi) was used to draw water from the carpentry too. The carpenters used to make well. It is instructed to secure the belts firmly wooden utensils, equipments necessary for around the jars. The Rigved describes the performing the sacrificial rituals and other

31 objects of domestic utility. The Rigveda Varuna and Ashwins were the lords of water mentions boats with hundred oars known as routes. The Rigveda also mentions trade by ‘Aritram’. These descriptions afford a glimpse exchange, negotiations and traders travelling of the skills of the carpenters of those times. far and wide to earn profits. At times, though The Rigveda does not have a specific rarely, an ornament called ‘Nishka’ was used term for the potter. However there are like money. separate terms for utensils of specific use. 4.4 Later Vedic Period ‘Ukha’ was the term used for a cooking pot. Later Vedic Period is dated to around The other terms like ‘patra’, ‘kumbha’, 1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this ‘kalash’ etc. also occur. A potter is mentioned period is gathered from the treatises written as an artisan in the Yajurveda for the first in that period. The material culture as time as ‘Kulal’. reflected in the epics, Ramayana and ‘Vayya; means the weaver, and its Mahabharata was studied with the help of feminine as it occurs in the Rigveda is archaeological evidence. A picture of the ‘Vayyaa’. Along with this there are terms migration in the Later Vedic period can be associated with the textile industry. ‘Tantum’ gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward (warp), ‘Otum’ (weft), Shuttle (tasar), are a the east and its geographic markers from the few of them. Rigveda also mentions woollen literature of that period. This period saw the cloth. ‘Urna’ is the word for wool. However, spread of Later Vedic culture from the Rigveda does not mention cotton or silk foothills of Himalayas in the north to the cloth. Vindhya mountains in the south. There is a The artisan who worked on leather story of Videgha Mathava (Videha Madhava) was known as ‘Charmnma’. Various objects in this context that occurs in the Shatapatha of leather are mentioned in the Rigveda. Brahmana. It appears in this story that the Objects made of gold (hiranya), of copper- Later Vedic people were settling and bringing bronze or iron (ayas) are mentioned. Iron the land under cultivation from the west to was not yet common in the Early Vedic the east. period. The artisans who made the metal The Later Vedic period saw a gradual objects were known as ‘Karmar’. The Varna formation of confederacies of the Vedic system seems to have established by the end villages. They were known as ‘’. th of the Early Vedic period. The 10 mandala Generally, the seniors and the elites in a of the Rigveda in which this system finds the Janapada collectively took social decisions. first mention is supposed to be composed at They functioned like oligarchic states. The the end of the Early Rigvedic period. powerful Janapadas among them gradually The chariot has been already expanded into . In the next mentioned. A cart was known as ‘Anas’. The lesson we will study the history of the 4 river transport was known as ‘Navya’. centuries from 1000-600 B.C.E. Pushan was the lord of the land routes while

32 Exercise

Q1. (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Complete the concept map given below. complete the sentence. Tribes Dashradnya Yuddha (1) The importance of agriculture is clearly emphasised in the mandala of the Rigveda. (a) 4th (b) 10th (c) 8th (d) 6th Early Vedic (2) A potter is mentioned as an artisan Culture in the for the first time. (a) Rigveda (b) Yajurveda (c) Samaveda (d) Atharvveda Means of Deities (3) The god who protected the animals Livelihood was known as . (a) Indra (b) Pushan Q.3 Choose the correct reason and complet (c) Ashwin (d) Varun the sentence. (B) Find the incorrect pair and write Panis were looked upon as enemies the correct ones. by the Vedic people because - (1) Nishka – Gold ornament (a) they belonged to a different tribe. (2) Barley – Main crop of the Vedic (b) their language was impure people (c) Panis used to steal the cattle of (3) Krishtya – The apparatus of drawing the Vedic people water from the well (d) Panis did not obey the orders of (4) Navya – river transport the Vedic people. (C) Write the names Q.4 State your opinion. (1) A branch of linguistics - (1) There is a debate about the original (2) A battle fought among the ten tribal home of the Aryans. chiefs - (2) The Rigvedic people subsisted on (3) Cultivable land prepared by agriculture. ploughing - Q.5 Explain the following concepts. (1) Origin of Aryan people (2) Indo-European family of languages



33 5. Janapadas and Republics

5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas 5.2 Janapada 5.2 Janapada 5.2.1 Territoriality and The term ‘janapada’ occurs in the Autonomous Functioning Brahmana texts for the first time. Thereafter, 5.2.2 Expansion and Development it is frequently used in the Vedic literature of the Janapadas and the epics – Mahabharata and Ramayana, 5.3 Federation of States (Ganarajya) as also in the Jain and the Buddist literature. Considering the ancient Indian geographic perception with reference to the janapadas, 5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas the said literature seems to divide the Indian Vedic people used the term Jana to subcontinent into five sections : ‘Praachya’- designate a group of people, united under a of the east, ‘Praatichya’- of the west, common bond of singular kinship structure. ‘Udichya’ - of the north, ‘Dakshina’ - of the Their settlement was known as ‘Grama’. A south, ‘Madhyadesha’ - The central region. cluster of gramas consisting of the same jana However, this division does not include was known by the name of that particular the entire subcontinent. It mainly focuses on jana. In the beginning, however, the concept the region to the north of the Vindhya ranges. of jana included only an extended family The geographic awareness seems to have (kul), its settlement (grama) and the cattle- expanded in the Puranic literature. The pen (goshtha-gotra-gaulwada). The concept Purana texts mention the regions to the south of jana was not yet inclusive of the concept of the Vindhyas also. These are, of territoriality. Hence, the geographic ‘Dakshinapatha’ and ‘Aparanta’, that is the boundaries of a jana were not defined. coastal region of . In the last lesson we saw that the Vedic 5.2.1 Territoriality and Autonomous people migrated and spread from the Functioning Saptasindhu region to the delta region of the It may be noted, that the sense of Ganga. Vedic jan as gradually began to settle territoriality and the ensuing awareness of in the new region. The concept of jana autonomy were the main factors responsible increasingly acquired the sense of territoriality. for the formation of ancient janapadas in The sense of territoriality instilled the sense India. However, their administrative system of geographic boundaries among the janas. It was not much different from that of the resulted into the emergence of informal local janas in the Rigveda. Two assemblies known administrative structures among the janas. as ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ were at the apex of Thus, independent Janapada came into all administrative decision making process, existence. A region occupied by a janas was since the very beginning of the Vedic period. called as Janapada. Gradually the Janapadas The chief of the janapada was known as had more formal administrative structures ‘Rajan’. The Sabha and Samiti had the transforming them into independent states. authority either to elect or to remove the These were the first well-established states of chief. However, the administrative objectives ancient India. However, this does not and policies, the norms of social organisation, necessarily mean that every Janapada evolved etc. were flexible enough to accommodate into an independent state. changing socio-geographic milieu.

34 When the successive generations got kula (clan) known as the Bharatas in established in a geographic periphery, the Rigveda, got merged with the Kurus. The newly emerging social organisation was also two kulas united to such extent that the changing. Now, it was not confined only to people in Bharata clan came to be regarded the basic kinship structure. People from the as the ancestors of the Kurus. outside of the kinship framework also got 3. The more powerful janapadas included in the janapadas. The social conquered the less powerful ones. organisation of the janapadas, which was based on collective functioning began to For additional information: Some of change and one’s immediate family became the ancient janapadas and the literary texts more important. Accordingly, the social that mention their names. organisation came to revolve around the head • Praachya : , Magadh of the family and family based rituals. Co- (Atharvaveda) operation at individual level and among the : Kikata (Rigveda and families became the base of the social Atharvaveda) organisation. Pundra (Mahabharata) This period also saw the rise of the • Praatichya : Anu, Alin, Bhalan, warrior class. These people were well-trained Druhyu, Parashu, in warfare. This class of warriors played a Pakhta, Puru, Turvasha, major role in the shift of the primary Yadu (Rigveda), organisation of the janapadas to more Gandhara (Rigveda and complex state organisation. Janapadin is a Athrvaveda), term mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi , used Shalva (Mahabharata) to indicate the warrior class. • Udichya : Krivi, Vaikarna (Rigveda) 5.2.2 Expansion and Development of the Balhik (Atharvaveda) Janapadas • Dakshina : Andhra (Mahabharata) The expansion and development of the Pulinda (Emperor janapadas seem to have occurred in three ’s edicts) different ways: • Madhyadesha : Aja, Chedi, Bharata, 1. Expansion and development of a Matsya, Shigru, Trutsu, society formed into a Jana by uniting of a Ushinara, Yakshu number of generations of a singular kula (Rigveda), Kuru, (family). For example, the janapadas, namely, Shrinjaya (Rigveda and Matsya, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, , Atharvaveda) etc. 2. Janapadas rising out of the union of 5.3 Federation of States (Ganarajya) more than one kula. For example, the The Later Vedic literature, Jaina and janapada. Who were the five janas Buddhist literature indicate that most of the united under the name of , is not janapadas were monarchic states. However, exactly known. According to the renowned some of the janapadas were of oligarchic historian, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri type. The ancient literature mentions different following were the janas who merged together types of states. Terms like Rajya, Svaarajya, as Panchalas : Krivi, Turvasha, Keshi, Bhaujya, Vairajya, Maharajya, Saamrajya Shrinajaya and Somaka. Later, Kurus and and Parmeshthya occur in this context. Panachalas are mentioned together as Kuru- However, nothing more can be said about the Panchalas. By the time of Mahabharata the nature of these states. We get to know that

35 Uttar Kuru and Uttar Madra were of For additional information : Ancient ‘Vairajya’ type. It means that the state was Indian literature mentions two more types not ruled by a monarch but the members of of ganasanghas. ‘Ayudhjivi’ sangh and the janapada run the state collectively. The ‘Varta-Shastropajivi’ sangh. They existed ancient literature mention such type of states in the northwest regions of the Indian as ‘ganasangha or sangharajya’ (oligarchy/ subcontinent. The ganasangha of the republic). Trigartas was mentioned as Ayudhajivi. ‘Gana’ means the ruling class comprising These people were skilled warriors and members of equal social status. Similarly warfare was the means of their livelihood. sangha means a state formed by many kulas For example Yaudheya, Malava and or janapadas by coming together. By 6th Kshudraka. ‘Varta’ means trade and century B.C.E. many sangharajyas had come commerce. The people in the Varta- into existence. Shastropajivi ganasanghas lived by trade There were three main types of the and commerce, agriculture and animal ancient federation of states in India. husbandry, as well as their skills in (1) Ganarajya of the members of the same warfare. People in the Kamboj and kula. For example, Malava and Shibi. Surashtra ganasanghas earned their livelihood by these means. (2) Ganarajya created by more than one kulas coming together. For example, Ganasangha. It included eight Each elective representative of respective kulas. Vajji, Lichchhavi, Dnyatruk and regional zone was designated as Videha were the important ganas among ‘Ganamukhya’. Every ganamukhya was the them. Lichchhavi was most influential member of the assembly known as gana of them. ‘ganaparishada’. Ganaparishada was the highest decision-making authority concerning (3) More than one ganrajyas coming together all the administrative matters of the to create a sangharajya. For example ganasangha. The decisions made by the Yaudheya-Kshudrak Sangh. ganaparishada, were implemented by We can get a glimpse of the administrative designated functionaries of various cadre. system of the ancient ganasanghas in the The ganapramukha was the principal Buddhist texts. Each ganasangha had its own functionary presiding over the administrative system of decision making and its system. He was known as the ‘Adhyaksha’ implementation. We may find approximate or ‘Raja’. The rest of the main designated parallels of these systems in the following functionaries included, Uparaja types: (Upadhyaksha), Senapati and Bhandagarika 1. Democratic States : Some of the (Koshadhyaksha). ganasanghas were divided into regional zones 2. Oligarchic States : In this type the called ‘Khanda’. They functioned through a elite class in the society held all the powers group of elected individuals, who were found of decision-making and administration. Panini capable. Each of the elected members and Kautilya mention them as represented his respective khanda. These ‘Rajshabdopajivi’ sangh. Panini includes elected members were installed with collective Vajji, Andhaka, Vrishni, Yaudheya in the authority for the smooth running of the Rajashabdopjivi type. Kautilya includes the ganasangha. This was a democratic system. Vrijji or Vajji, Madrak, Kuru, Panchala, etc. Ganasanghas which functioned in this in this type. This type of ganasanghas were democratic way existed in Punjab and Sindh more prevalent in the eastern region of Uttar at the time of Alexander’s invasion. Pradesh and Bihar.

36 We have seen that the janapadas mainly By the Way : The ganasanghas emerged as the result of the sense of of Vajji, Shakya, Lichchhavi and geographic boundaries (territoriality) and were closely associated with the life of autonomous functioning. Some of the powerful Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha was janapadas expanded and developed to the born in the Shakya family. His father extent that they were acknowledged as Shuddhodan was an elected president ‘Mahajanpadas’ by the 8th century B.C.E. In (Rajan) of the Shakya Ganaparishad. the next lesson we will study the sixteen mahajanpadas of ancient India.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (3) Praatichya - Anu, Pundra, Bhalan, complete the sentence.. Parashu (1) ‘A region occupied by the ‘janas’ (B) Choose the correct reason and was called as . complete the sentence. (a) Ganarajya (b) Janapada The ganasangha of the Youdhey, Malav, (c) Mahajanapada (d) Gotra Kshudraka were mentioned as Ayudhajivi. (2) The principal functionary of a Because – ganasangha was known as . (a) it was in the northeast region of the (a) Senapati (b) Bhandagarika Indian subcontinent. (c) Raja (d) Uparaja (b) these people were skilled warriors (3) The author of the ‘Ashtadhyayi’, and warfare was the means of their which mentions ‘janapadin’, was livelihood. . (c) they were skilled in trade and (a) Kautilya (b) Panini commerce. (c) Chanakya (d) Vyas (d) these were the ganasanghas dependednt (4) The sense of territoriality and the on agriculture and animal husbandry. ensuing awareness were the main factors responsible for the Q.3 Complete the concept chart. formation of ancient janapadas in India. Later Vedic Ancient Literature Brahamana (a) of unity (b) of authority Literature mentioning Texts (c) of autonomy (d) of public ‘Janapada’ authority (B) Find the incorrect pair and write the correct ones. Q.4 Explain the concept with examples. (1) Praachya – of the east (1) Ganarajya and Sangharajya (2) Praatichya – of the west (2) Vartashastropajivi ganasangh (3) Udichya – of the north (3) ‘Jana’ and ‘Janapada’ (4) Aparanta – the region to the north Q.5 Answer the following question in detail. of Vindhya ranges Describe the democratic and oligarchic Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out. states in ancient India. (1) Praachya - Anga, Magadh, Kikat, Activity Shalva Present an act in the class, based on the (2) Madhyadesha - Aja, Bharata, simulation of the administrative system of Vaikarna, Matsya an oligarchic state. 

37 6. Second Urbanisation in India

6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas For additional information: 6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada The Sanskrit ‘Ashmak’ and the Pali 6.3 Second Urbanisation in India ‘Assak’ are supposed to be two versions of the same name. This can be further 6.4 Mahajanapadas and The explained by the following examples. Contemporary Cities (1) ‘Avantyashmak’ is a term 6.5 Mahajanapadas – Administrative mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. It System, Guilds means and Ashmak were two 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects adjacent states. 6.7 New Religious Trends (2) Three states of ‘Ashwayana’, ‘Ashwakayana’ and ‘Hastikayana’ are mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. When Alexander invaded India, his 6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas advent through Afghanistan and Punjab The ambition of territorial expansion was fiercely resisted by some warrior led to a conflict among the janapadas. tribes. The Greek historians have Some janapadas proved more powerful than mentioned their names as ‘Aspasioi’, the others in this conflict. The stronger ‘Assakenoi’ and ‘Astakenoi’. These janapadas began to annex the conquered three names are equivalents of territories to their own and thus, they ‘Ashwayana’, ‘Ashwakayana’ and successfully expanded their boundaries. By ‘Hastikayana’ respectively. Assaka 600 B.C.E. sixteen mahajanapadas were mentioned in the Buddhist literature established in India, from the northwest may be identified, according to some region to . Conquering other historians, with the Ashwakayanas in janapadas and annexing their territory the northeast region, which may not permanently to one’s own, became a regular have any association with the Ashmakas. practice in the times of mahajanapadas. (3) It seems that the king of Assaka Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the was known as ‘Andhakraja’ during creation of the large empire like Magadha. Gautama Buddha’s times. The region on Ancient India once again witnessed the rise the banks of the Godavari was known of cities. This process is known as the as ‘Andhakratta’. Sage Bavari, a ‘Second Urbanisation’. contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had The names of sixteen mahajanapadas his ashram in this region. Originally he are found in the Jaina and Buddhist was from the state of Kosala. According literature and also in the Purana texts. to ‘Suttanipata’, a Buddhist text, he Buddhist texts were written in a period, came from Shrvasti, the capital of which was closer to the period of the Kosala to Assaka. It was situated on mahajanapadas. Hence the names occurring the Godavari and in the region of in the Buddhist texts are accepted as more ‘Dakshinapatha’. This evidence confirms reliable. that the name Assaka in Pali is equivalent to Sanskrit Ashmaka.

38 6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada According to ‘Mahagovinda Suttanta’, a Among the sixteen mahajanpadas the Buddhist text, Brahmadatta was the king of one known as Ashmak or Assak is identified Assaka and the name of his capital was with the region of present day Maharashtra. ‘Potana/Podana’. Potana is identified with Ashmaka/Assaka was the only Nandura in . Potana was mahajanapada that was situated in the also known by the names, ‘Potali’ and region known as ‘Dakshinapatha’. ‘Paudanya’. Other janapadas situated in the Remaining fifteen mahajanapadas were in region of Dakshinapatha were ‘Vidarbha’, north India. Suttanipata describes the region ‘Bhoja’, ‘Dandaka’ and ‘Kalinga’. The first of Dakshinapatha in great details. It was the three were part of present day Maharashtra. region of an important trading route. It Also the tribal states of the Andhas, Shabaras, started at Shravasti and proceeded through Pulindas and the Mutibas were also located Ujjayini and Mahishmati. From there one in the Godavari and Krishna basins. would reach Pratishthan after crossing the According to Jaina texts, Bahubali, the Vindhyas. son of Rishabhanath the first Jaina

39 You would like to know : The following have been a feudatory of the king of Kasi. examples will throw light on the challenges (3) The Jataka story known as ‘Chulla faced by historians when a single name is Kalinga Jataka’ describes the battle mentioned in varying contexts. between King Assaka and the Kalinga (1) The jataka story known as ‘Nimi Jataka’ king of Dantapur. King Assaka defeated gives us the list of kings who ruled the the Kalinga king and married his sister. state of Videha from its capital city, This marital alliance helped to establish Mithila. It includes a king whose name congenial relations between the two states. was ‘Assaka’. In the Hathigumpha inscription of (2) The Jataka story known as ‘Assaka Kharavela, it is mentioned that King Jataka’ tells us about a king named Kharvela, without fearing the dreaded Assaka who ruled the state of Kasi, and name of Satakarni, attacked the city of his queen. In this story, it is mentioned Asikanagara in the west and created a that Potali was the capital of the king fright among its residents. Some historians Assaka. The capital of ancient state of identify ‘Assaka’ occurring in the Jataka Kasi was Varanasi. However, it is inferred stories with ‘Asiknagara’ mentioned in the that the mention of Potali as the capital Hathigumpha inscription. of king Assaka may indicate that he might

Tirthankara was given the kingdom of Characteristic pottery of janapadas and Ashmaka and Podanpur was its capital. mahajanapadas has been recovered from The magnificent statue of Bahubali stands various archaeological sites. Also, many at Shrvanbelgola, in the Hassan district of sites have yielded iron implements and Karnataka. Bahubali had attained Keval punch marked coins of silver and copper. Gyan (Omniscience). The punch marked coins have been 6.3 Second Urbanisation in India mentioned in the ancient Indian literature The janapadas with definite geographic as ‘Karshapana’ or ‘Pana’. borders and administrative system were The following things are perceived as established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The markers of urbanisation : Development of ambition to expand geographic boundaries the cities as administrative centres, network and the political conflict caused by it left of surrounding villages to cater to the needs some janapadas more powerful than others. of urban centres (hinterland), interlinking of It resulted into the creation of sixteen the village administration with the central mahajanapadas from Afghanistan in the administration, well defined rules of taxation, northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching internal and distant trade, well-established to the banks of the Godavari in the south. network of land routes and waterways (both The capital cities of the mahajanapadas rivers and oceans), purchase and sales of and some other cities, which flourished goods by increasingly using monetary because of prospering trade once again exchange along with the barter system, a brought the age of urbanisation in India. It stable legal system and judiciary. All these is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’. characteristics of urbanisation were present The ‘Mahaparinibbansutta’ mentions in the times of mahajanapadas. names of six cities, which were of great 6.4 Mahajanapadas and The importance. They are, Champa, Rajagriha, Contemporary Cities Shravasti, Saketa, Kushambi and Varanasi. 1. Kasi : This mahajanapada was a By the 6th century B.C.E. these and a few powerful one in the beginning of the other cities had become very prosperous.

40 Pay attention to this : The Harappan in it, etc. is available in various literary civilisation originated as a matter of course texts. For instance, enough information is of co-ordinating trade and production available in the jataka literature about the processes. Various factors involved in this cities visited by Gautama Buddha in his chain as well as their smooth functioning lifetime. A moderately accurate picture of gave rise to the Harappan city centres. the administration of these cities can also However, as far as the statehood and the be gathered from this literature. The names administrative machinery of the Harappan of the kings, who were contemporary to civilisation is concerned, there is a Gautama Buddha are also mentioned in considerable ambiguity about it. the jatakas. The geographic details In the context of the second described in the context of Gautama urbanisation, however, information about Buddha’s travels are supposed to be very the geographic location of each reliable. They form a reliable source for mahajanapada, its capital and other cities writing the history of ancient India.

Mahajanapadas and their capitals : 2. Kosala : Ancient Kosala encompassed 1. Kasi – Varanasi the regions of Uttar Pradesh in India and 2. Kosal – Shravasti Lumbini in Nepal. Sharavasti was its capital 3. Anga – Champa city. King Prasenjit (Pasenadi*) was a 4. Magadha – Girivraja/Rajgriha disciple of Gautama Buddha. Kosala was 5. Vrujji/Vajji – Vaishali destroyed and annexed permanently to 6. Malla/Malava – Kushinara/ Magadha by King Ajatashatru. Kushinagara * Pasenadi is the Pali version of the name Prasenjit. 7. Chedi – Shuktimati/Sotthivati 8. Vamsha/ – Kaushambi 3. Anga : The city of Champa was the 9. Kuru – Indraprastha/Indrapattan capital of Anga. It was a centre of the 10. Uttar Panchala – Ahichchhatra, marine trade. It was permanently annexed Dakshina Panchala – Kampilya to Magadha by King Bimbisara. 11. Matsya – Viratnagar 4. Magadha : Magadha had its first 12. Shoorsena – Mathura capital at the city of Girivraja, also known 13. Ashmak /Assaka – Potali / Potana / as Rajagriha. Girivraja was surrounded by Podana five hills making it formidable for the 14. Avanti – Ujjayini and Mahishmati enemies. King Bimbisara was a 15. Gandhara – Taxila contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The 16. Kamboja – Rajpura policy of territorial annexation of other mahajanapada period. Varanasi was its kingdoms was started during the reign of capital. The kings of Kasi were ambitious. Kind Bimbisara. According to the jataka stories they aspired Later Pataliputra became the capital of for the highest position among all Magadha empire. contemporary kings (Sabbarajunam 5. Vrujji / Vajji : This was a aggaraja). The Buddhist text, ‘Mahavagga’ confederation of eight clans, known as mentions that the king of Kasi had defeated ‘Maha Aththkula ’. It included clans like Kosala and annexed it to his own kingdom. Videha, Lichchhavi, Vajji, Shakya, Later, Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha Dnyatruk, etc. The ‘Ekapanna Jataka’ conquered and annexed Kasi mahajanapada mentions that Vaishali, the capital of this to Magadha. mahajanapada was fortified with three

41 surrounding walls. It had three entrance 10. Panchala : The mahajanapada of gates and bastions. King Ajatashatru was Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north) the one who annexed the territory of the Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala. Vrujji/Vajji’s land to Magadha. The river Bhagirathi was the natural 6. Malla : The city of Kushinara or boundary that divided the mahajanapada. Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhapur Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala district was the capital of this mahajanapada. was located near the village of Ramanagar, Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya, at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana Dakshina Panchala. The mahajanpadas of chaitye tamrapatta iti”. In the later vedic Kuru and Panchala often fought for period Malla mahajanapada was a supremacy. Both the divisions of Panchala monarchy. Later it turned into a republic. mahajanapada were monarchies in the There were two more cities in the beginning. At a later date, they turned into mahajanapada, namely, ‘Pava’ and a sangharajya. ‘Bhaoganagara’. According to the Jaina 11. Matsya : The capital of this texts, eighteen republics from the regions of mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was Mallas, Lichchhavis and Kashi-Kosala, had located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of formed a confederation to fight Ajatashatru. Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya is one of the places where Ashokan edicts empire. have been found. 7. Chedi : This mahajanapada had 12. Shoorasena : This mahajanapada occupied Bundelkhand and the region was located on the banks of the river around it. The city of Shuktimati or Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura. Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to Greek historians have mentioned the name have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar of the mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and Pradesh. Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the 8. Vamsha or Vatsa : Kaushambi was mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged the capital (Kosam near ) of this into the . mahajanapada. According to the tradition 13. Ashmak/Assak : We have seen of Purana texts Hastinapur was destroyed earlier that Potali was the capital of by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, Ashmak mahajanapada and probably it was a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift a feudatory state of Kashi mahajanapada. his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist 14. Avanti : This mahajanapada of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad Bhasa is King Udayan. He was the king and its neighbouring regions in Madhya of the Vatsa mahajanapada and the Pradesh. Avanti mahjanapada was divided contemporary of Gautama Buddha. into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti. 9. Kuru : The capital of this Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata, Delhi, Its name was Indraprastha or District Khandwa) was the capital of Indrapattana. According to the Jataka Dakshina Avanti. King Pradyot was a literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged contemporary of Gautama Buddha. In the to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra. 4th century B.C.E. Avanti mahajanpada

42 became an integral part of the Maurya entitlement of ‘Saamraj’. The epithet ‘Raja’ empire. always indicates a lower cadre. 15. Gandhara : This mahajanpada had A ‘Raja’ was expected to be a ‘Kshatriya’ spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. and according to the existing norms a Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or was expected to refrain from Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, accepting the position of a ‘Raja’. However, who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. there are a number of exceptions to this norm He had established diplomatic relations with as seen in the Vedic literature and Buddhist King Bimbisara. By the 6th century B.C. the jatakas. The position of Raja was generally Iranian emperor, Daryush I conquered bequeathed on the son of the ruling king Gandhara mahajanapada. The Behistun after him. However, at times, a king was inscription in Iran (516 B.C.E.) mentions elected by people. The first wife of the king Gandhara as one of the satrapies of the was given the epithet of ‘Rajmahishi’. She Iranian empire. was the one who was formally crowned 16. Kamboja : This mahajanapada is along with the king. A powerful sovereign mentioned in the ancient literature along performed ‘Ashvamedha’ sacrifice to with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its establish his supremacy. The coronation of a capital. Kamboja was well-known for its king, principally gave him absolute authority excellent horses and its horsemen warriors over his subjects. He was the one to decide for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people the amount of taxes to be collected from had resisted Sinkandara’s advent. The them. He was the ultimate lord of all the Aspasioi (Ashvayana) was part of the land in his kingdom and so he could donate Kamboja mahajanapada. The mahajanapada any portion of that land according to his is mentioned in Ashoka’s edicts as ‘araj’, wish. Nevertheless, his power was not totally meaning ‘those who do not have a king’. unrestricted. The king made his decisions by In turn, it means that those who were a seeking advice from his officials such as republic. ‘Purohita’, ‘Senani’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Gramani’, 6.5 Mahajanapadas - Administrative etc. Besides, there was an assembly of people System, Guilds of all classes. When it assembled, everybody present there could participate in the decision Administrative System : In the 5th lesson, making process. There were instances when we have seen various terms in the context people’s assemblies made a king step down of the types of ancient states. They were from the throne. ‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’, ‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and Guilds (Shrenis) : Along with ‘Parmeshthya’. It is difficult to define these agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ systematic management and organisation of and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the the trade are also essential factors for the term Rajya and Saamrajya in the conext of prosperity of a state. The guilds of the sacrificial system. According to it, the king merchants and the artisans played a great who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is role in the growth of the mahajanpadas into designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by wealthy states. These guilds had their own him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’ way of organisation and functioning. Among performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled the important characteristics of the guilds to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’ were, local organisation of various under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’. A occupations, transferring the skills to the ‘Raja’ is always desirous of the superior young members in the family with hands-on

43 training, leadership naturally invested in the their funds for the operations involved in senior and experienced members of the production and trade, as well as for the guild and other members following them social cause. It was in the way of giving voluntarily. donations and giving loans with interest at Guilds had their own, strict rules. modest rates. Hence, they had a stringent structure. This 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects stringent structure is perceived as one of the During the times of mahajanapadas the main reasons of the rise of the caste system. political and social scenario in ancient India The paid outsiders who worked in the guilds was witnessing transition and these changes were known as ‘Karmakara’ and unpaid were bound to reflect in the material and workers as ‘Dasa’. philosophical notions about life. In this The guilds had acquired an important regard, the Vedic system revolved around place in the political, social and financial the duties of a householder, sacrificial matters by the Maurya period. According to system and material prosperity. At the end Kautilya, the king’s control on the of the Vedic period questions about abstract transactions of guilds was very important. aspects of human existence began to gain Structurally the shrenis had a great potential attention. It included questions about matters of channelling the central power. The like the meaning of human life, its Ashokan edicts show that the roads and the significance in the infinite nature of the transport system was maintained with great universe, the mystery of death and the care. It had made transport of goods and journey of the soul after death. It resulted travelling convenient. Obviously, this state in the creation of various philosophical of affairs was favourable for the growth of texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’. The debates trade and development of shrenis. that were churned up during this period The functioning of the guilds was gave rise to various schools of thoughts. controlled by the state. Detailed records They included schools propounding the were kept of the production by the guilds, immortality of soul to the schools that their financial operations and above all the refuted the very existence of the soul. The traditions of guilds. Every guild had an latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’ independent space in the city, allotted to it. school, which openly opposed the social There were independent traditions with organisation based on the Vedic authority, respect to the interrelationship between the beliefs and rituals. This school also guild members and the karmakaras, various propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only stages of production and fixing the prices those things, which are subject to sensory of produced goods. Each guild had its own experience. The Charvaka/Lokayat school is rules based on its traditions. The state one of the ancient Indian schools of thought administration did not interfere in these (darshan) which denies the existence of aspects of the functioning of the guilds. It ‘God’. It opposes the authority of Vedas kept the internal independence of the guilds (vedpramanya) and the notions of the intact. If a decision has to be reached about existence of god and life after death. It also the matters of a guild, then the king sought discarded all rituals arising out of this kind advice from a guild representative. of belief systems. It is the only materialistic school of philosophy ( ‘Jadavadi Darshan’) The chief of a guild of artisans was that was developed in ancient India. known as ‘Jyeshthaka’ or ‘Jyetthaka’. The chief of a guild of merchants was known It may be said that the ancient Indian as ‘Shreshthi’ or ‘Setthi’. The guilds used philosophical schools took roots in this

44 period. The 6th century B.C.E. is important Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana from this point of view. The rising of a Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’ class of wandering mendicants known as clan. His mother, Trishaladevi was from the ‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira characteristic of this period. They renounced was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near the householder’s life and wandered with Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda. their disciples, in search of the ultimate Vardhamana Mahavira left home at the age truth. Among the various streams of of 30, in search of the truth. At the age of thoughts, a large number of people were 42 he attained absolute knowledge (Keval attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Dnyana). Thereafter, people started Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Their addressing him as ‘Kevali’, ‘Jina’ and teachings showed the way to overcome the ‘Mahavira’. His followers came to be disparity in the society resulted from the known as ‘Jaina’. Vardhamana Mahavira varna and caste system. travelled and preached continuously for 30 Both, the Jaina and the Budhhist years after the attainment of absolute schools of thought are considered as the knowledge. ‘nastik’ schools. Both refuse to accept the Vardhamana Mahavira addressed authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of Both the schools had followers in large common people. He preached about good numbers from all strata of the society. behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to 6.7 New Religious Trends the five vows). He put absolute emphasis : The Jaina religion has a on the three principles of ‘Samyk Darshana’, tradition going back to very ancient times. ‘Samyk Dnyana’ and ‘Samyak Charitra’. According to the tradition of Jain religion, These three principles are known as the Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the ‘Triratna’ of the Jaina religion. They are last ‘tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual the primary guiding principles for a person teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd aspiring for the attainment of absolute tirthankara. He gave four vows of non- knowledge. Vardhamana Mahavira preached violence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non- that all beings, animate and inanimate, stealing (Asteya) and non-possesion possess consciousness, to a varying degree. (Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana If hurt, each of them experiences pain. Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy The core principle of Vardhamana (Brahmacharya) to it. These five vows are Mahavira’s philosophy is ‘pluralism’ known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. (Anekantavada) or ‘many sidedness’ of the truth. According to it the truth has multiple facets. Mahavira founded the Jaina Sangha. Emperor Chandragupata Maurya was a contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth principal Acharya of the Jaina Sangha. According to the Jaina tradition Chandragupta Maurya had embraced Jaina religion. Buddhism : Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries. Gautama Buddha was born in 563 B.C.E., in Vardhamana Mahavira Lumbini (Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s

45 name was Shuddhodana. He was a member (1) There is Sorrow (Dukkha) of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s everywhere in the world. (2) The root cause mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from of sorrow is Greed (Trishna). (3) To the Koliya clan. Gautama Budhha’s wife conquer this greed is the way to cut the was Yashodhara. sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha). Gautama Buddha left home at the age (4) The way to stop sorrow from emerging, of 29, in search of the truth. This event is is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga). known in the Buddhist tradition as Gautama Buddha explained the eightfold ‘Mahabhinishkramana’. Thereafter, Gautama path by including: Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge (1) Samyak Drishti (To understand and through various means, such as seeking accept that nothing happens against the guidance from various gurus and extreme rules of the nature) austerities. After realising that nothing of it (2) Samyak Sankalp (Right determination) was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya, (3) Samyak Vacha (Right speech) under a pippal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the (4) Samyak Karmanta (Right behaviour) banks of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here (5) Samyak Aajiva (Livelihood by right he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. means) After that he was known as ‘Buddha’, ‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyamuni’. After (6) Samyak Vyayam (Conscious avoidance the enlightenment he delivered his first of offensive things) sermon in the deer-park at Ishipattana, near (7) Samyak Smriti (Watchfulness and Saranath. This event is known as memory of right things) ‘Dhammachakkapabattan’. For the next 45 (8) Samyak Samadhi (Establishing the years Gautama Buddha travelled continuously mind firmly in equanimity; a state to preach dhamma to people. He taught in beyond pleasure and sorrow) Pali, a language of common people. The eightfold path is also known as ‘Madhyama Pratipada’. Gautama Buddha founded the ‘Bhikkhu Sangha’. The concept of ‘Surrendering to Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha is very important. This concept is known as ‘Trisaran’. The three vows, namely, ‘Buddham saranam gachchhami’, ‘Dhammam saranam gachchhami’ and ‘Sangham saranam gachchhami’ are essential in the Buddhist religion. The 6th century B.C.E. saw transition in all the fields of life, in ancient India. The Gautama Buddha power conflict among the mahajanapadas In his sermons, Gautama Buddha started in this century. It continued among addressed the fundamental question of the four mahajanapadas of Kashi, Kosala, th ‘sorrow’ in human life. The root cause of Avanti and Magadha. By the 4 century human sorrow and the way to overcome it B.C.E. the kingdom of Magadha grew were two main issues addressed by Gautama powerful and the independent existence of Buddha. the other mahajanapadas came to an end. We will study the history of the rise of Gautama Buddha preached four Magadha in the eighth lesson. ‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths).

46 You would like to know : An Ashokan pillar inscription was discovered at the site of Rummindei in Nepal. The inscription announces, “The king ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’ visited this place after his coronation and he prayed here. He declares that Buddha Shakyamuni was born here. To commemorate the fact he erected a stone pillar at this place. He did this with the intention of making this place venerable in people’s mind. He exempted the village of Lumbini from paying the taxes in order to enhance its prosperity.”

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.3 Complete the concept map given below. complete the sentence. Jaina Religion (1) Ashmaka is the name in language. 24th Tirthankara (a) Pali (b) Sanskrit (c) Ardhamagadhi (d) Prakrit (2) The capital of Kashi mahajanapada Parshwanath Vardhamana Mahavir was . (a) Gorakhpur (b) Chandanagar (c) Rajagriha (d) Varanasi (3) Gautama Buddha was born in . Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons. (a) Kushinagara (b) Sarnath (1) Rise of mahajanapadas came into (c) Lumbini (d) Pataliputra being. (4) The river was the natural (2) The process of Second urbanisation boundary between Uttara Panchala began in ancient India. and Dakshina Panchala. (3) Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama (a) Yamuna (b) Bhagirathi Buddha attracted a large number of (c) Ganga (d) Niranjana followers. (B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.5 Explain the following cocepts. the correct ones. (1) Nastik Darshan (1) Kosala – Shravasti (2) The eightfold path preached by (2) Anga – Champa Gautama Buddha (3) Matsya – Mathura (4) Gandhara – Taxila Q.6 Describe the administrative system of the mahajanapadas with the help of Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out. following points. (1) Buddha, Tathagata, Shakyamuni, (a) Terms showing types of states Vardhamana Mahavira (b) King’s installation (B) Choose the correct reason and (c) Authority of the king complete the sentence. (d) Decision-making Gautama Buddha travelled Activity continuously for 45 years.... (1) Collect and compile the information (a) in the search of a Guru about Jain Tirthankaras. (b) to practice austerities (2) Collect information about Jataka (c) to preach dhamma stories. Select any of the Jataka (d) to attain enlightenment stories and present it as stage play. 

47 7. India and Iran (Persia)

same name, ‘Pars’. Greeks knew the city by 7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire 7.2 Conflict between the Iranian was known as ‘Persian empire’ because it (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece originated in the Pars region. 7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and India Emperor Cyrus II had begun to build a 7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of new capital at ‘Pasargade’. However, it did the Iranian Contact not get completed in his lifetime. His son, 7.5 Taxila Cambyses II succeeded him. He moved back 7.6 Advent of Alexander to Susa and re-established his capital there. Cambyses II had conquered Egypt. Daryush I, who succeeded Cambyses II 7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran reinforced the fortification walls of Susa. He Excavated evidence has sufficiently also built a massive palace and a hypostyle proved that the trade and cultural relations (many columned) hall known as ‘Apadana’. between the Indian subcontinent and Iran He also built the city of ‘Persepolis’ in the have continued since the Harappan times. style similar to Susa. He built a palace and The empire of Elam, contemporary to the apadana in Persepolis also. Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’. Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’. Many dynasties ruled Iran at later dates but all of Reconstructed them maintained their capital at ‘Susa’. The picture of archaeological evidence found at Susa has ‘Apadana’ at Susa confirmed the trade and cultural relations between Iran and the Harappan civilisation.

Visit the following website to see the map of the Iranian empire:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/ Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.pnghttps://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Persian_Empire,_490_BC.png

The Iranian empire was established by Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the tribe of ‘Pars’. This tribe dwelt in the Geographically Iran is the region, which mountainous region in the northwest of Iran forms a link between the east and west of and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was Asia. Naturally Iran held an important known by the tribe’s name, ‘Pars’. Even the position in the trade and also in the cultural main city of the region was known by the exchange between East Asia and West Asia.

48 the kingdoms in West Asia and then the city By the Way : ‘Ariana’ is another states in Greece. Then also they continued to name of Iran. Greek historians mention have intermittent battles. The rising of the it as ‘Ariane’. ‘Ariana’ is the Latin Ionian Greeks against the Achaemenid rule variation of the Greek name ‘Ariane’. is supposed to be significant. The trade that was conducted from Asia Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state and the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia and to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around th Egypt expanded to Greece and Rome. The the mid of the 6 century B.C.E. As a result, ancient routes used by caravans of merchants the Ionian Greek city states under the Lydian were provided with safety and security by rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid the Persian emperors. They rebuilt some of empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to the routes. Cyrus II and Daryush I developed Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the the route beginning from Susa and reaching Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’. the Mediterranean Sea. This route is known During the reign of Daryush I all as the ‘Royal Road’. Some of the branches Ionian city states got together and rebelled of the Royal Road linked the Indian against the Achaemenid rule. The rebellion subcontinent and Egypt. Alexander started was subdued completely after a struggle of from Macedonia on his expedition to India. five years by the Achaemenid army. He used the same route to reach India. The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion are important for understanding the By the way : (1) To see, how the interrelationship between Greece and Persia name Alexander was changed to in the ensuing period. The Ionian Greeks had ‘Sikander’ in Indian languages, is a received help from the states of ‘Athens’ and matter of linguistic analysis. Alexander ‘Eretria’ in Greece. Hence, Daryush I attacked is a common version of the Greek Athens. At this time the battle between name ‘Alexandros’. The meaning of Daryush I and Athens was fought on the ‘Alexin’ is ‘to protect’. ‘Andros’ means grounds of Marathon near Athens. Therefore, ‘man’. Thus, the name ‘Alexander’ it is known as the ‘Battle of Marathon’. means ‘the protector’. ‘Iskander’, Daryush I was defeated in this battle. ‘Skander’ are the Persian variations of Xerexes, the successor of Daryush I, Alexander. Iskadnser or Skander turned tried once again to invade Greece. However, into ‘Sikandar’. he was also defeated. Thereafter the conflict (2) The inscriptions of the emperor, between the Achaemenids and the Greeks Daryush I at Susa, Pasargade, continued over a prolonged time. Ultimately, Persepolis and Behistun have been Athens and the confederacy of other Greek enlisted as the ‘World Cultural Heritage’. city states declared a war for independence against the Achaemenid rule in Greece. Neither of the two had a conclusive victory. 7.2 Conflict between the Iranian In 449 B.C.E. a treaty was signed between (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece the Greek confederacy and the Achaemenids. Greek historians have recorded the As the effect of this prolonged conflict frequent battles between the Achaemenid the Achaemenid rule grew weak. This was empire and the city states in Greece. Among bound to reflect in the political and financial them the records of Herodotus are important. spheres. An impact of this conflict was to The Achaemenid emperors first conquered

49 manifest in the way of the invasion of Persia by Alexander III, the king of Macedonia, By the way : The Greek historian who was later regarded as the ‘Conqueror of Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.E., in the World’. Halicarnassus, a Greek city state. He began to write with the intention of Arrian was a Greek historian of the tracing the history and causes of the 1st century C.E. He wrote a book called battles between Greek city states and ‘Anabasis* of Alexander’. He has referred to during 500-449 the correspondence between Daryush III, the B.C.E. The book he wrote was named last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander. as ‘Historia’ (The Histories). He, at Daryush had written to Alexander about the the outset of the book says, “Herodotus release of his mother, wife and children. of Halicarnassus here displays his Alexander responded by reminding Daryush inquiry, so that human achievements of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the may not become forgotten in time, and earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors. great and marvellous deeds – some Alexander wrote that he had arrived in displayed by Greeks, some by Russia by crossing the ocean, with the barbarians – may not be without their intention of punishing the aggressive Persians. glory.” Next, he accused Daryush of provocating the Herodotus was the first historian Greeks against him and he reminded Daryush who collected information seeking that he was a defeated king. So Daryush was answers to a particular question, and further snubbed that he should not behave as then to put it in a chronological order. an equal to Alexander. While doing this he did not bring in notions like god, human destiny, etc. * ‘अअअअअअअअअ’Anabasis* means अअअअअअto spur into action. Later putting historical events in chronological sequence became an This correspondence is indicative of essential theme of history writing. This two things: theme proved to be fundamental in the (1) The Greeks felt that their self-esteem development of history writing as an was challenged. independent discipline. Therefore, Herodotus is said to be the father of (2) The Greeks now felt confident about historiography. their strength to conquer the Persians. It may be said that these two factors kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II inspired Alexander’s expedition. had conquered the region of the Kabul basin 7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid India empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had The Achaemenid emperors established formed its eastern boundary. Alexander the Persian empire by conquering smaller crushed the Achaemenid empire and the kingdoms in the northeast region of the region of Punjab which was the part of Indian subcontinent and expanded their Achaemenid empire. boundary up to Punjab. It was the same The revenue received by the Achaemenid period when the Magadha empire was on the empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the rise in India. Indian subcontinent was more than any other It becomes apparent from the inscriptions provinces. According to Herodotus, this of the Achaemenid emperors and the records revenue amounted to 360 talents* of gold

50 dust**. Accepting the possibility of and proceeded further by sailing around the exaggeration in this description, it clearly coast of the Arabian Sea and then entering indicates that the revenue collected from the the Red Sea. He ended his journey at ‘Suez’, Indian states formed a major share of the situated in the delta region of the Nile. It Achaemenid treasury. took two and half years for him to complete this journey. *Talent used to be a unit of weight and The logbook of the journey of Scylax is according to the standard, set in various ancient countries it varies from 20 to 40 kilograms per known as ‘Periplus of Scylax’. The original talent. periplus is lost but we get to know about its ** Gold dust (placer gold) is collected from contents from the writings of the Greek the sands on the river banks. historians. This periplus was the first source of information of the Indian subcontinent to 7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of the western world, especially to the Greeks. the Iranian Contact Very soon after the completion of the The Persian supremacy prevailed in the expedition by Scylax, Daryush I conquered Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. the region in the lower reach of the Sindhu. However, it had ended much before the Scylax had reported an already existing advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact canal that linked the Nile and the Red Sea. left by the Persian contact in the period of It was dug by an Egyptian Pharoh. Daryush two centuries, one thing can be noticed I revived that canal by digging it again. It prominently. It is about the administrative opened a new water way for the transport system set by the Persian rulers. Every between Persia and the Indian subcontinent. conquered region was annexed to their This newly available route facilitated the territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor) trade between Achaemenid provinces in the was appointed as its chief administrator. This north-western region of the Indian subcontinent method was followed by Alexander and later and the regions of Sindh-Punjab. The ivory by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers and the teak wood coming from India had as well. great demand in the Persian markets. The The Aramaic script came into use in inscription of Daryush I at Susa records the the north-eastern regions of the Indian use of Indian ivory and teakwood for building subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid the palace. rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script Herodotus has described the Indian evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts soldiers in the Achaemenid army. According in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic to it, Xerexes’ army had soldiers from script. The method of installing royal edicts Gandhara, Sindh and Punjab, when he at vantage points seems to be borrowed from invaded Greece in 480 B.C.E. The soldiers the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions. from Gandhara were equipped with bows Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had made of cane and spears with short shafts. sent many explorers to gather information They also had horses and chariots drawn by about the course of the river Sindhu and the horses. The Indian soldiers from Sindh and Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of Punjab used cotton clothes and used bows Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who and arrows made of cane. They were expert was well- known. He was the first Ionian archers. When Xerexes retreated from Greece, Greek who stepped on the Indian land. it was decided to keep a regiment posted Scylax began his exploration from the Sindhu

51 there. That regiment had Indian soldiers. Susa and Persepolis. For that purpose, In the times before Cyrus II, the founder emperor Cyrus got Greek architects and of Achaemenid empire, there was no coinage sculptors from the Greek settlements in Asia in use in Persia. The barter system prevailed minor under his rule. to a large extent. Sometimes silver ingots of particular weight were used for exchanging commodities. Cyrus II had conquered the city state of Lydia, where use of coins was already in practice. Those coins were known as ‘stater’. Cyrus issued coins similar to Lydian coins. Daryush I issued coins with his own portrait on it. The Gold coins issued by him were known as Columns at Persepolis ‘Darik’ and silver coins Persepolis was razed completely by Persian ‘Siglos’ were known as Alexander after conquering Persia. It was the ‘Siglos’. A portrait of Daryush I, holding a end of the Persian Empire. The architects, bow and arrow can be seen on these coins. sculptors and other artisans lost the royal One ‘Darik’ was equivalent to 12 ‘Sigloi’* patronage. They had to move out in search in value. of work. They migrated to India. They received royal patronage in the court of emperor Ashoka. Their style is reflected in * ‘अअअअअअअअअ’ ‘Sigloi’ is the plural अअअअअअ of ‘Siglos’. the stone pillars erected by empror Ashoka. Thus, the sculptural art in ancient India has Along with the Achaemenid coins, coins its roots in the Persian; and acordingly in the from Greek satrapies also remained in Greek sculptural style. circulation in Persia. Some satraps issued 7.5 Taxila their own coins imitating Greek coins. These Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka coins were cast in moulds. The obverse side as the king of ‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the of a coin usually carried the portrait of a capital of King Takshaka. The archaeological king and the reverse side had a symbol evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary punched on it. past. It was the capital of Gandhara It is possible that the ancient Indian mahajanapada. punch marked coins were influenced by this The archaeological remains of this city technique of punching. are strewn over a large area that comprises In the times that preceded emperor 18 archaeological sites. They are enlisted as Cyrus’ reign, the practice of building huge the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on public monuments did not exist in Persia. the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away Hence, there was no existing Persian from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. architectural style to follow while creating Evidence of prehistoric people using the magnificent palaces and sculptures in microliths have been found at Taxila and in

52 from various regions of the Indian subcontinent By the way : The inscription of were attracted to Taxila because of the fame Daryush I mention the Greeks as ‘Yauna’. of the acharyas. Thus, Taxila had become a The roots of this word is in the Greek great centre of education. Thereby it had word, ‘Ionia’ The terms such as ‘Yona’ assumed the magnitude of a natural university. (Prakrit) and ‘Yavana’ (Sanskrit) However, the king and his administration at mentioned in Indian literature originally mean ‘the resident of Ionia’. These terms Taxila did not interfere in the decisions of occur in Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puran an individual acharya as to the nature of his texts and other literature. method of teaching, the subjects to be taught by him or the nature of the syllabi. The Let us see one more example of changes happening in the meaning and duration of a course was dependent on form of the word through the cultural individual student’s intellectual capacity to contacts and borrowing of words from learn. There was no formal system of other languages. Ancient Persian language examinations. Rather success in examination was the official language of the was not perceived as the test of real Achaemenid empire. It is used in the knowledge. It was the acharya who decided inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors. the level of maturity of his students. These inscriptions mention the people in Among the subjects taught at Taxila the Indian subcontinent as ‘Hidush’ and included, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, ‘Hridush’. In the Ionian Greek language ancillary branches of the Vedas (Vedangas), the consonant ‘h’ is not pronounced when Ancient Traditions and Ethics, Philosophy, it occurs at the beginning of a word. Mathematics, Music, Medicine, Puran Texts, Hence, Scylax the Ionian Greek explorer, History, Weaponry, Poetry, etc. perhaps recorded it as ‘Indos’ and its plural as ‘Indoi’. Herodotus used these Acharya Chanakya is believed to have words as synonymous to Hidush and taken Chandragupta Maurya to Taxila for Hridush. The roots of the word ‘India’ education when he was young. Chanakya is in this Greek usage. himself hailed from Taxila. After becoming the emperor of Magadha, Chadragupta established a regional capital at Taxila. some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic During the reign of Ashoka Maurya village at Taxila was settled around 3500 Taxila became an important centre of learning B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site of Buddhist tradition. Taxila did not lose its called ‘Sarai-Khola’. importance even when the land suffered from Taxila was ruled by King Ambhi at the the invasions of Greeks, Shakas and time of Alexander’s advent. He welcomed Kushanas. However, in the 5th century C.E. Alexander and presented gifts to him. The the glory of Taxila gradually waned under Greek historians accompanying Alexander the pressure of Huna invasions. described Taxila as a “city full of hustle 7.6 Advent of Alexander bustle of people, prosperous and the one that was under a well-established administration.” Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms Some information about Taxila can be from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He, gathered from the Buddhist literature and however, could not establish his rule there from the writings of the Greek historians. for a long time. The information of his There were several learned individuals advent primarily comes from the Greek (Acharyas) staying in Taxila. Many students

53 historians like Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, greatly influenced by his valour. The Greeks Plutarch and Justin. were unfamiliar to the use of elephants in At the time of Alexander’s advent the warfare. To penetrate the file of elephants Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and proved to be a great challenge for them. The Afghanistan had weakened and a number of Greek historians have unanimously praised small kingdoms had come into existence. The the skill of Porus in warfare and also his political strife stopped them from uniting to courage. resist Alexander’s invasion. After the confrontation with Porus, Alexander became the king of Macedonia Alexander reached Nysa, a Greek settlement. in 334 B.C.E. He defeated emperor Daryush People of Nysa resisted Alexander in the III in 331 B.C.E. Thereafter he marched up beginning but later they welcomed him. to ‘Shistan’ province of Iran and from there Thereafter, Alexander proceeded in the he turned toward Kabul. After conquering the direction of Chenab and Ravi. He conquered region around Kabul, he reached the foothills the kingdoms on the way and reached the of Hindukush mountains. Then he camped at banks of Beas. By that time Alexander’s a place called Nicaea, situated on Uttarapatha. soldiers had lost spirit and they refused to Ambhi welcomed Alexander and sought march forward. Alexander was forced to friendship with him. Another king whose return. name was Sisikottas (Shashigupta) surrendered Before setting on the return journey to Alexander. However, not all Indian kings Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab surrendered to Alexander so easily. Many to Porus and those in Sindh to Ambhi. He fought with Alexander with great valour. handed over the kingdom of Kashmir to Alexander conquered almost all kingdoms in Abhisara, the king of Varanavati. On his Kabul, Sindh and Punjab. way back he defeated Shibis and Mallas, etc. On the banks of Jhelum Alexander and In rest of the regions he appointed Greek King Porus confronted each other and there satraps. In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at was a fierce battle between them. Porus was Babylon, while he was on his way back to defeated but Alexander and his army was Greece.

For Additional Information : The trees on both sides of the road, sarais for highway linking the regions from Bihar to overnight stay, etc. He erected pillar edicts Afghanistan is known as ‘Grand Trunk at vantange points on this highway. Road’ in modern days. It was in use as At a later period Shershah Sur and a trade route even during the times of Emperor rebuilt this highway. In the Gautama Buddha. It was known as British period a new metalled road running ‘Uttarapatha’ in those days. Its starting parallel to Grand Trunk Road was built point was at the port city of ‘Tamralipti’ from Kolkata to Peshawar. This road is in Bengal; known as Tamluk today. It still in use. ended at Taxila. Emperor Chandragupta In modern times the highway starts Maurya established this highway in a well from Bangla Desh and from Hawrah it planned way. It was about 3200 kilometres proceeds to West Bengal, thereafter it goes in length. to Delhi and to Amritsar, from there to Emperor Ashoka provided many Lahore and Peshawar and in the end to essential amenities for the merchants and Kabul. travellers on this highway, such as planting

54 Alexander’s invasion of India did not his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan. have far reaching impact on the political It was the beginning of a new era in the scenario of India. In a very short period after Indian history. his death Chandragupta Maurya established

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.3 Write in correct chronological order. complete the sentence. (1) There was a fierce battle between (1) The Greek historian is said Alexander and Porus. to be the father of modern (2) Alexander appointed satrapies before historiography. starting on the return journey. (a) Herodotus (b) Alexander (3) Alexander died at Babylon in 325 (c) Scylax (d) Daryush B.C.E. (2) Taxila was ruled by King (4) Alexander conquered Kabul and at the time of Alexander’s advent. Sindh. (a) Chandragupta (b) Ambhi Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons. (c) Porus (d) Shashigupta (1) Alexander invaded Persia. (3) The Ashoka edicts are written in (2) Alexanders’ invasion of India did not script. have for reaching impact on the (a) Sinhala (b) Aramaic political scenario of India. (c) Kharoshthi (d) Modi Q.5 State your opinion. (B) Find the incorrect pair and write (1) Herodotus is said to be the father of the correct ones. modern history writing. (1) Persopolis - City built by Daryush I (2) Ancient Taxila was the centre of (2) Halicarnassus - Herodotus was born knowledge and education. here Q.6 Answer the following questions in detail. (3) Taxila - Centre of knowledge and (1) Describe the political and cultural education effects of Achemenid rule on India. (4) Nysa - Persian settlement (2) Describe Alexander’s invasion of (C) Write the names - India. (1) Last emperor of Achaemenid empire- Activity (2) Name of the coins issued by Daryush Collect additional information about the I - palace at Persepolis and Apadana at Susa Q.2 Find the odd man out. with the help of internet. Daryush I, Xerexes, Cyrus II, Alexander 

55 8. India during Mauryan period

8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire You would like to know : The 8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire concept of ‘Chakravarti’ occurs in the 8.3 Emperor Ashoka literature on ancient Indian polity. The 8.4 Administrative system, trade, sovereign ruler whose chariot could roll literature, art and architecture, in all four directions without any social life obstruction, was known as Chakravarti. It was expected that his rule should be In lesson six, we studied the history of ethical and for the welfare of the State. During his tenure the wheel of ‘Ruta’ the sixteen mahajanapadas that existed in remains intact. His rule is on an extended India. Among these mahajanapadas, the territory. Chandragupta Maurya was the power of Magadha became strong during the first Chakravarti Emperor. struggle of the four mahajanapadas namely, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti and Magadha and the dynasty ruled over Magadha. empire of Magadha came to a rise. The is mentioned in During this period, the first Indian empire the Mahabharata. Bimbisara was the first emerged. The kingdom of Magadha acquired well-known king. His father Mahapadma the form of an Empire. The administrative built the fort at Girivraja and established the system of this empire was well established first capital of Magadha. After ascending the and its work was carried out through various throne, Bimbisara started building the departments. Several factors are essential for foundation of Magadha Empire. He attacked the emergence of an empire. For example, the neighbouring kingdom of Anga and dominance over an expanded region, an conquered it. This victory increased the power administrative system having the revenue of Magadha. Bimbisara established gathered in the form of taxes, king is the matrimonial relations with many royal houses sovereign ruler of the state and army actively such as Kosala, Lichchhavi, Videh, Madra to enforces king’s authority. support his expansionist policy. At the foot The king’s position was strengthened of the fort of Girivraja, he established the through ritual performances. The power and new capital of Rajgriha. related rights are concentrated in the hands After killing Bimbisara, his son of the ruling family. Ajatashatru became the king. He adopted the 8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire expansionist policy of his father. He expanded Magadha was an important kingdom the Magadha kingdom up to the foot of among the mahajanapadas that existed in Vindhya ranges. Ajatashatru built a small ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial fort on the bank of Ganga at Pataligrama. rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, It became a centre of trade of local availability of commercial markets etc. were commodities. In the later period, Pataligrama the reasons for the rise of Magadha as came to be known as Pataliputra. It became empire. the capital of the Mauryan Empire. In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka Later the people deposed Ajatashatru

56 and selected his minister Shishunaga as the ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his king. The Shishunaga dynasty ruled between period, the state treasury was enormously 430 B.C.E. to 364 B.C.E. and then rich. His military was also very huge. It Mahapadmananda usurped the throne and consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, established the Nanda dynasty. 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots. During the period of Nandas, another By the way : Pataliputra was an factor that helped in strengthening the central important city in ancient India. The city power was the importance given to enhance of Pataliputra was the capital of ruling the revenue collection. Along with the dynasties like Shishunaga, Nanda, expansion of the empire came the economic Maurya, Gupta and Pala. ‘Patali’ is a prosperity of the State. The state treasury species of rice grown in this region. was always full. The Nandas built canals Hence, the city might have acquired the and made arrangement of irrigation facilities. name. In his book Indica, Megasthenes These facilities led to the development of has mentioned the city of Pataliputra as agriculture and trade. In 321 B.C.E. Palibothara. Chandragupta Maurya attacked Pataliputra and brought an end to the Nanda rule. Political stability as well as other factors Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was were responsible in the strengthening of the first well organised and strongly controlled Magadha as an empire. Magadha had control empire in the history of India. Religious texts over all the prominent regions in the Ganga and other literature, inscriptions, coins, Valley. By conquering the kingdom of Anga, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us the regions of the east coast came under their to clearly understand the political, social, control and Magadha succeeded in increasing economic, and religious conditions of this the trade with the distant regions. Magadha period. was blessed with natural resources. Its land The Mauryan empire had spread on a was fertile, especially for rice cultivation. large region of the Indian sub continent and There was rise in revenue due to the was controlled by a central power. The expansion of the kingdom. The abundance of Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of sources for timber, ivory, iron and copper the political system. gave a momentum to the local industries. Chandragupta Maurya defeated the The political ambitions of the rulers, combined Nandas and established the Mauryan dynasty. with wealth and prospering trade were the In the text of Mahavamsa, Chandragupta is reasons for the development of Magadha rule referred as ‘the emperor of Jambudvipa i.e. and establishment of a huge empire. emperor of Bharatvarsh’. The Mauryas 8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire created a huge empire by conquering the big Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is and small states in northwest, north and mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan southern regions. The war between empire established by Ajatashatru was further Chandragupta and the Greek king Seleucus expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According was very important. As a consequence, the to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread boundaries of Mauryan Empire extended to upto in the South, whereas some the Hindukush in the northwest. The Mauryan scholars think that it was extended upto Empire extended from Hindukush to the Bay Mysore. On this basis it can be said that of Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the Mahapadma Nanda was the first great west, as well as Himalayas in the north to emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last the Krishna river in the south. 57 Chandragupta Maurya died around 298 himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called B.C.E. His son Bindusara became the king. himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved During his tenure he sent his son Ashoka to of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and subdue the revolt in Taxila. During the period pillar inscriptions. of Bindusara the empire established by During the early period of his rule, Chandragupta Maurya remained intact. Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of Bindusara died in 273 B.C.E. Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom. He 8.3 Emperor Ashoka attacked Kalinga and conquered it. Ashoka’s Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan victory at Kalinga proved to be a turning empire after the death of Bindusara. He got point in history as well as in the life of

58 For Additional Information : The You would like to know : During rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions of the period of 321 B.C.E. to 181 B.C.E., Ashoka: the expansion of Mauryan empire took The rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions place in Maharashtra. The Mauryas must of Ashoka are found at many places in have entered Sopara from Gujarat. Sopara the regions of Afghanistan, Nepal and is a well-known port in north konkan. India. In 1750 C.E. Padre Tieffenthaler Sopara and Chaul (Champavati) were rediscovered Meerut pillar inscription of prosperous trade centers and learning Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions are centers of Buddhism. Bhagvanlal Indraji inscribed in Brahmi script. In 1837 C.E. excavated the Stupa at Sopara which is James Princep deciphered the Brahmi known as ‘Baruda Rajacha kot’. In this script on the inscriptions. The inscriptions excavation the fragments of rock edict of of Ashoka are very important sources of Ashoka were found. It is the 8th rock the history of his rule. The boundaries of edict among the 14 edicts of Ashoka. Maurya Empire can be ensured on the Some of its remains are kept in the basis of these inscriptions. The description museum of Asiatic Society in Mumbai. of Ashoka’s efforts for the spread of The 9th rock edict was found in the Buddhism can be obtained from these Bhuigaon village. Its remains are kept in inscriptions. Even though Ashoka the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu embraced Buddhism but he never tried to Sangrahalaya in Mumbai. forcibly impose it on his subjects. The written evidence of the spread of Buddhism and Indian culture in distant countries through the Buddhist monks sent by Ashoka occurs in these inscriptions. It included Emperor Ashoka’s son Mahendra (Mahinda) and daughter Sanghamitra (Sanghamitta). Stupa of Nalasopara

drinks, guiding principles regarding code of Ashoka. There was a great human loss conduct etc. Ashoka’s policy of ‘Dhamma’ in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The meant virtuous conduct based on moral destruction caused due to the Kalinga war values. He sent monks to various countries brought about a great change in the mind of for the spread of Buddhism. Ashoka. His mind got diverted towards the The first Buddhist council was held at non- violent, peaceful Buddhist religion. The Rajgriha after the mahaparnibban of Gautama desire of digvijaya was replaced by Buddha. King Kalashoka organised the Dharmavijay (Dhammavijay). His career second council at Vaishali. Ashoka organized proved to be important because of the the third Buddhist council at the capital religious ideals propagated by him and the Pataliputra. creation of a mechanism to until it in people’s The kings who succeeded Ashoka were life. not efficient. This led to the decline of the For the implementation of Mauryan empire. Brihadratha was the last dhammavijay, Ashoka introduced some new king of the Mauryan dynasty. He was killed policies, for example, appointment of by his General Pushyamitra who then came ‘Dharmamahamatras’, ban on intoxicating to power.

59 Important information : In the rock Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260 B.C.E. edicts of Ashoka there are references about -246 B.C.E.), Ptolemy II Philadelphus of the contemporary kings from the western Egypt (285 B.C.E. - 247 B.C.E.), Antigonus world. The identification of Greek king Gonatus of Macedonia (276 B.C.E. -239 Antiouchus and the four greek kings beyond B.C.E.), Magas of Cyrene and Alexander the kingdom of Antiouchus namely, of Epirus. This paragraph is an important Turmaya, Amtekina, Maga and link in the process of connecting the Alikasundara is done through a paragraph chronological sequence of ancient Indian from one of the inscriptions. That is history.

8.4 Administrative system, trade, the head to the lowermost office of the literature, art and architecture, social life Gramini. At the local level the people were Administrative system given autonomous rights to a great extent in The nature of administrative system the internal matters. In this way the during the Mauryan period is clearly administration of Mauryan kingdom was understood with the help of Kautilya’s decentralised. The most important feature of Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the Mauryan administration was the effort made inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya for the overall material and moral development was a valiant king and an efficient of the people. The Mauryan administration is administrator. He set up a defined mechanism appreciated due to various factors such as of state administration, which suited the keeping the civil and military areas separate economic conditions and the needs of the from each other, creating an independent Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors judicial system, implementing a specific created a unified empire. At the same time, salary system to the officers, control over the they devised a decentralised administrative trade in the kingdom etc. system for efficient functioning of the vast Trade empire. In the administrative system of the There was an increase in revenue due to empire, there was a Mantri Parishad (council well organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a of ministers) made up of wise, experienced, tax to be given in the scale of the land under virtuous and selfless ministers who gave cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax advice to the king. There was a committee on production. Agricultural land and the tax of some of these ministers, who were known acquired from the agricultural production was as ‘Mantrana’ to look after the day to day the basic foundation of the administrative affairs of the state. Mauryas had created a system. Industries gained momentum during stable framework of administration by this period. Cloth production was the most creating various departments of administration important industry. Apart from that metallurgy, and appointing the experienced and expert carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and officers over it. These officers were known many such professions began. The prosperous as Amatya. Arthashastra mentions total 18 agriculture and flourishing industries led to a Amatyas such as Pradhan, Samaharta flourishing internal and foreign trade. Internal (revenue), Sannidhata (finance), Senapati, trade was carried through land route and Yuvraj etc. Kautilya has given information water ways. Many royal ways were built on about 30 administrative departments. The the trade routes during this period. Many hierarchical order of the officers in the roads such as Pataliputra to Takshashila, Mauryan empire started from the Samrat at Pataliputa to Kashi-Ujjaini, Pataliputra to

60 During the Mauryan period, along with The increasing use of iron and also the Sanskrit literature, many texts were written different types of iron implements, painted in Prakrit language. Especially the orders of pottery and its distribution upto southern Ashoka are inscribed on the rocks and pillars parts of India indicates expansion of trade. in Prakrit language. The famous texts of Bharuch, Roruk (Rodi), Sopara, Tamralipti Buddhist literature, Tipitaka, were edited and many such ports on the coastal region during this period. Among the texts of of India were famous for trade purpose. Tipitakas, Abhidhammapitaka was composed Exports were carried out on a large scale after the third Buddhist council. from India to countries like Greece, Rome, This period was very rich from the point Egypt, Syria, Bactria, Sri Lanka etc. The of view of Jain literature. The texts like commodities such as cotton and silk cloth, ‘Dashavaikalika’, ‘Upasakadashanga’, linen, jari clothes, spices, diamonds, ivory, ‘Acharanga Sutra’, ‘Bhagvati Sutra’ etc. were perfumes etc. were exported from India to composed during this period. these countries. Glass articles, dyes etc. were Art and architecture imported. The government levied taxes on the After the establishment of Mauryan rule, production of goods as well as on its import there was happiness, peace, prosperity and and export. Vartani (transport tax) and shulk good governance. Mauryan art is the (octroi) are found to be mentioned in the beginning of ancient Indian architecture and contemporary sources. In return the the sculptural art. government took up responsibility of security It appears that, during the Mauryan of the goods. For the protection of the trading period, the artists had acquired the skill of community the government had appointed cutting and carving the stone. In both, the officers like Chorarajjuka and Seemaswami. skill of a specific expression of art and the Literature technique of mirror polish of the stone is Literature reflects the thought process of seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’. the people and the political, social, economic During this period stone statues of Yaksha and religious conditions. During the Mauryan and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues period, along with the literature in Sanskrit of Yakshi are beautiful language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi and finely carved. The literature in Prakrit language is also seen. famous Chauri bearer For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, of Didarganj is supposed literature was created in Prakrit language. to be one of such The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, statues. The Yaksha Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. statues in Parkham and The world famous work of Panini’s the female images at Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. Besnagar and Patna of Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in this period are exhibited Sanskrit literature. The thirteen dramas written in the Mathura museum. by him includes ‘Swapnavasavadattam’. The The pillars erected most important work of this period is by Emperor Ashoka and Kautilya’s Arthashastra. This text is divided the sculptures on them into 15 sections including total 180 topics. are excellent examples The topics from King to Ganikas and politics Chauri bearer of Mauryan sculpture. to war strategies are found to be discussed of Didarganj in Arthashastra.

61 There is the lion capital of the pillar at Social Life Rampurva and Lauria Nandangarh. The The remains found in the excavations Sankissa pillar has an elephant capital. At reflect the rich lifestyle of the people. Sarnath the pillar capital has four lions Megasthenes mentions the seven classes of carved on it. This sculpture of the four lions Indian society based on their profesion; is the ‘National emblem’ of India. Priest, Cultivators, Shephards and Hunters, The beginning of rock-cut caves is seen Traders and Labours, Soldiers, Spies and in the Mauryan architecture. The rock cut Government officials. The life of the people caves on Barabar and Nagarjuni hills are the was prosperous and happy. The class of first datable rock cut caves of India. entertainers is mentioned which includes actors, dancers, singers, musicians etc. Chariot Do You Know? and horse racing, wrestling as well as dance During this period the concept of and singing competition were the popular ‘Vishti’ is mentioned in context of craft means of entertainment. Gambling was also production. ‘Vishti’ was a tax paid by the in practice but the state had control over it. people in form of physical labour. Through The system of education during vedic vishti the artisans provided a stipulated period continued during the Mauryan period. amount of free labour to the state. The cities of Taxila, Kashi Ayodhya etc. became great centres of higher education and There was a huge palace of Chandragupta art during the Mauryan period. at Pataliputra. Megasthenes compares it with Female education began to be neglected the Palace of Susa, the during this period. But according to Kautilya’s capital of Iran. The high Arthashastra, it seems that during Mauryan brick fortification wall period women were given certain rights. was built for the protection Women had complete rights over the of the palace and inside Stridhana. The Government took care of the the palace there were orphan and disabled women. Many women many buildings. These spies were a part of the intelligence system. buildings were built of The Mauryan period has multiple stone. Wood was also dimensions and hence it has obtained a used in the buildings. One historical significance. After the death of of the unique contribution Ashoka, the centralised administration in the field of art are the continued to grow weak and the empire huge standing pillars Capital of an disintegrated into small kingdoms. In the erected during the period Ashokan Pillar Post-Mauryan period Shunga, Kanva and of Ashoka for the spread Satavahana rulers rebuilt their empires. Vedic of religion. We know them as Ashokan religion, varnashrama system, and vedic Pillars. These pillars are erected at thirty lifestyle once again gained importance. We places. They are erected at places related to are going to study about these dynasties in important events in the life of Gautama the next chapter. Buddha and on important royal paths. During Ashoka’s period, stupas were built on a large scale. It is said that during his rule, Ashoka built 84,000 stupas.

62 Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (a) Spread of Art complete the sentence. (b) Spread of religion (1) The first well-known king of the (c) Growth of trade Haryank dynasty is . (d) For recognition of his work (a) Chandragupta Maurya Q.3 Explain the following statements with (b) Bimbisara (c) Ajatashatru reasons. (d) Mahapadma (1) Ashoka’s victory at Kalinga proved (2) The Nanda dynasty was established to be a turning point in history as by . well as the life of Ashoka. (a) Dhanananda (b) Shishunaga (2) The war between Chandragupta and (c) Mahapadma Nanda the Greek king Seleucus was very (d) Emperor Ashoka important. (3) The great drama in Sankrit literature, (3) The Mauryan administration acquired Swapnavasavadatta, was written by a definite form. . Q.4 State your opinion. (a) Kautilya (b) Bharat (1) Chandragupta Maurya is the first (c) Kalidasa (d) Bhasa Chakravarti emperor in the history of (B) Find out the incorrect pair, correct India. it and rewrite. (2) The rock edicts of Ashoka are (1) Built the foundation of Magadha important sources of history. Empire – Bimbisara (3) Various trade guilds developed during (2) Brought an end to Nanda rule – the Mauryan period. Chandragupta Maurya Q.5 Observe the map on Page number 58 (3) Chinese traveler who visited India and answer the questions based on it. during the period of Chandragupta (1) Regions included in Ashoka’s Empire Maurya – Megasthenes (2) Locations of Ashoka’s rock and (4) Changed his mind due to the pillars edicts. destruction in Kalinga war – Emperor Ashoka Activity Q.2 Choose the correct reason and complete Collect information about the Stupas the sentence. during the period of Ashoka. Emperor Ashoka erected many pillars.  Reason .

63 9. Post Mauryan India

Heliodorus at Besnagar (Vidisha) indicates 9.1 Shunga Empire that there were some Greek followers of 9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire Vaishnavism. Literature in Sanskrit language 9.3 Administrative system, literature, was encouraged during the Shunga period. art and social life To review the changes in Sanskrit language, Patanjali wrote the ‘Mahabhashya’ based on Magadha was the first empire of India. Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. According to some A stable and systematic administration was scholars, there were many new additions set up during the Mauryan period. We studied made in the original text of Mahabharata this in the previous lesson. After Emperor during this period. The Manusmruti was Ashoka, due to the internal conflicts, this composed during this period. empire became weak. After Brihadratha, the Along with literature, the Shunga’s last Mauryan emperor, Pushyamitra Shunga contribution in the field of art is also came on the throne. important. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut, 9.1 Shunga Empire Garuda pillar at Besnagar are excellent The Shunga empire was spread from examples of art during this period. The Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in sculptural art in the Shunga period widened the west, as well as Himalayas in the North its horizons and depicted the life of common to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra people on a large scale. was the main capital, Pushyamitra established The last king of Shunga dynasty, a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Devbhuti, was not an efficient king. His Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He minister, Vasudeva, killed him and established strengthened his rule in the provinces of the . This incident is described Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc. Later he conquered in the Harshacharita by Banabhatta. the lost provinces of Magadhan empire upto 9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire: Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory established itself in the north whereas in the over Demetrius is mentioned in south the rose to power. ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by The disintegration of Mauryan empire created Kalidasa. a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new Try this out : Collect information powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the about the plays written by Kalidasa and earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra. make a note based on it. Initially the Satavahana rule came to a rise in , Pune, and later After establishing his rule over North spread in the vast region of Maharashtra, India and some parts of South India. Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in Pushyamitra twice performed the Ashwamedha Maharashtra, was the capital of the sacrifice to proclaim himself as a powerful Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the king. Pushyamitra revived the vedic sacrificial ‘Andhras’ or ‘Andhrabhrutyas’. According to system which had lost its significance during some scholars, these terms refer to the Mauryan period. The Garuda pillar of Satavahanas.

64 For the map of Satavahana empire, visit the became weak due to the constant struggle website given below: between Shakas and Satavahanas. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satvahana.svg 9.3 Administrative system, literature, Many Satavahana inscriptions are found art and social life in North Maharashtra. Simuka, the first Administrative System : Satavahana king, is mentioned in the The state under the Satavahanas was Naneghat inscription. Shri Satakarni, Hala, divided into small provinces and on every , Yajna Satakarni province civil and military officials were were among the important kings of the appointed to administer individual provinces Satavahana dynasty. over it. These included civil officials, such Before Gautamiputra Satakarni, some of as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military the Satavahaha kings were not capable. officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and Taking advantage of this situation, the Shaka ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest Satrapas established their rule in the western unit of administration. Grama was a source regions of India. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the of revenue and also for the recruitment of Satavahana king, conquered the Shakas. soldiers during warlike situations. Thus, Satavahana dynasty regained its strength Grama was an integral part of the central with this victory. machinery. Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered Agriculture was the main source of Central India and the entire regions of means of subsistence. Along with it many Dakshinapatha. He defeated the southern industries and trade flourished under the kingdoms of Avanti, Surashtra (Saurashtra) Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also and the Shaka kings in Maharashtra. Similarly emerged during this period. The trade and he established his dominance over the industries were controlled with the help of Republic states in Central India and Rajasthan. these shrenis. The shrenis also provided A hoard of coins is found at Jogaltembi in loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished . These coins belong to Shaka during the Satavahana period. Trade centres Kshatrapa King Nahapana on which like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik Gautamiputra restruck his own emblem. This (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed clearly indicates that Gautamiputra proved during the Satavahana rule. his strength by gaining victory over Nahapana. Tagar (Ter) and Pratishthan (Paithan) After Gautamiputra, Vashishthiputra are mentioned in the ‘Periplus of the Pulumavi and Yajnashree Satakarni were the Erythraean Sea’. According to it, “Among important kings. But after their rule, the market towns of Dakshinapatha, there are Satavahana rule began to decline. They two cities of special importance; Paethana

For Additional Information : The reign and achievements of Satavahana Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni are described in the Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri. Gautamiputra Satakarni is mentioned as ‘Shakapahlavyavannisudan’ i.e. the destroyer of Shakas, Pallavas and Greeks, ‘Satavahanakulayashahpratishthapankar’ i.e. the one who reinstalled the success of the Satavahana family, ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’ i.e. the one whose horses drank the water of the three seas. Such type of mentioning indicates that many kings in the southern region must have accepted feudatory status and ruled under the suzerainty of Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Satavahana kings used Matronomics, i.e. using the names of their mothers as prefix, for example, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi etc.

65 (Pratishthana or Paithan of today) at a Various artisons such as Kularika*, distance of about twenty day’s journey to the Tilpishaka**, Kolika*** are mentioned in the south of Barygaza (Bhadoch); beyond which inscriptions at Nashik and Junnar. Pliny about ten days to journey towards the east, mentions thirty fortified cities that existed in there is another great city, Tagar (Ter). Satavahana kingdom. The coins, found during Carnelion is transported in great quantity the excavations at the archaeological sites of from Paithan to Bhadoch. There are no these cities are indicators of the well permanent roads built for these purposes, but developed trade during this period. Sopara, only untreaded tracts. Cotton cloth, muslins Kalyan, Bhadoch were important trade centres and sack cloth (rough jute fabric) and other of this period. merchandise from coastal regions is * ‘अअअअअअअअअ’*Potter **Oil अअअअअअmiller *** ‘ अअअWeaver transported from Tagar to Barygaza.”

You would like to know : Naneghat for the convenience of travellers. There is a is a mountain pass on the ancient trade stone jar excavated for collection of toll in route in Maharashtra. This route connects the pass. Sopara and Kalyan were the most the ancient town ‘Jirnanagar’ (Junnar) and important trade centres in ancient the konkan province. The route proceeds Maharashtra. Internal as well as foreign in the direction of Junnar and descends trade was carried out from these towns. into Kokan at Murbad (District Thane). Especially, the goods imported from Rome Satavahanas excavated a cave on this were unloaded at Sopara and from there it route; the inscriptions in this cave mention was carried over to Paithan and the Satavahana queen Naganika, the via Kalyan, Naneghat, Junnar, and Nevasa. achievements of the Satavahana kings and Similarly the same route was used to the donations given by them. These transport the goods to be exported to Rome. inscriptions are in Brahmi script. There Another important feature is that the were statues of the Satavahana kings. At inscriptions in the cave include numeric the foothills of the pass there is a village symbols for “2, 4, 6, 7, and 9’’ that resemble named Vaishakhede. A number of inns modern numerals. (Dharmashalas) were probably built here

king of the Satavahana dynasty, By the Way : This is compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’. a picture of a ship on the Gunadhya, a minister in his coin belonging to King court, wrote an incomparable Pulumavi. This image on text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a the coin is an indication of Prakrit language called Paishachi. flourishing sea trade during Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on Satavahana period. Sanskrit Grammer, named ‘Katantra’.

Literature : Art and Architecture : The influence of During the Satavahana period, learning Persian and Greek sculptural styles during and art received royal patronage. Prakrit the Mauryan period seems to have decreased language and literature flourished during during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth new native Indian style emerged in this

66 For Additional information : The world famous , cave no. 8, 9, 10, 12 and 13 belong to the Satavahana period. It is interesting that the paintings in cave no. 9 and 10 are the earliest in India.

Society : The society of Satavahana period was organised into four varnas. Karle Chaitya Similarly during this period the caste system also became deeply rooted. The intermixture of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the nature of different guilds, need of including Sanchi Stupa No.1 built during this period foreigners in the social structure were some are excellent examples of this style. Many of the reasons behind it. incidents from the life of Gautama Buddha are carved on these gateways. A number of Apart from that, there were four classes rock-cut caves (Viharas and Chaityas) at in the society. The first class consisted of Bhaje, Nashik, Karle etc. belong to officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’ Satavahana period. Especially the Chaitya at and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on Karle, its magnificient facade entrance and the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas). sculptures are the finest examples of the ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan sculptural art of this period. province and Maharathi on the plateau area. The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’ Gatha Saptashati : The (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan Satavahana king, Hala, compiled merchant), and ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade several poems written in Prakrit. He guilds). ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’ selected 700 verses, and compiled it (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators), which was named as ‘Gaha Sattasai’ ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders (Gatha Saptashati). This is the first text of perfumes) were included in the third social composed in Maharashtri Prakrit class. Whereas the fourth class included language. These poems beautifully ‘Vardhaki’ (carpenter), ‘Malakara’ portray human nature and transactions. (gardeners), ‘Lohavanija’ (blacksmith), and Various religious observance, ethical ‘Dasaka’ (fisherman). norms and contemporary festivals are The invasions of foreigners like Greeks, described in it. Gatha Saptashati reflects Pallavas, Shakas and Kushanas took place the social life in Maharashtra of during the Satavahana period. But these Satavahana period. Some words in foreigners were soon absorbed in the social Gatha Saptashati are used in today’s structure. This means that the contemporary as well. The poems society, was flexible enough to accommodate in Gatha saptashati clearly indicate the the foreigners. However, these political relation between Maharashtri Prakrit invasions also brought about some social, and the modern Marathi language in economic and cultural changes which we will Maharashtra. study in the next lesson.

67 Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Explain the following statements with complete the sentence. reasons. (1) The last emperor of the Mauryan (1) During the Satavahana period there dynasty was . was rise of many trade centres. (a) Ajatashatru (2) The caste system became rigid during (b) Chandragupta Maurya the Satavahana period. (c) Brihadratha Q.3 Give your opinion. (d) Emperor Ashoka Prakrit language was encouraged during (2) The Nashik inscription mentions king the Satavahana period. as ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’. Q.4 Write short notes: (a) Gautamiputra Satakarni (1) Nashik inscription of Gautami (b) Hala Balashri (c) Yadnashree Satakarni (2) Naneghat – ancient trade route in (d) Simuka Maharashtra (3) Satavahana king, Hala, compiled (3) Gatha Saptashati . Q.5 Write information about the Satavahana (a) Brihatkatha dynasty with the help of the given (b) Gatha Saptashati points. (c) Katantra (a) Rise and expansion (d) Meghdoota (b) Administrative system (B) Find incorrect pair and write the (c) Trade and industries correct ones. (d) Literature and art (1) Kalidasa – Malavikagnimitram Activity (2) Gunadhya – Gatha Saptashati Collect information about historical (3) Sarvavarma – Katantra remains in your surrounding area and (4) Patanjali – Mahabhashya prepare an information booklet based on the gathered information.



68 10. Changing Times

10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas 10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of 10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In 10.3 Kushana Empire Indian tradition, they are mentioned as 10.4 Yavana. Their objectives were to establish 10.5 Vardhan Empire their dominance in the region of Mediterranean 10.6 Karkotaka Empire Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in west and central Asia. Seleucus Nicator was 10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria 10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres in the North-west. In the conflicts between in Maharashtra) the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria proved to be powerful. Bactrian king Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He After the disintegration of Mauryan won over Takshashila. His capital was at empire, the ambition of local rulers got Sakal (Siyalkot). During this period, the strengthened. The regional kingdoms came to Indo-Greek king Eucratides established an a rise. Among them, we studied the Shunga independent kingdom. In this way, two and Satavahana kingdoms in the last lesson. independent Indo-Greek kingdoms were During the same period there began foreign established in the northwest region. There invasions, such as invasions by Greek, were 40 Indo-Greek kings in total including Shakas, Kushanas, on India. This period of the two branches established by Demetrius the rise of regional kingdoms was also the and Eucratides. The only source to know the period of political and social transition. history of Indo-Greeks is their coins. Things 10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia like emblems, script, portraits on their coins After the death of Alexander, the of the kings, images of deities are their gifts Satrapas appointed by him declared their to the numismatic tradition of India. independent status and they came to be known as Indo-Greek kings. During the To know the extent of Indo-Greek kingdom see : declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indo- Greeks_100bc.jpg tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in Shakas : Shakas came from Central this period. These migrations proved to be Asia. They established their kingdom by important in the political scene in North driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their India. In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E., colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’ the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first () attacked northwestern regions. Shaka king in India. He established the The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the kingdom by conqureing the provinces of Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness pastoralists. With the strength of their war of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava skills, they vanquished the local kings and king Gondophernes defeated them and there they established their own kingdoms. established his rule in India.

69 For additional information : The rule of Shaka king Rudradaman proves to be noteworthy due to his conflict with the Satavahanas. The Junagarh inscription in Saurashtra is an important Sanskrit inscription. It is inscribed below the Ashokan edict. The Ashokan edict is in Prakrit while Rudradaman’s inscription is in Sanskrit. It seems that the Shaka kings had adopted Sanskrit language. The Rudradaman inscription records repairs of Sudarshan lake that was built during the Mauryan era. It shows that the lake was used over a prolonged period. It mentions Rudradaman’s victory in the Narmada valley, expedition against Satavahana kingdom and praises him for his victory over Yaudheya Republics in Rajasthan. Junagarh inscription

Although the Shaka rule in Gandhara Kushanas : After coming to Bactria from and Punjab came to an end, some Shaka central Asia, the Kushanas captured the Indo- rulers continued to rule in Western India. The Greek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact Shaka administrative system was structured with the Greek is reflected in some traits of after the Achaemenid and Seleucid models. Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out The state was divided into various Satrapis to the South, under the leadership of Kujula (provinces) and ‘Mahakshatrapa’, a military Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together official, was appointed for each satrapy. and Kujula Kadphises brought them to These Satrapies were further divided into northwest India from the Hindukush mountains. sub-sections and a Satrapa was appointed on He declared himself as the king of Bactria. each of it. These Satrapas were permitted to With this the Kushana rule was established engrave their own inscriptions and also issue upto Kabul, Kashmir. We get this information coins. It seems that they had considerable from Chinese records, Greek, and Roman autonomy. literature. In Indian literature, Kushanas are referred as ‘Tukhar’ or ‘Tushar’. 10.3 Kushana Empire You would like to know : Shakas After winning over the small kingdoms, were nomadic pastoralists. There are Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and no architectural remains, which can be established their Satrapis there. A military ascribed to Shakas. However, their officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was characteristic tombs have been appointed on the satrapies. The King was the discovered. These tombs contain chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the remains of an individual, who could titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The be their chief, along with his personal concept of divinity of the King is seen for belongings including remains of his the first time in the inscriptions on the horse and other objects. Horse was an Kushana coins. They called themselves as important part of the culture of Shakas. ‘Devputra’(Son of God). Their skills in mounted archery enabled them to make swift attacks. Saddle, By defeating many Shaka kings, reins, composite bow and arrow made Kanishka obtained the status of an emperor. their war technique more effective. He built the Kushana empire from Kabul to Pataliputra and from Kashmir to Malwa. He

70 is said to have attacked China twice. From Central Asia it was difficult to administer You would like to know : The detailed over the far extended empire. Hence an Prashasti (eulogy) of Samudragupta is intermediate administrative centre was the inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. This prashasti is a written source giving need of the moment. Hence, Kanishka information of his political career. This established two capitals, one at Purushpur inscription is known as ‘Prayaga Prashasti’. (Peshawar) and the other at Mathura. It is paradoxical right below Ashokan’s Kanishka had organised the fourth Buddhist edict declaring the importance of Council in the vihara at Kundalvan in ‘Dhammavijay’ is inscribed the detailed Kashmir. account of Samudragupta’s ‘Digvijaya’. The Kushanas had adopted the Indian culture. This is obvious from the name of means, ‘the annihilator of all kings’ proves last Kushana king ‘Vasudeva’. During his this. Samudragupta first conquered neighboring period the decline of Kushanas began. The kingdoms. After the conquest in the North, Kushana empire disintegrated into pieces and he carried out expedition in the South to the various Satrapas became independent. conquer the Southern kingdoms. During that The Kushana rule existed in the province of period, the rule of Vakatakas was strong in Punjab and Gandhar till 4th century C.E. southern region. Samudragupta could include the southern part upto the region of Kanchi Visit the below website to see the expansion of the under his dominance, except the Vakatakas. Kushana empire : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ The rulers of the regions beyond his conquered Kushan_Empire#/media/File:Kushanmap.jpg area became his feudatories. By obtaining 10.4 Gupta Empire tribute from these kings, he made them accept The history of Gupta empire indicates his sovereignty. the process of transformation of a small state After this great conquest (Digvijay), into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the Samudragupta performed Ashwamedha founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’ sacrifice and proclaimed himself as indicates that he was a feudatory. His son Chakravarti king. Shakas, Kushanas, and Ghatotkach also uses the same title which kings in Sri Lanka accepted the suzerainty means during his period also the Gupta kings of the Guptas. The image of Samudragupta were feudatories. Chandragupta I is given the along with a lyre (Veena) on his coins credit of expanding the Gupta rule and indicates that he was a patron of art. transforming it into an empire. The title Chandragupta II defeated Shakas and added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’, ascended the throne. He took up the title gives an idea of the increasing status of the ‘Vikramaditya’. He established his rule in the Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who western regions of Malwa, Gujarat, and belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This Kathewar. Due to this the areas on west matrimonial alliance proved to be politically coast also came under the dominance of the beneficial for the Gupta dynasty. His portrait Guptas and they entered into the trade carried with Kumaradevi is seen on a coin issued by out in the west. Later Chandragupta crossed him. His rule was spread over in the regions Hindukush and brought the north-western of Magadha, Saket (Ayodhya) and Prayag. provinces under his control. In this manner King Samudragupta was the most brilliant, he established a sovereign state encompassing valiant and benevolent ruler of this dynasty. the entire north India. He gave his daughter, Samudragupta’s ambition was to rule Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king entire India as an unified empire. His title Rudrasena II and created congenial relations ‘Sarvarajochchheta’ on his coins, which with the Vakatakas in the south.

71 During the period of Kumargupta, son of kings proved to be incapable of protecting Chandragupta II, the Huna invasions in India their kingdom. Finally their kingdom was began. Kumaragupta withheld the attacks of disintegrated into many small kingdoms. Hunas. After Kumaragupta, the succeeding

You would like to know : Chandragupta II gave patronage to many scholars, just like his father and had deep interest in knowledge and art. It is said that there were ‘Navratnas’ (nine gems) in his court. They were : Dhanvantari (physician), Kshapanak (astrologer), Amarsinha (lexicographer), Sanku (architect), Vatal Bhatt (magician), Ghatkarpura (architect/author), Kalidasa (great poet), Varahamihira (astronomer) and Vararuchi (grammarian).

72 State administration and social life: excellent examples of their skills. Beautiful The Gupta period is considered as the and realistic portrayal of various aspects of Classical Age of Indian history. the king is characteristic of Gupta coins. ‘Nigam’, ‘Shreni’ and ‘Gana’ like During the Gupta period, king was the Organisations were established by traders centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya and industrialists. (ministers) and advisors helped him. Many a times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy Till the Gupta period, many foreign who looked after the provincial administration. communities, came and settled in India. Every province was subdivided. These They were accepted in the social system. subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’. There Smriti texts such as ‘Narada Smriti’, was an independent administrator appointed ‘Yajnavalakya Smriti’ were written during on these Vishayas. They were known as this period. These texts provide a glimpse of ‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the the social changes in this period. provincial officers and ‘Ayuktak’ were the officials who looked after the affairs of the For additional information : Textile districts. Gupta administration was industry flourished during Gupta period. decentralized. Many decisions were taken at A variety of textiles were produced on the local level. large scale. These varieties include The Gupta kings changed the economic Kshaum (linen), Chitrapatta (printed silk), structure of agricultural system. Their Dukul (silk), Pulakbandh (coloured cotton), preference was on giving the land to local Pushpapatta (floral designs), Amshuka farmers for tilling. Land donations were also (muslin). These textiles had great demand made for the cause of religion and learning. in internal and distant market. These lands were tax free. They were called The prosperity is reflected in as ‘Agraharas’. Similarly, in this period the contemporary sculptural art and literature. civil and military officers were granted land Political stability in the Gupta period, grants instead of salaries. The roots of feudal prosperity and royal patronage gave impetus system, an important feature of the mediaeval to the creation of Sanskrit literature. One of period lie in this system. It is believed that the best creations in Indian literature of this this feudal economy brought about the decline period is Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntalam’. Human of urban centres. Because of revenue tax figure was the central theme of the sculptures exemption on the donated land, the revenue in Gupta period. Human sculptures and decreased and royal treasures depleted. It images of deities were created during this was concentrated in the hands of local period. Sculptures belonging to this period landlords. Because of this the king no longer are found at many places such as Sarnath, remained in the centre of power. Devgadh, Ajanta. During this period, Hindu, According to the Chinese traveller Yuan Buddhist and Jain religious icons were made Chwang, sugarcane and wheat were cultivated of stone, metals and terracotta. The Greek in the north-western province of the Gupta influence seen on Gandhara style is no longer empire, while rice was cultivated in Magadha seen on the sculptures of Gupta period. and eastern regions. During this period, the foundation of Minerals, animals and herbs were the Indian temple architecture was laid down. main commodities of trade that brought Use of dressed stones became common during prosperity during Gupta period. Goldsmiths this period. The earliest remains of temples enjoyed a high social status in this period. of Gupta period are found in places like The gold coins during Gupta period are Sanchi, Bhumra, and Deogadh. These are a

73 few examples of the Gupta style of Hundreds of students, not only from India architecture. but also from other countries like China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, Shri Lanka etc. came You would like to know : In the Gupta here. Harshavardhan’s empire was the last period, there was remarkable progress in powerful empire in ancient India. making alloys and casting of metals. The 10.6 Karkotaka Empire iron pillar at Among the dynasties that ruled in Delhi stands as a Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century witness for this. C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had Since many been to Kashmir when he had visited India. centuries the iron A detailed information regarding this dynasty pillar stands is found in Kalhan's Rajatarangini. without rusting. Durlabhavardhan was the founder of From this we Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended understand that during this period from Narmada to Tibet. the science of The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed, metallurgy was 724-760 C.E.), the grandson of very advanced. Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya). He drove away many foreign tribes on the northern borders of Kashmir, especially the Iron Pillar : Mehrauli region in the Amudarya basin. It included the 10.5 Vardhan Empire Tukhar (Turks) as well. He conquered the During the declining period of the regions from Avanti in the north upto Guptas, in Nothern India there was rise of Pragiyotishpur (Assam). He conquered Tibet dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar with the help of Yashovarma, the king of (Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna Avanti (Kanauj). After conquering the regions Doab, Maitrakas in Saurashtra etc. upto Kaveri river in the south, he crossed the Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan seas and reached the land beyond (Shri dynasty. After the accession of Lanks). This is mentioned by Kalhan, which Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty suggests that Lalitaditya had extended his became powerful. He took up the sovereign empire from Tibet in the north to the river title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’. Kaveri in the south. Lalitaditya's empire is The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was comparable to the Gupta empire. Lalitaditya Harshavardhan. His empire extended from was a devotee of Vishnu. He built the Martand Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. temple. He set up the city of Lalitpur. Latpur, After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to situated on the banks of river Jhelum, might the throne under the situation the empire be the ancient Lalitpur. He built Buddhist disintegrated and many feudatories declared Viharas at Hushkapur (Ushkur). independent status in North India. 10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography We get a lot of information about this In Indian history, the period of six period from ‘Harshacharita’ written by centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th Banabhatta who was the court poet and also century C.E., was the period of arrival of the from the travel accounts of Chinese traveller Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that Yuan Chwang. The universities of Nalanda they established. These people adopted and Vallabhi became the great learning various cultural traits as they came to India. centres during harshavardhan’s reign. The introduction of these traits brought about

74 border regions of India and China. There For Additional Information : Some were political relations between Kushanas Bactrian coins resemble the Greek coins in and Chinese rulers. The legends on the terms of their shape and weight. On some of these coins the image of owl is seen. Kushana coins found in Central Asia are in Owl is the symbol of Goddess Athena. Prakrit language, written in Kharoshthi script. Athena was the main deity of Athens. This evidence indicates that people speaking Indo-Greek coins are found in Bactria. The Prakrit language were also staying outside Greek legends are written on the obverse the Indian subcontinent. side and the legends are written in Prakrit. The Gandhara region had become a Kharoshthi script on the reverse side. melting pot of Indian, Greek, Roman, Persian and Shaka cultures. This province acquired a transformation in the cultural life of India importance from cultural as well. point of view. A new style In contemporary India, agriculture and of iconography developed in animal husbandry were the main sources of the cities of Pushkalavati, livelihood. Along with it various industries Taxila, Purushpur etc. It is and trade developed during this period. known as ‘Gandhara style’. India’s contact with the foreigners proved to The theme of the sculpture be beneficial for this. During this period also was Indian but the style was merchant and artisans guilds (shrenis) were Greek. The Mahayana sect in existence. During this period, India’s sea of Buddhism gave an trade began to increase on a large scale. impetus for the development Indian goods were sent upto the Red Sea and of this style of art. Along from there via Egypt to Rome. From India, with the images of Gautama Gandhara Art animals such as tiger, lion and monkey; birds Buddha and Bodhisatva such as parrot and peacock; wool, silk, statues of the donors are carved in stone. But muslin, cotton cloth, ivory, pearls, spices, this style remained limited to parts of North- sandalwood, medicinal herbs, diamonds, west India. In the icons of Gandhara style, precious stones, and other luxury items were there was more emphasis on physical beauty. exported and from other countries goods such During the same period, Mathura and Varanasi as lead, copper, glass, silver, gold, wines etc. style of art developed. The images of Gautama were imported. Due to this trade the flow of Buddha were completely Indian in nature. gold coins was constantly coming in India Mathura was an important centre of Indian art and hence India became prosperous. of sculpture. Portrait sculpture is the feature of The portraits of kings and images of Mathura style of art. The statues of Kushana deities were inscribed on the gold coins of kings, Vima Takshama and Kanishka are the Bactrian Greeks. There was a great examples of this portrait sculpture. Similarly impact of the Greek and Roman coins on the images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Surya, Shiva coins of Shaka and Kushana rulers. The use and Karttikeya were created for the first time of Kharoshthi script is seen on the Shaka during this period. The sculptural art during coins. Kushana period was an indication of innovation The coins of this period indicate the in the history of Indian sculpture. During this mixed impact of Greeks, Indian and Persian period there was an effort of imprinting the cultures. The Kushana kings depicted Indian reflection of the then society. deities on coins. They brought in circulation 10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres the gold and copper coins with the image of in Maharashtra) Shiva. Kushana coins are also found in the The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in

75 Greek language in the mid 1st century C.E., these coins found in South India gives an mentions about the Red Sea and the sea idea of the extensive scale of this trade. The routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces, flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to goods exchanged in trade. Red Sea was several markets and cities. There was rise of important for trade relations between India important ports in western India as well. The and Rome. Among the trading commodities merchandise transported to Maharashtra were textile, black pepper, precious stones, ivory stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur, and animals such as monkey, parrot and and Sannati. The ports of Sopara and Kalyan peacock for the entertainment of the Roman were important centres of Indo-Roman trade. elites came to be exported from India. Gold Excavations at the archaeological sites have coins were paid in exchange of these goods. brought forth the evidence of trade in the Coral and liquor were also imported. The form of Roman pottery (amphorae) and red remains of Amphorae are found in the ware. The replicas of Roman coins are also excavations. Residues at the base of the found in the excavations. In South India, amphora, revealed remains of wines. along with increase in trade the Buddhist Amphoras were also used for storing olive centres were established at places such as oil and garom (pickled fish). The price of Dharnikot, Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda. the goods exported to Roman market was In the next lesson we are going to study paid in gold coins. The large amounts of about the ruling powers in South India.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and was concentrated in the hands of complete the sentence. local landlords. (1) The history of Indo-Greeks is known (2) Every tide of Huna invasion made through their . the Gupta rule weaker. (a) literature (b) inscription Q.3 State your opinion. (c) coins (d) pottery Samudragupta performed Asvamedha (2) Gupta dynasty was founded by sacrifice after Digvijaya. . (a) Sri Gupta (b) Ghatotkach Q.4 Write Short notes. (c) Samudragupta (d) Ramgupta (1) Gupta Sculpture (2) Indo-Roman Trade (3) After accession by defeating the Shakas, took up the tile of Q.5 Answer the following question with the ‘Vikramaditya’. help of given points. (a) Chandragupta II How did the standardisation in various (b) Ramgupta (c) Chandragupta I sections during the Gupta period take (d) Kumaragupta place? a. division of Gupta administration (B) Find the incorrect pair and write b. changes in economic struture economy the correct ones. of agriculture Kshaum (1) – Linen cloth c. Development of Gupta coinage (2) Pushpapatta – Cotton cloth (3) Dukul – Silk cloth Activity (4) Amshuka - Muslin cloth Collect more information about Q.2 Explain the following statements with ‘Harshacharita’ written by Banabhatta, reasons. with the help of internet. (1) During the Gupta period the power 

76 11. Kingdoms in South India

11.1 Important kingdoms in South India established their rule from Pudukkottai to 11.2 Administrative system, trade, social Kanyakumari. Towards their west, the Cheras life had created their kingdom in Kerala. They 11.3 Literature, art, architecture are mentioned as ‘Kedalaputra’ (Keralaputra/ Sons of Kerala) in contemporary literature. In this lesson we will be introduced to These kingdoms were in constant conflict the kingdoms in South India, their with each other to establish political suprem administrative system, trade etc. acy. 11.1 Important Kingdoms in South In many stories of Sangham literature, India we find mention of the first Chola king Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties : ‘Karikala’. He brought together eleven small Chola, Pandya and Chera were the ancient kingdoms and built a strong army and by ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms defeating the Chera and Pandya kings, he in South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ established the Tamil dominance. ‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions Some kingdoms arose to the north of of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers. Among them as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one Satavahanas were most powerful. of the main sources of history of South Vakataka dynasty : The power of Indian rulers. Satavahanas started growing weaker from the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took advantage For Additional information : of this situation and established independent South India has a great contribution in rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of the history of India and its culture. Due Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti , to the cultural exchange between North King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He India and South India, the Indian culture expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in became diverse and still remained the North and from Gujarat to South upto united. The people living in South India Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). spoke . Tamil, Kolhapur was knwon as ‘Kuntala’ at that , Malyalam and Telugu are the time. Pravarasena I performed four four main languages in the Dravidian Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title group of languages. ‘Brauhi’ language ‘Samrat’. spoken in Baluchistan is a part of the Dravidian group of languages. After Pravarasena I, the Vakataka kingdom got divided and two main branches : The Chola Kingdom were created. Among them, Nandivardhan was established in first century C.E. Chola (Nagardhan-Ramtek, ) was the dynasty originated in Thanjavur and capital of one branch. The capital of the Tiruchirappalli (Tamilnadu). This province second branch was at Vatsagulm, i.e. modern was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel (). is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Gupta the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had emperor Chandragupta II, was married to

77 Vakataka king Rudrasen II. This is already he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami). mentioned earlier. Varahadev, minister of His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first Harishena, was a follower of Buddhism. important king of the Chalukyas. He built the Cave no.16 of Ajanta was excavated at his fort of Badami. He performed the instance. The excavation of other caves at Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title Ajanta and the murals were done during the of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like reign of Harishena. ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’. After Vakataka king Pravarasena II composed Pulakeshi I, his son Kirtivarman I came to ‘Setubandha’ in Maharashtri Prakrit. Among power. During his reign, he conquered the many of Kalidasa’s classical works, Kadambas of Vanvasi () and Mauryas ‘Meghadoota’ deserves special mention. of Aparanta (North Konkan) and expanded References to historical geography of his rule. Kirtivarman was a patron of art. Vakataka period occuring in this poetic work The beautiful caves at Badami were created are important. by him. Chalukyas : During the rule of Pulakeshi II was the greatest king of the Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya Chalukyan dynasty. He performed the dynasty ruled in the south for approximately Digvijaya and strengthened the power of 200 years. Jaising was the founder of this Chalukyas. His achievements are described in dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E. the eulogy (prashasti) composed by poet

78 Ravikirti. He defeated the Kadamba Pallavas and Chalukyas took place during kings, Maurya, Nala, Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta, his period. His son Narsimhavarman defeated Lat, Malav and Gurjara dynasties and the Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshi II. During established the Chalukyan rule over Vidarbha Narsimhavarman’s region, many temples and other parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka. were built at Mahabalipuram. It includes the The expedition of Harshavardhan to conquer monolithic temples (Rath Mandiras) as well. the southern states was resisted by Pulakeshi Yuan Chwang, the well-known Chinese II. He defeated Harshavardhan thereby traveller, was in his court for a certain period acquiring great fame. After his victory he of time. The literary works by took up the the title ‘Parameshwara’. With Narsimharvarman are important as major the conquest in south, his empire extended source of Pallava history. The Pallava rule from Narmada to Kaveri and from east coast ended in 9th century C.E. The Chola king, to the west coast. His fame had reached Aditya, defeated the Pallavas and beyond India as well. During this period destroyed it. Badshah Khosrow Parvez ruled in Iran. It is said that he had sent his ambassador to the court of Emperor Pulakeshi. The Pallavas of Kanchi defeated Pulkeshi II. Vikramaditya, the son of Pulakeshi II, in turn defeated the Pallavas. The struggle between Chalukyas and Pallavas continued over prolonged period of time. The last king of Chalukyas, Kirtivarman, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurg. Pallavas : Around 6th century C.E. to 9th century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the most powerful rulers in South India. Historians vary in their views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the Yudhisthira Rath Temple at Mahabalipuram Pallavas are found. There is a mention of Rashtrakutas : Dantidurga was the first Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas. We Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the get a detailed information of the Pallava south. After Dantidurga, his uncle dynasty beginning from the reign of became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He North India as well. Amoghvarsh was a was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit capable king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on Amoghvarsh composed the texts entitled subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting ‘Ratnamalika’ and ‘Kavirajmarg’. He etc. These art forms received patronage under established a new city at Manyakheta him. During his reign, several temples were (Malkhed) near . The Rashtrakuta built at Tiruchirapalli, Chingalput and in east dynasty declined because of the attacks by and west Arkat district. The war between Parmars and Chalukyas of Kalyani.

79 of Kolhapur and Kadambas captured some of the regions in North Konkan. Mummuni, brother of Chhittaraj, built the huge temple of ‘Amreshwar Mahadev’ at Ambarnath. This is considered as the beginning of the Bhoomija style of temple architecture in Maharashtra. 3. of Kolhapur - The modern districts of , , , and were included in this kingdom. Kailas Temple at Ellora Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king Shilaharas : There were three branches of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur, of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan, Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar- are credited with the creation of the Ter, ). Jimutvahan is magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple considered as the founder of all the three at Khidrapur. branches. They ruled for almost three hundred years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Gonds : The Gond dynasty was later the Chalukyas. established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the 1. Shilaharas of South Konkan - founder of this dynasty. He brought the ‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan people of Gond tribe together and encouraged branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He set up the village of Vallipattana and built established the capital at Sirpur. In the later a fort there. Later King Adityavarma period Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa. Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty. to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was The history of this dynasty is known with constructed during his period. Nilkanth Shah the help of one of the copper plates found was defeated by at Kharepatan. Raghuji Bhosale of 2. Shilaharas of North Konkan - Nagpur and the Gond Kapardi established the north Kokan branch territories were merged of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were in his kingdom. Sixty initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. two Gond kings ruled Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane). for many centuries in Aparajita was another important king of this Devgad, Nagpur and branch. He ruled for around thirty five years. Chandrapur in Chittaraj followed Aparajita as king. His Maharashtra. brothers fought for their claim to the throne. The struggle of Taking advantage of this, the Shilaharas Queen Durgavati Queen Durgavati of

80 the Gond dynasty, against the Mughals is ‘Lilacharitra’ written by Mhamimbhatta considered important. After the death of of the Mahanubhava sect, ‘Viveksindhu’ by her husband, Duragavati fought against in Mukundaraj, ‘Bhavarthdipika’ by Mughal emperor Akbar. She was not ready Dnyaneshwar belong to this period. Similarly to surrender to him. Instead she preferred the composition of saint poets like Namadeva, death. Janabai, Chokhoba of the Varakari sect composed poems, which are known as Yadavas : Yadava dynasty is one of the ‘Abhangas’. Many temples were built in this important dynasties of mediaeval Maharashtra. period. They are generally referred to as Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important ‘Hemadpanti’ temples. The Gondeshwar king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded temple at Sinnar and the temple complex at the kingdom by defeating the Kalachuris. He Anjaneri are the finest example among the established his capital at Devgiri and got temples built during this period. An important himself coronated. In the later period Singhan feature of the Hemadpanti temples is that no was an important ruler of this dynasty. He mortar is used. Instead the stones are defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and interlocked with the help of mortise and expanded the rule of Yadavas. tenon. During this period, the crucial forts of In 1294 C.E. attacked Ankai and Tankai were constructed. south India. Ramadeva, the Yadava king was defeated by Khalji. From here onwards the Yadava rule began to decline. In 1307 C.E. Alauddin sent his commander Malik Kafur to carry out a campaign over Devgiri. He defeated the Yadavas. Yadavas accepted a feudatory status to Delhi. In 1310 C.E. Yadava king Shankardev was killed by Malik Kafur. In 1318 C.E. the rule of Gondeshwar Temple at Sinnar Yadavas was brought to an end by the Delhi 11.2 Administrative system, trade, Sultanate. social life The Yadava period has a special In the administrative systems of South importance in the . Indian dynasties there were officials such as During this period there was notable ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’, development in the cultural sphere of ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc. Maharashtra. The Mahanubhav and Warkari The council of officers in the Chola kingdom sects had a beginning in the Yadava period. was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was During this period, Patan in , divided into many provinces. These provinces Solotagi in Karnataka and Paithan in were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of Maharashtra become important learning the royal family was the chief of the Mandalam. There were many officers under centres. During the same period, Sanskrit him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’, texts were written on subjects like ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The Dharmashastra, ‘Purva Mimansa’ administration of the Southern kingdoms was (philosophical text), Nyaya and Vedanta. The very efficient. Every order issued related to critical work on Yajnyavalkya by Aparark, state affairs recorded down and no action ‘Chaturvargachintamani’ are among the was taken unless authenticated by the important Sanskrit texts. ‘Sangitaratnakara’, concerned officer. Village autonomy was an text based on Indian music, by Sharangdev important feature of the state administration is considered relevant even today. in South India. The ‘Gramasabha’ (village 81 council) looked after the entire administration industries in South India flourished during of the village. The head of the Gramasabha this period. Cities like Paithan, Tagar (Ter), was known by different names such as Nashik etc. flourished because of it. ‘Gramabhojaka’, ‘Gramakuta’ etc. head of The goods produced in rural areas were the Gramasabha was elected by the villagers brought for sale in the cities. The market or sometimes appointed by the king. A place used to be located in the centre of the council similar to Gramsabha functioned at city. The merchant guilds (Shreni) in South district and provincial level. Land revenue India played an important role in trade and was the main source of income for the state. the social system. Apart from it the excise tax, professional tax, 11.3 Literature, art, architecture pilgrimage tax were the sources of income. The tradition of writing poetry and In the kingdom of Cholas, Pandyas, grammar was prevalent in south India from Cheras, Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, ancient times. The ‘Sangham literature’ is Pallavas, Shilaharas and Yadavas many supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil professions requiring specialised skills were tradition. This literature is one of the main practiced. Ivory was obtained from the sources of political . It Malayagiri jungle. The Cholamandalam is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council) provinces were well-known for excellent were held. quality textiles. Plain and coloured cotton cloth as well as silk clothes was produced in This period was important from the point this province. In the Chera kingdom was of view of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa known the fine cloth produced there. It was composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in one of the important commodities in the Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule, Indo-Roman trade. It is mentioned in the compositions in Prakrit language were created. travel accounts of Marco Polo. The trade and Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’. For Additional information : Coins ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena, of South India- During the Mauryan the founder of Vatsagulm branch of period the Maurya coins were in circulation Vakatakas. in South India. After the decline of Two styles of architecture are seen in Mauryas the Pandya kings issued their South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and own punch marked coins. The images like other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture. sun, horse, stupa, tree, fish were carved The Dravida style of architecture emerged on it. On the Chera coins, there used to and developed in the regions from Krishna be bow and arrow on one side and image river to Kanyakumari. The important feature of an elephant on the other. On the Chola of Dravida architecture identified by coins the symbol of tiger as the royal construction of Shikhara. In this type the emblem of Cholas is depicted. The Chola storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises. coins were made of gold, silver and the Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples legends on it was inscribed in Devnagari at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore script. The coins belonging to Chalukya king Rajaraja are issued in three metals- are some of the excellent examples of gold, silver and copper, with the image of Dravida style of architecture. Rajaraja and a tiger. Due to the trade The Chalukyas built temples at places with Rome, many Roman coins are found like Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal etc. in this area. It is seen that the seals of During the Rashtrakuta period the world Indian rulers are reprinted on these coins famous ‘Kailasa’ temple was created. and again brought into circulation. The metal statues of the Chola period

82 are the best among Indian metal sculptures. Among them the most famous is the bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva. During the Vakataka period the sculptural art and paintings reached its zenith. The Ajanta cave no. 1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 were carved out during this period. It seems that the artists had good knowledge about the details of physiology and nature. Till now we studied the cultural and political history of India. Ancient India had established cultural relations with far away countries. In the next two lessons we will study about the cultural relations between India and other countries. Bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (2) Examples of Dravidian style – complete the sentence. Rajarajeshwar temple, Elephanta (1) The name of the well-known king of caves, Halebid temples, Badami Vakatak dynasty was . temples (a) Sarvasena (b) Pravarasena Q.3 Explain the following statements with (c) Jaising (d) Chandragupta reasons. (2) After the conquest in South, (1) A strong rule of the Chalukyas was Pulakeshin II took up the title of created in south India . (2) Yadava period has a special (a) Parameshwara (b) Vishayapati importance in the history of (c) Deshadhipati (d) Satyajay Maharashtra. (3) Kalidasa composed at Q.4 Write short notes. Ramtek in Vidarbha. (1) Administrative system in South India (a) Shakuntal (b) Meghdoot (2) Coins in South Indian dynasties (c) Malavikagnimitra (d) Harivijay Q.5 Answer the following question in brief (4) The world famous Kailasa temple with the help of points given below. was built during the period. Describe the rule of dynasty. (a) Chalukya (b) Pallava (a) Founder (c) Cher (d) Rashtrakuta (b) Shilahara of south Kokan (B) Fine the incorrect pair and write (c) Shilaharas of north Kokan the correct ones. (d) Shilaharas of Kolhapur (1) Setubandh – Panini Activity (2) Harivijay – Sarvasena Visit the Kailasa temple at Ellora and (3) Indica – Megasthenes prepare a detailed note. (4) Sangit Ratnakar – Sharangdev Q.2 Find the odd man out in the group.  (1) Ancient kings in South India – Chola, Pandya, Maurya, Cher

83 12. India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China

12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in never tried to impose their culture, religions the Ancient times and political rule on the local people. 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan Wherever they went, they had cultural contact and Pakistan) and exchange with the native people and it 12.3 India and China resulted into the enrichment of the native cultures. 12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in The spread of Indian culture in the the Ancient times nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains So far, we studied about the transitions was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist in the various fields such as historical, social, religion. financial, cultural etc., over a prolonged The Indian trade with distant lands is period of about 4000 years. In this lesson we mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’, are going to study about the impact of the Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, Indian culture on the other countries. etc. These texts narrate many stories of the It is very significant that the Indians sea travels and adventures of the Indian travelling or migrating to other countries merchants. The Sangham literature mentions

84 the boats of the yavanas who brought gold group of merchants, who paid a visit to the and carried back black pepper in exchange. court of the Roman Emperor Augustus. There are a number of inscriptions reported The coin hoards found in Tamilnadu had from the western parts of Maharashtra, that Roman gold coins in it. Many of those coins mention the donations given by yavanas. show cuts taken for the purpose of assaying ‘Ophir’, a port city is mentioned in the (for the checking the grade of gold) the gold. ‘Old Testament’ (Bible), which is supposed It means those coins were not in circulation to be referring to ‘Sopara’ near Mumbai. The as coinage but they were valued for its gold. Indian teakwood and the Himalayan cedar It is said that Nero, the Roman emperor had timber was in demand in Babylon. Beside paid one million gold coins for a single the timber, commodities like sandalwood, chalice of emerald of Indian make. Pliny the ivory, tortoise shells, monkeys, peacocks, elder had expressed concern about that the pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, as Roman gold being drained into India. He well as black pepper, cinnamon and incense compared India to an enormous sink draining were also exported from India. A sailor’s all gold of the world. Strabo tells us that handbook of his sea travels is known as animals such as snakes, hunting dogs, tigers, ‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ ( Latin name : elephants, birds like parrots and peacocks, Periplus Maris Erythraei). The ancient port things like hides and horns of rhinoceros, cities like Bharuch, Sopara, Kalyan, etc. are expensive textiles, pearls, ivory and spices, mentioned in this periplus. Also the important etc. from India were in great demand among trade centres like Ujjain are described in it. the Roman elites. Beside the periplus there are other texts like Apart from the Roman gold coins, many ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek historian other things like lead, zinc, corals, wines, Strabo, ‘Naturalis Historia’ by Pliny the olive oil were the Roman imports coming to elder, ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek India. The archaeological survey conducted mathematician-geographer Claudius Ptolemy, in the sea near ‘Bet Dwaraka’ in Gujarat, in ‘Indica’* by the Greek historian Arrian, etc., the year 2000-2001 has yielded amphorae of which are the sources of information about various sizes, anchors, potsherds and a lead the Indo-Roman trade. ball, etc. The amphorae were used to transport olive oil and wines, which were imported *Arrian was the historian of the 2nd century from Rome. There are many archaeological C.E. He never visited India. Most of the information in his work is derived from ‘Indica’ sites, which have yielded evidence of the written by Megasthenes. Indo-Roman trade. It confirms that the cities in Maharashtra like Paithan, Ter, Kolhapur*, ‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ mentions Bhokardan (Bhogvardhan) in the Jalana that Hippalus, the Greek navigator had district were important trading centres. accurately traced all the ports on the Erythrean Sea. *Ptolemy has mentioned Kolhapur as ‘Hippokura’. In the 1st century C.E. the Indo-Roman trade had begun to grow. The silk route and 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan the ports on the south and west coasts of and Pakistan) India played vital role in this trade. The It is apparent that geographically records of the Greek historians mention of a Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably

85 By the way: The crows were known also clearly indicates that the ancient to ancient sailors as the birds who begin Indian merchants used to sail to distant to fly in the direction of land, the moment lands. it is in their view. The sailors used to ‘Baveru’ is identified with Babylon. follow the crows in order to reach the Babylon was a kingdom that existed in coast safely. Crows trained for these Mesopotamia during 1800-600 B.C.E. The purpose were known as ‘Dishakak’. A Achaemenid emperor Cyrus II conquered Harappan terracotta tablet shows a boat Babylon in 539 B.C.E. and dishakaks flying above it. This story confirms that ancient Indian The story of ‘Baveru Jataka’ offers a merchants used to carry birds like crow testimony to the use of dishakak by ancient and peacock for selling. Indian sailors to reach the coast. This story

situated on the trade route that linked India Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post- and Central Asia. It had close cultural Kushana Period : Kanishka’s empire had connections with India from the ancient spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir period of janapadas till the introduction of in the north and further to Central Asia. Islam. Whether it were the invaders from the Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha by Emperor Ashoka , or the Chinese monks (Begram) was an additional capital of the travelling to India, all had to pass through Kushanas, which was located on the silk Afghanistan. route at a vantage point. The trade route Emperor Ashoka’s Period : We have from Afghanistan to China was under the seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka rule of Kushanas. This route starting from mentions the names of Greek kings, who Taxila extended further, crossing through were his contemporaries. It also mentions Khyber pass to Bamiyan in Afghanistan and that people in their kingdoms were following from there to China through the plateau of the path of morality as outlined to his Pamir. message of Dhammavijaya. Among these In the Kushana period, Buddhism reached kingdoms was included the kingdom of China by this trade route. Some of the coins Kamboja in Afghanistan. of emperor Kanishka carry the image of The Ashokan edict at Kandahar is in Gautama Greek language and the script used for it is Buddha. It also Aramaic. This inscription shows that has a legend Afghanistan was the integral part of Ashoka’s which reads, empire. ‘Boddo’. This Ashoka had sent ‘Thera Mahyantika’ is the oldest Gold coin of Kanishka (Majjhantika) to Kashmir and Afghanistan representation and ‘Thera Maharakkhita’ to the Greek of Gautama (Yona) kingdoms, for spreading the teachings Buddha in an image form on a coin. of Gautama Buddha.

86 The Chinese monks like Fa-Hien, Yuan The building of the vihara complex at st Chwang, who travelled through India have Takht-i-Bahi had begun in the 1 century th described the Buddhist viharas and stupas in C.E. The work was continued till 7 century India. There are numerous remains of viharas C.E. Among the remains discovered there are and stupas in Afghanistan. Among them a three stupas and other buildings. place called ‘Shahji-ki-Dheri’ near Peshawar Apart from these remains in Afghanistan, in Pakistan was excavated. The importance the famous ‘Bamiyan statues of Buddha’ are of the stupa discovered at this place is declared as the World Cultural Heritage. underlined by the fact that it was built during Bamiyan is 250 kilometres away from Kabul, Kanishka’s period. It is also known as to the west of it. There are about 750 caves ‘Kanishaka’s Stupa’. According to prevailing hewn out in one of the cliffs of the mountain tradition, the sacred remains in the box ranges known as ‘Kuh-e-Baba’. There were (karandaka) found there are of Gautama very beautiful Buddhist murals painted inside Buddha. The box has an inscription. It also these caves. The same cliff has two huge mentions the name ‘Agnishala’, the main niches dug in it. In these niches were built supervisor of the building work of ‘Kanishka two standing Buddha statues in stucco. One Vihara’, in the precints of ‘Mahasena of it was 53 metres tall the other was 38 Sangharama’*. This box is in the Peshawar metres. The core of these statues was carved museum at present. out in the original sandstone of the cliff. The core was plastered with several layers of *Sangharama means the residential complex built mud mixed with straw. The folds of Gautama for the bhikkhus. Buddha’s robes were modelled in this clay plaster. His forearms were supported with the The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’ help of wooden armatures and fixed with near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another wooden pegs. According to Yuan Chwang important centre of Buddhism. There are the statues were surrounded by colourful several remains of stupas and viharas murals and even the statues were painted and scattered over the place. The sculptures found decorated with gold coating and precious around the stupas are excellent specimens of stones. Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i-Bahi’ is another important place, which is enlisted as ‘World These statues were destroyed by Taliban, Cultural Heritage’. It is in the Pakhtunkhwa a fundamentalist organisation in 2001 C.E. province of Gandhara region. It is a part of The government of Afghanistan, with the Pakistan now. help of UNESCO and various associations from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland, etc. is working to restore this World Cultural Heritage. Some of the murals inside the Bamiyan caves were rediscovered, when the work of restoration began. Also, remains of a 19 metres long ‘Mahaparinibban’ image of Gautama Buddha were found. According to Yuan Chwang’s description there was a library of rare Buddhist manuscripts at Bamiyan. Archaelogists have A Sculpture from a stupa at Hadda indeed found birch bark and palm leaf manuscripts in a Bamiyan vihara. 87 further to Central Asia, linking one oasis to the other in the desert. It was easier for the merchants and travellers to find facilities of accommodation and food in the oasis cities. They also found ready market for their merchandise. Another line crossed through the steppes to the north of this main line. Journey on this line was relatively shorter. However, it was rarely used by merchants as it was infested by troublesome pastoral tribes and it hardly have any accommodation and food facilities Bamiyan Buddha images en route. The Silk route that continued from the Some images of Hindu gods and Xinjiang province of China bifurcated into goddesses have also been found in two lines and both reached Taxila. One of Afghanistan. Among them is an image of it reached the Gandhara region from the city found near the city of Kabul. This of Kashgar in Xinjiang and the other reached image is dated to 4th century C.E. and it is Kashmir via Leh from Yarkand in the same the earliest image among the extant Ganesha province. The Chinese monks used the same images. It may be noted that even in India route to reach India. An internal line to the an image of Ganesha, as ancient as this one north of the Xinjiang line started from the is not found. There is one temple called province of Gansu (Kansu) and reached ‘Khair Khana’ near Kabul. The excavations Kashgar. The famous ‘Great Wall of China’ at this site have yielded an image of God is in this province. Surya mounted on a chariot. A detailed review of all the Buddhist By the way : Some Chinese texts and Hindu remains in Afghanistan is not mention Kashmir by the name of ‘Ki- possible in this book. However, the above Pin’. Some texts have mentioned the examples are enough to confirm the close ancient city of Kapisha (Begram) in cultural association between the Gandhara Afghanistan by the same name. Chinese literature mentions India region and India before the advent of Islam. variously as ‘Shen-tu’, ‘Tien-chu’, 12.3 India and China ‘Tien-tu’, ‘Xien-tu’, ‘Yuan-tu’, ‘Xuan- The route that links Asia and Europe tu’, etc. Among all these names the was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk name Yin-tu has prevailed in China Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German till today. geographer. The silk route runs more than In China the kings of ‘Han’ 6000 kilometres. One may have an impression dynasty were ruling, when Kanishka that the silk route is an unbroken highway. ruled in India. However, in reality this route is an intricate Sir Aurel Stein, the British web of major and minor lines bifurcating and archaeologist was the first to conduct crossing each other. an archaeological survey on the silk One of the major lines of this route route traversing through India, China and Central Asia. linked China and India and then extended

88 It was in the 1st century C.E. that Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This art style that Buddhism began to spread from India to originated in the Xinjiang province is known China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China as ‘Serendian Art Style’ (Seres meaning in this period had expanded its empire up to China + India). Serendian Art Style was Central Asia. They dominated the silk route. influenced by Gandhara art. It presents a Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the combination of Greek, Persian and Chinese second king of the Han dynasty had sent his art forms. During the exploratory survey representatives to India. They returned to conducted by Sir Aurel Stein many terracotta China accompanied by two Buddhist monks, sculptures of Serendian style were brought to ‘Kashyapa Matang’ and ‘Dharmaraksha’ in light. 67 C.E. They carried many Buddhist texts In the 4th- 6th century C.E. many Buddhist with them. The texts were loaded on white temples and viharas were built in China. horses. After reaching China the monks However, stupas built in this period were translated the texts in Chinese language. The very few. Instead of a stupa every temple Chinese emperor built a temple in their had a pagoda of Chinese style. These pagoda honour, which is known as ‘White Horse being wooden, hardly any of them exists Temple’. This is the first Buddhist temple today. These pagodas used to have multiple built in China. floors. The upper floors of the pagodas In the 3rd century C.E. the rule of the successively reduced in size. The uppermost Han dynasty ended and the period of floor held a metal staff (yashti), which was disintegration and unrest began with it, fixed with metal rings that became pushing common people to a state of successively smaller in size. Arrangement of desperation. This period lasted till 6th century staff and the rings seems to be the only C.E. People got attracted to Buddhism in reminder of the Umberella in the Indian this period in large numbers. Many Chinese stupa architecture. Later, pagodas were built pilgrims began to visit Buddhist centres in by using bricks and stones. Central Asia and India. In the 4th century The influence of Buddhist art tradition C.E., Kumarjeeva the famous and highly from India still exists in the form of rock-cut learned monk translated many Buddhist texts caves. Three of them have received the status in Chinese language. In the 6th century the of World Cultural Heritage. Among them the popularity of Buddhism reached its peak in caves of ‘Dunhuang’ are located on the China. By this time both sects of Buddhism, ancient silk route. These caves are known as Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana, and ‘Mogao Caves’. Creation of these caves their sub-sects were well established in China. continued till 13th-14th century C.E. th In 7 century C.E. Islam and Christianity The merchants coming from the were gradually introduced. Kubalai Khan, the interior regions of China used to gather at grandson of Genghis Khan had great interest Dunhuang. It was an important meeting point in Buddhism. for the Chinese merchants and those coming The spread of Buddhism in China in the from other countries. Nearly 500 caves of 1st century C.E. also introduced a new trend Dunhuang are enriched with numerous in the Chinese art. Many of the Mahayana sculptures and murals. Thousands of Buddhist monks who arrived in China, hailed manuscripts were discovered from these from Central Asia. Their presence in China caves. inspired the making of images of Gautama

89 In the next lesson we will briefly its history and the extant traces of Indian review the spread of Indian culture in Sri culture in those countries. Lanka and the countries in Southeast Asia,

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Complete the concept map. complete the sentence. (1) The coin hoards found in Jataka Stories had Roman gold coins in it. (a) Tamilnadu (b) Maharashtra (c) Karnataka (d) Kerala Texts describing the (2) The famous king Hammurabi had Indian trade with ruled the kingdom of . distant places (a) Syria (b) Babylon (c) China (d) Greece (3) The route that links Asia and is referred as the ‘Silk Route’. (a) Europe (b) Q.3 Explain the following statements with (c) America (d) Russia reason. (4) ‘White Horse Temple’ is the first (1) Buddhism reached China during Buddhist temple built in . Kushana period . (a) India (b) Japan (2) The merchants rarely used the shorter (c) China (d) Egypt line of the Silk Route. (B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.4 Give your opinion. the correct ones. There were close cultural association (1) Strabo – Geographia between the Gandhara region and India (2) Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia before the advent of Islam. (3) Hippalus – Hippokura Q.5 Write short notes. (4) Arrian – Indica (1) Shahji-ki-Dheri (C) Write the names. (2) The Bamiyan Buddhas (1) A place in the Gandhara region Q.6 Answer the following question with the enlisted as a world Cultural heritage. help of given points. (2) Buddhist monks in the 4th century Write about the ties between ancient India B.C.E. who translated many Buddhist and China. texts in Chinese language (a) Trade relations (b) The spread of Buddhism in China (c) Serendian art style Activity Collect more information about the ‘Silk Route’ with the help of internet. 

90 13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia

13.1 India and Sri Lanka sermon from Thera Mahinda, the King and 13.2 India and Southeast Asia all the subjects accompanying him 13.1 India and Sri Lanka became the followers The and India has of Buddhism.Anula, remained close-knit from ancient times. the wife of king’s ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, ‘Chullavamsa’ younger brother wished are the three texts that tell us about the to become a Bhikkhuni. Indian and Sri Lankan dynasties, their mutual On hearing of her relations and the historical events, in the wish, Thera Mahinda times before and after Gautama Buddha. suggested that his sister These texts are known as ‘Vamsagranthas’. Theri Sanghamitta According to the Vamsagranthas, the (Sanghamitra) may be first kingdom of Sri Lanka was established invited from India, for in the 6th century C.E. and was known as the purpose. ‘Tambapanni (Tamrapanni)’. Another name Statue of Accordingly, Theri of the kingdom was ‘Rajrat’. Greek historians Devanampiya Tissa Sanghamitta arrived in at Mihinthale have mentioned it as ‘Taprobane’. According Sri Lanka. She brought a to the tradition, King Vijaya, the founder of branch of the ‘Bodhi’ this kingdom was a prince from the Vang- tree along with her. King Devanampiya Tissa Kalinga kingdom in India. He first went to welcomed her personally. Theri Sanghamitta Supparaka (Sopara) on the west coast of initiated Anula into the Buddhist Sangha. India from Vang-Kalinga and from there Anula was the first woman to became a reached Sri Lanka. Buddhist nun. With Anula’s initiation, Theri Sanghmitta established the first Bhikkhuni For further information of the ancient Shasan (Bhikkhuni Sangha) of Sri Lanka. kingdoms and important ports in Sri Lanka, The festival known as ‘Unduvapa Poya’* visit the following web site. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuradhapura_ is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka, on the Kingdom#/media File:Important_ locations_of_ full moon in the month of December, in the Anuradhapura_Kingdom.png memory of Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.

Thera Mahinda (Mahendra), son of * ‘Unduvapa Poya’ means full moon in the month of December. Emperor Ashoka arrived at Mihinthale, near Anuradhpur, the capital of Sri Lanka. He The important cultural places in Sri initiated (pabbajja/pravrajjya) King Lanka Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka to Buddhism. Anuradhpur - Mihinthale : Thera This event has been described in great details Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed at in the vamsagranthas. After listening to the Mihinthale near Anuradhpaur. It facilitated

91 the establishment and spread of Buddhism in as a memorial to his queen. These temples Sri Lanka. are the most ancient Hindu temples in Sri Important stupas at Anuradhpur- Lanka. Mihinthale : ‘Kantakchetiya’ is one of the The supremacy of the Cholas in Sri earliest stupas at Mihinthale. An inscription Lanka was ended by Vijayabahu. near the stupa mentions that the revenue Parakramabahu, a descendant of Vijayabahu, collected from a nearby tank and the who ruled in 12th century C.E. is supposed surrounding land was reserved as a gift for to be historically an important king. The the maintainance of this stupa. Buddhist sanghas in Sri Lanka had become The stupa erected on the remains disrupted by the time of Parakramabahu. He, (Shareerik Dhatu/asthi) of Thera Mahinda at under the guidance of Mahathera Kassap, Mihinthale, is known as ‘Ambasthal Thupa’. focused on reorganising them. Parakramabahu had routed the kingdom of Ruhuna in Sri Lanka. This kingdom had a tooth of Gautam Buddha (dantdhatu) in their custody. It was reclaimed by King Nissanka Malla. He built a temple on it in Polannaruwa. There is a stupa at the centre of the temple. At the foot of the stupa is a semicircular step, which is characteristic of the stupa architecture of Sri Lanka. It Thuparama is called, ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila). It King Devanampiya Tissa erected a stupa is carved with the figures of swans, on the relics of Gautama Buddha in elephants, horses and creepers. Anuradhpur. It is known as ‘Thuparama’. Thuparama is the earilest stupa among those that are extant in Sri Lanka. Buddhaghosha was an Indian philosopher. He stayed ‘Mahavihara’ in Anuradhpur. ‘Vishuddhimagga’ a text written by him is well-known. ‘Vishuddhimagga’ is the text, which is honoured as an equivalent of Tipitaka texts. ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila) Pulatthinagar (Polannaruwa) : The city Galapotha (Book in stone) is a unique of Polannaruwa is mentioned in Chullvamasa inscription recording the reign and th by the name, ‘Pulatthinagar’. In the 10 achievements of Nissanka Malla. It is century C.E. the Chola emperor Rajraja I inscribed on a stone slab that is 8.17 metre attacked Sri Lanka and razed Anuradhpur long and 1.39 metre wide. On one side of completely. Then he established his capital the galapotha an image of Gajalakshmi is at Polannaruwa. He renamed Polannaruwa as carved between two borders of a row of ‘Jananathmangalam’ and built a Shiva temple swans. there. Later he built one more Shiva temple The temple of dantdhatu at present is in

92 the city of ‘Kandy’. It is known as ‘Sri Dalad Maligava’. This temple is enlisted as the World Cultural Heritage.

Galapotha

Mural of Sigiriya By the way : The relics of (corporeal remains) Gautama Buddha were handed By the way : The inscriptions over to various sanghas in India and found in Sri Lanka, dated to the 3rd other counries after his mahaparinibbana. century B.C.E. to the 1st century C.E. These relics are known as ‘dhatu’. are inscribed in the Ashokan Brahmi According to ‘Deegha Nikaya’ a script. Researchers opine that the modern ‘dantdhatu’ was given in the custody of Sinhala script gradually developed from the king of Kalinga. Later this dantdhatu the Ashokan Brahmi. reached Sri Lanka. ‘Lalitvistar’, the Buddhist text A deep belief was rooted in Sri enlists 64 Indian scripts. The Brahmi Lanka that a royal house holding the script is one of it. The scripts used in custody of the dantdhatu had the divine Sri Lanka and many other countries in right to rule. As a result the ruling kings Southeast Asia were developed from it. of Sri Lanka strived to see that it remains in the precincts of their palace. Consequently the seat of the dantdhatu 13.2 India and Southeast Asia kept changing from time to time. There are very few references in the Indian literature to the Indian settlements and Dambulla and Sigiriya : The caves at kingdoms in Southeast Asia. However, the Dambulla in Sri Lanka are declared as court records of Chinese emperors provide World Cultural Heritage. There are images considerable information in this regard. The of Gautama Buddha and the Bodhisattvas ancient Indian literature refers to the land of inside the caves. The roofs of five caves at Southeast Asia as ‘Suvarabhumi’ (the Land Dambulla are decorated with paintings. of Gold). There is an enormous rock in the The trading relations between India and mountains near the city of Dambulla. A fort Southeast Asia began in the 1st century and a palace was built on this rock. At its B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century entrance a huge image of a lion was carved C.E. The strait of Malacca was convenient in the rock. The place was named ‘Sigiriya’ for the Indian merchants to enter the South after this lion. Sigiriya murals are compared China Sea. They unloaded their merchandise with the murals at Ajanta. on the western coast of Malya Peninsula,

93 from there transported it to the east coast by new lands they visited. Traces of Indian land route and again loaded it on the boats. culture can be seen there even today. This was easier than proceeding along the Myanmar : ‘Myanmar’ is a neighbouring coast all the way. This trade by the sea and country of India, adjacent to its northeast land route grew to a great extent under the border. It was earlier known as ‘Brahmdesh’. rule of Chola kings at the end of the 10th In the 2nd century B.C.E. there were city century C.E. states known as ‘Pyu’ in the north and The term ‘Southeast Asia’ was coined in central regions of Myanmar. Some new Pyu the times of the second world war. The cities came into existence at a later period. Buddhist texts mention a ‘Suvarnabhumi’. Among them the cities of ‘Halin’ and The scholars divide Southeast Asia into two ‘Shrikshetra’ were important. parts based on its geographic features : Shrikshetra (near the city which was 1. The Mainland - This region is also known as ‘Prome’ during the British period known as Indo-China. It comprises the and presently known as ‘Pyay’) was the countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, largest among the ‘Pyu’ cities. According to Laos, Vietnam and also the western region the prevailing tradition the two brothers, who of Malaysia. 2. The Maritime region - It were the founders of Shrikshetra hailed from comprises the Malaya peninsula, the eastern the Shakya clan of Gautam Buddha. The region of Malaysia as well as Indonesia. kingdom of Pagan (Bagan) arose in Myanmar Although all these regions are included under in the 1st century C.E. and by the 11th century a single umbrella name as Southeast Asia, it it grew into a great empire. All the Pyu city is necessary to keep in mind the local states including Shrikshetra were merged into diversity of cultural and historical constitution the empire of Pagan. of each region. King Anawrahta the founder of ‘Pagan empire’ is known as the greatest ruler in the Southeast Asia – for additional information history of Myanmar. He is credited with the visit the following web sites : unification of the north and the south (1) http://www.world-maps.co.uk/continent-map- Myanmar. This unification is supposed to ofsouth-east-asia.htm have given Myanmar its national identity. (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire# Anawrahta put a check to the increasing /media/File:Map-ofSoutheast-asia_900_CE.png) power of the Khmer empire of Cambodia. During his reign the ‘Thervada Buddhism’, The contact of Indians with various which had grown weaker, was revived. regions in Southeast Asia was on the increase The remains of the fortifications and because of trade during the 2nd century B.C.E. moats around the three Pyu cities of Halin, to 2nd century C.E. The merchants who had Beikthano and Shrikshetra can be seen even to travel for months together were naturally today. The archaeological excavations at the accompanied by a large retinue of priests, sites of these cities have brought into light monks, also travellers who were out to test many remains of buildings of those days, their luck, ambitious members of royal stupas, cemeteries and the structures built for families etc. These were the people who water management. The three sites have been proved instrumental in the spread of Indian declared as the World Cultural Heritage. culture in Southeast Asia. Some of them The ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda built between even established independent kingdoms in the 6th - 10th century C.E. at Yongan (Rangoon)

94 is looked at as the finest example of the Thailand : The ancient Thai people stupa architecture in Myanmar. It is said that referred to their country as ‘Mueng Thai’. two merchant brothers had visited India and However, it was known in the world as they had the fortune of meeting Gautama ‘Siam’. In the 20th century its name was Buddha in person. At that time they had changed to ‘Thailand’. Thailand was ruled received 8 hair of the Buddha from himself. from the 6th to the 11th century by ‘Mon’ After returning to their motherland they people. At that time it was known as handed over the hair to the king. The king ‘Dvaravati’. Indian culture was introduced erected a stupa on the hair and it came to and spread in Thailand in the ‘Dvaravati’ be known as ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda. This period. The Indian traditions of sculpture, pagoda is covered with sheets of gold. literature, ethics, judicial science, etc. had a great role in shaping up the Mon culture. Compared to other kingdoms in Southeast Asia the kingdom of Dvaravati was smaller and weaker. However, it contributed greatly to the development of writing, arts, administration, religion and science, etc. in the other kingdoms. The remains of sculptures and architecture of the Dvaravati period have been found in the vicinity of the cities like Lop Buri (Lao Puri) and Ayuttha (Ayodhya).

Shwedagon Pagoda

The ‘Anand Temple’ is another important monument built during the reign of Kyanzittha, the emperor of Pagan in the 11th century C.E. It is the finest example of the combined architectural style of India and Pagan.

Dvaravati style of temple architecture

The Dvaravati Sculptures show a great influence of Indian sculptural style. Primarily it includes Buddha images, but a few Shivalingas and images of Vishnu are also found. The sculptural art of Cambodia is supposed to have originated from the Anand mandir Dvaravati art style.

95 In the 14th century C.E. a new kingdom skilled artisans. Arieal photography has of Ayuttha was established in Thailand. In confirmed this description. The excavations the 18th century it was completly razed by conducted by the French archaeologist Louis the rulers of Myanmar. It was burnt by the Malleret have brought to light remains of conquerors. All of its sculptures, libraries, temples built in brick masonry, workshops of temples were completely burnt. making jewellery, residential houses, etc. The kings of Ayuttha bore names with Roman coins of 2nd century C.E. were also the prefix ‘Ram’. The popularity of Ramayana found. may be the reason behind it. Thai Ramayana has been developed into an independent * Mekong river originates on the plateau of Tibet and flows through the Yunnan province of China, tradition. It is known as ‘Ramakien’ (Ram Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and in the Akhyana). The stories of Ramakien have end Vietnam, where it merges into South China Sea. been preserved in all Thai art traditions including sculpture, folk music, dance and 2. Champa : ‘Champa’ was an ancient theatre. kingdom in the coastal region of Vietnam. Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia : In the Several Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script colonial period Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, have been found there. Champa was named these three countries together were known as after the ‘Cham’ tribe. The names of the ‘Indo-China’. cities in Champa* were ‘Indrapur’, During the 8th - 12th century C.E. the ‘Amaravati’, ‘Vijay’, ‘Kauthara’ and Mon and Khmer people ruled over Cambodia. ‘Panduranga’. The city of Vijay was the Khmer empire originated in Cambodia. capital of Champa kingdom. The inscriptions of Champa mention the names of it kings and queens and the temples of Hindu deities For the reference of map visit the following web site: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ built by them, especially Shiva temples. File:Bandovietnam-final-fill-scale.svg Wooden images of Gautama Buddha have also been found. This evidence indicates the 1. ‘Funan’ : This was a kingdom in existence of more city states like Funan in Vietnam which existed in the Delta region of Vietnam, which were trade centres from the river Mekong*. Funan is known mainly where various types of merchandise were through the Chinese records. The ‘Han’ imported and exported. dynasty ruled in China in the 3rd century C.E. When the rule of Han dynasty was ended, To see the names and the map of Champa visit the China disintegrated into three parts. Because following web site: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/45/VietnamChampa1.gif of it the southern kingodom of China was not left with any alternative path to reach During the span of 4th - 14th century C.E. the silk route. Hence, the king of the southern Shaiva temples were built in the kingdom of kingdom sent some people to explore the sea Champa. These temples are built in a valley route. They found a kingdom in the delta known as ‘My Son Valley’. The temple of region of the Mekong. They named it ‘Funan’. ‘Bhadreshvara’ is supposed to be important According to their description, Funan was a in this group. Once there were more than 70 city with fortification, a place, well-established temples at My Son. In the walled courtyards revenue system, laws, system of record of these temples many stone tablets with keeping in written form, and a class of inscriptions are erected. These inscriptions

96 are in Sanskrit and Cham languages. In the Buddhism is the main religion in Laos. The same precincts are found burials of the cultural and literary expressions of people are members of the royal families. It seems that influenced by the stories of Gautama Buddha’s My son was the ceremonial complex, reserved life and Ramayana. Especially, this influence for the royal families. The site of My Son is conspicuous in the sculptural and is declared as the World Cultural Heritage. presentations of performing arts, which are The characteristic aspect of the frequently based on the themes from these architectural style of My Son temples is that sources. ‘San Sinxay’ is an epic composed it is imagined in the form of ‘Meru Parvata’. in the 16th century in Laos. It is popular, not only in Laos but also in Thailand. Its main plot is quite akin to the story of Ramayana. 4. Cambodia : Cambodia was known as ‘Kambujadesha’ in ancient times. Its history is known from the inscriptions installed in the precincts of its temples. These inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Khmer languages. The first kingdom, established in Cambodia was known by the name of ‘Chenla’. The people who established Chenla, were known as ‘Khmer’. The influence of Indian culture in Cambodia dates back to the Chenla period. The kingdom of Chenla was established by Jayavarman II. He was coronated in 802 C.E. His capital’s name was ‘Hariharalaya’. In the span of next 500 years the kings Sculptural model of My Son Temple of Chenla expanded their empire from Vietnam to Myanmar and to China in the The war that was continued for 20 years north. It came to be known as the Khmer in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia is known empire. After King ‘Jayavarman VII’ the as ‘Vietnam War’. The vicinity of My Son Khmer empire began to decline. In the 15th temples got damaged to a great extent century C.E. the Khmer empire was ultimately because of this war. rooted out completely. 3. Laos : Loas is a landlocked country. The reign of Suryavarman II in the 11th The population of Laos is mainly composed century and that of Jayavarman VII was of the ‘Lao’ people who came to Laos from proved beneficial for temple architecture. southern China. The name of the kingdom of The world famous temple of ‘Angkorwat’ Laos was ‘Lao Sang’. This kingdom was in was built in Yashodharpura, the capital city th th existence during 14 -18 century. Lao Sang built by Suryavarman II. The temple area is th was attacked by Thailand in the 19 century. about 500 acres, that is about 2 Sq.Kilometers. Lao Sang could not survive the attack. In The main entrance is at the west and the th the latter half of the 19 century the French temple is surrounded by a moat, which is established their administrative centre in 200 metres in depth. Among the sculptural Vientiane, the capital of Laos. panels on the southeast walls of the temple Like other countries in Southeast Asia, the panel of ‘Samudramanthan’ is notable.

97 Angkorwat Temple

After the death of Suryavarman II, Heritage by UNESCO. Angkorwat was attacked by the king of Malaysia and Indonesia : Before the Champa. He caused considerable damage to arrival of the Europeans, there have been the temple. Later, it was turned into a three kingdoms in Malaysia. The ‘Vayu Buddhist temple. Purana’ mentions Malay peninsula as Jayavarman VII built a new capital, ‘Malaydvipa’. The Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing/ ‘Angkorthom’ near Yashodharpura, the first Yi-Jing (7th century C.E.) had visited the capital of the Khmer empire. He was a ‘Malayu’ kingdom. Ptolemy has mentioned Budhhist. The planning of Angkorthom city, Malayu as ‘Maleu Kolon’ and ‘Golden its water management and architecture are Chersonese’ (golden peninsula). An inscription the indicators of the advanced Khmer style. in the Brihadishvara temple in Tanjore The temple of ‘Bayon’ was built at the centre mentions it as ‘Malaiyur’. Malayu was one of Angakorthom. Bayon temple represented of the kingdoms conquered by the Chola king ‘Mount Meru’. The planning of the temple Rajendra. The Chinese court records also and the city represents the mythological story mention ‘Malayu’. ‘Samudramanthana’. The temple at the centre 1. Srivijaya : This kingdom proved to is supposed to be the churner. There are be more powerful among all kingdoms who statues of gods and daityas, the rivals of competed with each other. This kingdom gods, standing at both sides of the southern originated in Sumatra. Malayu and other gate, churning the ocean with Mount Meru neighbouring kingdoms who were weaker as the churner. The moats around the city than Srivijaya were gradually merged into it. are linked to two lakes called ‘East Barray’ In the 11th century C.E. Srivijya became and ‘West Barray ’. These two lakes are the weaker while facing the Chola invasion. In source of water for the moats, and also for the 14th century C.E. ‘Parameswaran’ alias Angkorthom as well as for Angkorwat and ‘Eskandar Shah’, the last king of Malayu other temples in the vicinity. City gates of established the first sultanate of Malaya. Angkorthom are known for their Shikharas, 2. Majapahita : In the 13th century C.E., which are in the form of a smiling human in Eastern Java, arose a kingdom known as face of enormous size. The faces are built ‘Majapahita’. This was the last kingdom, by assembling stones that are cut as different with Indian cultural traits. The name of the parts of the face. founder king of Majapahita was, ‘Vijaya’. Angkorwat, Angkorthom and its vicinity King Vijaya was successful in sacking Kublai have been declared as the World Cultural Khan from Java. He established his

98 A group of Hindu temples on the Dieng For additional information : plateau in Central Java was built in the I-Tsing/Yi-Jing had stayed in Sumatra Shailendra period. before coming to India and also on his 4. Matram : There was a kingdom return journey to China. He studied called Mataram contemporary to Shailendra. Sanskrit grammer during his stay in Its founder king’s name was Sanjaya. During Sumatra. He has mentioned the the period of Matram kingdom, ‘Mahabharata’ kingdom of Sumatra by the name of ‘Shili Foshi’ (Srivijaya). The king of and ‘Harivamsha’ were translated in Javanese Srivijaya had sent him to Malayu. He language. Poems in ancient Javanese language stayed in Malayu for two months. are composed in Sanskrit metres like Before returning to China, he again ‘Shardulvikridita’. Poems composed in metres stayed in Malayu for two months. He are known as ‘Kakvin’. mentions that in the intervening period The shadow puppetry show known as of twenty years between his first ‘Wayang’ is a famous performing art of arrival and return journey the name of Indonesia. This show is presented by using Malayu had changed to Srivijaya. cut-outs from leather or wood. Stories of According to his description there were Mahabharata and Ramayana are presented more than a thousand Buddhist on the stage by the artists in this show. Bhikkhus in Srivijaya studying Sanskrit. There are also some forms of ‘Wayang’ played by human characters.

For additional information : A number of inscriptions have been discovered in Sumatra. They are written in the ancient Malayu language and the script used for it is Pallava Brahmi (a form of Tamil Brahmi script). supremacy in some of the islands like Java, Bali and also some other islands and extended the kingdom of Java into an empire. Its existence came to an end with the rise of Wayang Puppets Islamic states in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Shaivaite temples, and Jaina temples 3. Shailendra : According to some were akso built in Indonesia. The group of Indian historians the Shailendra kings hailed temples in Prambanan is important. This from India. However, this opinion is not group has been accorded the status of World accepted by all historians. The Shailendras Cultural Heritage. The main temple in this reached the peak of their political power in group is known as ‘Candi* Prambanan’ or the 8th - 9th centuries. The shailendra kings ‘Candi Lara/Rara Jonggrang’. It was built by were followers of Buddhism. They built many King Daksha. This is a temple dedicated to Buddhist temples and stupas. Among them Siva and it has a beautiful image of Goddess the stupa of ‘Borobudur’ is unique for its Durga in it. Local people call her Lara/Rara architecture, sculptural art and its expression Jonggrang. of Buddhist philosophy. It has been enlisted as World Cultural Heritage. * Candi means temple.

99 Thus, so far, we have studied the history The history from the beginning of the of cultural impact of India in several other Christian era in the ancient period to the countries. Spread of Buddhism and Indian medieval age is the history of cultural trade facilitated the spread of Indian culture. exchange between India and other countries.

For additional information : The base of every platform is decorated According to Buddhist philosophy the with sculptures all around. There are universe exists at three planes : (1) niches with images of Gauthama Buddha Kamdhatu ( Bondage in the form of in it. On the third plane, there are three desire) (2) Roopdhatu (Bondage in the circular platforms, which have stupas form of physical appearance and with latticed structure along the edges of appelations) (3) Aroopdhatu (State of the platforms. There are images of being beyond any bondage). The Gautama Buddha inside the latticed architectural design of Borobudur Stupa stupas. The last platform has a stupa in is based on the concept of these three its centre. This stupa is built in solid planes. The first two planes have masonry. The grand stupa of Borobudur platforms that successively reduce in size. was built around 800 C.E.

Borobudur Stupa

100 Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (C) Write the names. complete the sentence. (1) Son of Emperor Ashoka - (1) Buddhaghosh was an Indian (2) Ancient kingdom in Laos - in Sri Lanka. (3) Kingdom of ‘Cham’ people - (a) Thinker (b) Philosopher (4) Last king of Malayu - (c) King (d) Priest Q.2 Write short notes on - (2) The founder of Pagan empire was (1) Chenla kingdom . (2) Visnhu temple at Angkorwat (a) Kyanzittha (b) Anwrahta (3) Majapahit kingdom (c) Ayuttha (d) Jayavarman (4) Champa kingdom (3) The ancient name of Cambodia was Q.3 Answer the following questions in detail. . (1) Explain the spread of Indian culture (a) Kambuja Desh (b) Laos in Thailand. (c) Angkorwat (d) Sumatra (2) Write about the cultural (B) Find the incorrect pair and write interrelationship between India and the correct ones. Myanmar. (1) Finest example of stupa architecture Activity in Myanmar - Shwedagon pagoda Find out the names of World Cultural (2) Saivaite temples in Champa kingdom Heritage in this lesson. Collect their - My Son pictures with the help of internet. Prepare (3) The world famous temple in a chart by using the following points : Cambodia - Angkorwat Name of the heritage, place and country. (4) The centre of Angkorthom - Dieng Temples 

101 14. , Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

14.1 Political conditions in India Pallavas etc.; thus Chola empire expanded its 14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions boundaries. After the decline of 14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Harshavardhan’s empire many big and small Devgiri kingdoms came into being in North India. 14.4 Trade and Commerce There was constant struggle for power among 14.5 Urbanisation these kingdoms. There was no power, who 14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social could have control over the rulers of these life kingdoms. The Turkish invaders took 14.7 Vijaynagar Empire advantage of this political instability of India 14.8 Bahamani kingdom in 13th century. During this period many petty rulers existed such as Chauhans of Rajasthan, Pratiharas and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj, The transition of ancient period to Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Parmars of mediaeval period is reflected in various Malwa, Kalachuris of Gorakhpur, Kalachuris sectors. This transition took place in all fields of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh), Chalukyas including political, social, economic, religious (Solanki) of Gujarat, Palas of Bengal etc. and cultural. They did resist the invasions of the Turks individually but they did not unite for it. Do you Know? 14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions An era ending at a particular date and the era beginning from the next is Muhammad bin Qasim of Ummayad not what happens in reality. Some dynasty attacked Sindh in the year 712 C.E. traditions of the earlier era continue to He conquered the entire region from Sindh exist while new traditions are being to Multan. After Muhammad bin Qasim, the formed. Accordingly the historic period Arabs rule in India grew instable. was roughly divided into various periods, In India, the Islamic rule was established such as : Early, Mediaeval and Modern. by the Turks. They attacked India several It is difficult to draw a line between times. None of the rulers in India could two eras as the contexts of the beginning successfully resist them. The Turks looted and the end of two eras may differ enormous wealth from India. Many kingdoms from place to place and time to time. were destroyed and Islamic rule was established. In the 11th century, Sultan Sabuktigin of 14.1 Political conditions in India Ghazni in Afghanistan attacked King Jaipal Some of the royal dynasties of ancient of Punjab. His kingdom was spread from period continued to rule during the mediaeval Hindukush mountains to the river Chenab. period while new dynasties arose. The Chola After the death of Sabuktgin, his son Mahmud kingdom in South India had expanded into became the Sultan of Ghazni. He invaded an empire during the mediaeval period. King India for seventeen times (1001 to 1018 CE) Vijayalaya defeated the rulers like Pandyas, with the aim of looting and spreading Islam.

102 Khyber Pass

For Additional Information : One period Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir needs to cross Hindukush to enter Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali also came Pakistan from Afghanistan. This route to India via this pass. In the 20th century goes across Khyber Pass. This pass has the British built a railway line with its proved to be very important in Indian last destination at a place called ‘Jamrud’ history. During ancient period, the trade near Peshawar in Pakistan. Jamrud is the between India and Central Asia was doorway of Khyber pass. This railway carried via this pass. After the Persian track runs about 52 kilometers. There Emperor Darius, Alexander came, to are 34 tunnels and 92 small and big India, via this pass. During mediaeval bridges on it.

After Mahmud of Ghazni, the series of Sindh to Bengal. The Indian rulers could be invasions of Muhammad Ghuri on India defeated easily by the Turkish invaders began. He was very ambitious. Along with because of internal dissent, lack of centralised looting India, his main intention was to power, lack of unity, lack of a standing army establish his rule in India. The king in addition to the cruel and aggressive war Prithviraj Chauhan opposed him. Two wars strategies of the invaders. were fought between the two rulers. They are Muhammed Ghuri appointed one of his known as ‘Battles of Tarain’. Prithviraj slaves, Qutubuddin Aibak to administer the Chauhan was defeated in the Second battle province of Delhi and surrounding regions. of Tarain. After this defeat there was no After the death of Muhammad Ghuri, such powerful king who could hold the Qutubuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of together. Muhammad Ghuri succeeded Delhi. He is the founder of the ‘Slave in establishing the Turkish Empire from Dynasty’.

103 14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of necessary to keep the newly increased army Devgiri and its officers busy by planning new After Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish came campaigns. All these factors were responsible on the throne of Delhi. After his death, his for his campaign in the South. daughter Razia became the Sultan of Delhi. After the , the Tughluq Since childhood Razia was trained in state dynasty ruled Delhi. In this dynasty, the affairs by Iltutmish. She was a capable ruler reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq proved to and concerned with the welfare of her people. be important. The shifting of the capital to She also lead some military campaigns. She Devgiri and changes in the coinage system was the first and the only woman to ascend proved to be the major reasons for his failure. the throne of Delhi. After Razia, Balban was He was the first Sultan to issue copper coins. an important Sultan who ruled Delhi. As a policy matter, perhaps Muhmmad-bin- After the end of the slave dynasty, the Tughluq was right in his decisions. However, Khalji dynasty came to power. Alauddin when it came to the implementation of those Khalji attacked Yadavas of Devgiri and policies he overlooked the ground realities collected enormous wealth. such as transport and communication, adverse Devgiri was a prosperous city in the effect on the trade and resultant unrest among South. King Ramadevarai Yadava was ruling the subjects, this decision became unsuccessful over Devgiri. Alauddin attacked Devgiri in and he again shifted the capital back to 1296 C.E. In face of the sudden attack Delhi. The prestige of the Sultan and the Ramadevarai took shelter in the fort of kingdom declined due to his erroneous Devgiri (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the decision. fort. He plundered the city. There was an Taimur was the Mongol* ruler in Central acute shortage of food in the fort. Finally Asia. He invaded India during the period of Ramadevarai had to sign a treaty with him. Naseeruddin Mahmood and brought an end Alauddin conquered nearby provinces of to the Tughluq dynasty. During Muhmmad- Devgiri as well, and collected a large booty bin-Tughluq’s absence in Delhi, the Mughals as part of the treaty. captured Punjab and they reached up to During 1312 C.E., Alauddin once again Delhi. turned his attention towards south as During this period an important incidence Ramdevrai, the ruler of Devgiri had stopped * The Mughal rulers in India claimed to be the paying the tribute to Alauddin for some time. descendants of the Mongols in Central Asia. Alauddin sent his Commander, Malik Kafur, to South. There were political and economic took place in the South. Muhammad Tughluq reasons behind this campaign. The most did succeed in building his Empire in South. important reason was to subdue the Yadavas But during the same period, two other and to collect tribute from them. Alauddin kingdoms arose in the south, the Vijaynagar had increased his army in size. He was the and the Bahamani kingdom. The establishment first Sultan to set up a permanent standing of Vijaynagar posed a strong challenge to the army on a large scale. He devised some new Sultanate. economic reforms for controlling the market After the Tughluques, the Sayyed dynasty prices. These new measures created a heavy ruled over Delhi. After Sayyed, the Lodi strain over the state treasury. It was also dynasty was established. Ibrahim Lodi proved

104 to be the last Sultan. He had earned many enemies because of his nature. His Afghan The goods were further transported to Sardars also went against him. Daulat Khan, various ports via land or river ways. From the Subhedar of Punjab, approached Babur, the there it was sent by sea route to countries ruler of Kandahar and Kabul, for help against like Iran, Arabia, China etc. The goods Ibrahim Lodi. In 1526 C.E., Babur defeated mainly included cotton cloth, muslin, dyed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat and cloth, scented oils, indigo, , cotton, dry the Sultanate period came to an end. It was ginger etc. Horses were imported to India the beginning of the Mughal period. from Iraq, Turkey and Iran. Semi precious 14.4 Trade and Commerce stones, mercury, lead, alum, saffron, metals Agriculture was the main occupation of like gold and silver were imported from majority of people during the Sultanate period. Agricultural production and its revenue You would like to know : Amir were the main sources of revenue. Along Khusrow was a well-known poet and scholar who composed poetry in the with it, textile industry also flourished on Persian language. He spent his life in large scale. Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, the court of Sultan Balban in Delhi. Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, While describing the muslin of Dhaka, Devgiri were the main centres of textile he says, “the Muslin is so fine that industry during this period. The cotton cloth even if hundred yards are tied around was exported on a large scale from Bengal the head, one could still see the hair.” to Gujarat. The textile exports included He says further, “Hundred yards of muslin, linen cloth, satin and jari cloth. muslin can pass through the hole of a needle, but the same needle cannot During this period, the textile dyeing make a hole in the cloth.” This shows industry gained importance. Golconda, the fines of craftsmanship of those days. Ahmedabad, Dhaka, etc. were the centres of this industry. During this period various other industries also flourished such as metal Mecca and Aden. industry, sugar industry, leather works etc. During the Sultanate period there were The manufacturing of paper began during major changes in coinage system. Instead of this period. Paper was made out of rags and images of deities on the coins, the names of tree barks. Paper manufacturing was carried the Khalifa and the Sultan were inscribed on out in the regions of Kashmir, Siyalkot, the coins. Details regarding the year of issue, Delhi, Gaya, Bihar, Bengal and Gujarat. place of minting etc. were inscribed on it in During the Sultanate rule, there was an the Arabic script. ‘Tola’ came to be considered increase in the internal trade of India. The local markets operated through weekly markets (Bazaar) and market places (Mandi / Mandai). There was rise of new trade centres (Peth) due to continuously expanding transactions of trading. The Indian as well as foreign traders picked up their goods from the trading centres at Delhi, Multan, Jaunpur, Banaras, Agra, Patna etc. Coins of Muhmmad-bin-Tughluq

105 communication increased considerably. The By the Way : Some of the Sultans cities developed because of it. carried out some experiments in the 14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social economic sector. Alauddin Khalji life attempted to bring the markets under royal control. The prices of grains, The Sultanate period left its impact on vegetables, fruits, day to day the religious and cultural life as well as it commodities as well as slaves, horses did in the political life. Some new facets were standardised by the central were added to the field of Indian art. For administration. The traders were obliged example, Razia Sultan encouraged the to sell their goods at a standard price. musicians and singers by honouring them During famines the government provided with awards. Balban himself was a musician. essential commodities at regulated He created new Ragas by continuing the prices in the market. The farmers and Iranian music with Indian music. Amir traders were asked to set aside the Khusrow, Amir Khas and many other poets grains for house consumption and to and musicians were honoured members of the sell the rest to the government at a low royal court of Balban. price. In this process, the farmers were The Sufi saints have greatly contributed the ones who suffered the most. to the development of Indian music. The followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti used as a standard unit for the weight of the coin. to present ‘Qawwali’ every evening in the 14.5 Urbanisation court of Delhi. It became a popular form The rise and fall of the cities depend on of vocal music. Hussain Shah Sharukhi its political and cultural graph of events. The developed the Khayal style of vocal music. process of urbanisation is associated mainly The Islamic rulers built huge mosques, with political and economic development. dargahs, and tombs. It presents a beautiful The rulers play an important role in the blend of Iranian and Indian architecture. settling and development of a city. According Qutubuddin Aibak was the first ruler to have to the Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun, trade started building monuments in this style, gains momentum as a result of conducive which is known as Indo-Islamic architecture. policies of the ruler. Some cities gain He built ‘Quwwat-i-Islam’ mosque at Delhi. importance as administrative centres while Qutub Minar at Mehrauli is a well-known others gain importance as industrial centres. example of Islamic architecture. The During the Sultanate period, the process construction of Qutub Minar bagan during of urbanisation received momentum. At the the reign of Qutubuddin Aibak and completed end of the 13th century Delhi developed as during the period of Iltutmish. Later, many the capital of the Sultans. Alauddin Khalji buildings were built in the precincts of Kutub of the Khalji dynasty built the city of ‘Siri’. Minar. Among them are the ‘Alai Darwaza’ The Sultan of Tughluq dynasty set up three and Jamalkhan mosque built by Alauddin cities namely, Tughluqabad, Jahanpanha, and Khalji. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Fatehabad Firozabad. The Sultans of Sayyed and Lodi and Hisaf-i-Firuz. He built many forts, dynasty made the city of Agra as their bridges, dharamshalas and canals. The capital. During this period many small and buildings built by the Sultans of Tughlaq big kingdoms existed and the nature of their dynasty were huge but simple. capitals was similar to small and big cities. The Sultans of Delhi encouraged literary Trade and sources of transport and activities as well. During the Arab period and the reign of Sultans, many important

106 (primary school) and Madarasas were established. 14.7 Vijaynagar Empire At the end of 13th century, Alauddin Khalji’s invasions, the coffers of local rulers in South India were emptied to a great extent. This was the time Krishnadevaraya when Harihara and Bukka established new kingdom of ‘Vijaynagar’ in 1336 C.E. During the rule of king Krishnadevaraya the kingdom expanded into an empire spreading from South Konkan in the west to Vishakhapatnam in the East Qutub Minar and Krishna river in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. Krishnadevaraya wrote a text Sanskrit texts were translated in Persian entitled, ‘Amuktamalyada’ which is about the language. Al-Beruni, who came to India State and Policy. during the period of Mahmud Ghazni, studied The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti and Sanskrit language and translated many Persian traveller Abdul Razzaq had visited sanskrit texts in Arabic language. Many Vijayanagar. Their travel reports give fair writers and poets found patronage in the account of the history of Vijayanagar. court of the Sultans. Many scholars from countries like Syria, Arabia, Iran, etc. used 14.8 Bahamani kingdom to travel to India during this period. Tuli In 1347 C.E. some of the Sardars in translated the text of ‘Koshashastra’. During south revolted against Sultan Muhammad the Sultanate period many historians rose to Tughluq under the leadership of Hasan fame. Among them some names were Hasan Gangu. They captured the fort of Daulatabad. Nizami, Ziauddin Barani, Afif Yahya etc. Hasan Gangu took up the title, ‘Alauddin During this period the Persian, Arabic and Bahamatshah’ and established the Bahamani Turkish language gave rise to a new language kingdom. called Urdu in South India. Hasan Gangu established his capital at During the Sultanate period, the Muslim in Karnataka. He focused on the society in India comprised people of various expansion of his kingdom. During the period origin like Turks, Ulemas, Mughals, Arabs, of Bahamani rule, the Prime Minister (Vazir) and the Indian Muslims. Most of the Sultans Mahmud Gawan strengthened the kingdom. were Turks or Pathans. An independent class He paid the soldiers with fixed salary instead of Amirs and Umravs (nobility) came into of Jahagirs (land grants). The land revenue existence. During this period, many Maktabas was fixed based on land measurement.

107 Gawan was interested in mathematics , Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar and and medicine. He had a large personal Qutubshahi of Golconda. collection of books, and established Madarasa In 1565 C.E., in the battle of Talikota, at , because of which he stands apart these five ruling houses came together under from his contempories. the Bahamani leadership and defeated the After the death of Mahmud Gawan, the emperor of Vijayanagar and the Vijayanagar Bahamani court was divided into different Empire came to an end. factions. The conflict among them affected The Sultanate period had far reaching the kingdom adversly. The conflict with the effects on political and social life of India. Vijaynagar kingdom had also taken a toll on A new culture developed as the effect of the political strength of the Bahamani synthesis between Islamic and local Indian kingdom. The provincial Governors began to traditions. After the end of the Sultanates, the operate more independently. This led to the was established in the north. disintegration of the Bahamani kingdom into We are going to study about it in the next five small ruling houses - Imadshahi of lesson. Varhad, Baridshahi of Bidar, Adilshahi of

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (c) Amir Khusrow complete the sentence. (d) Husen Shah Sharukhi (1) The royal poet in the court of (2) The first ruler who built the buildings Balban was . in Indo-Islamic style of architecture (a) Al-Beruni (b) Tuli was .

108 (a) Ferozshah Tughluq Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons. (b) Qutubuddin Aibak (1) The Arab rule did not expand in (c) Alauddin Khalji India (d) Akbar (2) The Rajput rulers had to accept (B) Find the incorrect pair and write defeat in front of the Turkish the correct ones. invaders. (1) Rajasthan – Chauhans Q.5 State your opinion. (2) Kanauj – Patiharas The textile industry flourished during the (3) Bundelkhand – Chandelas Sultanate rule. (4) Tripuri – Paramars Q.6 Write short notes - Q.2 Write in correct chronological order (1) Khyber Pass (1) Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in (2) Coins during Sultanate period the second battle of Terain. Q.7 Anwer the following question with the (2) Muhammad Tughluq shifted the help of given points. capital from Delhi to Devgiri. Write down the information about the (3) Sabuktigin, the Sultan of Ghajni, invasion of Alauddin Khalji on Yadavas attacked king Jaipal of Punjab. of Devgiri with the help of points given (4) Qutubuddin Aibak became the first below. Sultan of Delhi. (a) Reasons of invasion Q.3 Complete the following concept map. (b) Invasion and events (c) Effects of invasion

Buildings in Islamic Activity style during the Sultante period Collect information about the Hindi movie Razia Sultan and critically evaluate it from Historical point of view. 

109 15. India during Mughal period

capable of facing the onslaught of new 15.1 Mughal rule in India challenges. The Indians were not familiar 15.2 Reforms in revenue system with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of 15.3 Art, architecture, literature all this, the Mughals established their rule in 15.4 Trade, industries, social life India. 15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan

For Additional Information: The period of Delhi Sultanate was the ‘Mughal’ or ‘Mogal’ are the corrupted first phase of Islamic rule in India. We have forms of the Persian word ‘Mongol’. The studied this phase in lesson 14. Ibrahim Lodi Mughals had come from Central Asia. was the last Sultan of Delhi. He died while They were the descendants of Mongol fighting with Babur. After that the Delhi ruler Genghis Khan and Turkish ruler Sultanate came to an end and the Mughal Taimurlang. The Mughals held great rule was established. After the decline of the pride in their ancestry. The stories of Sultanate, the Mughal rule dominated the Taimur’s attack on India inspired Babur political scene during 1526 C.E. to 1707 C.E. to carry out expedition in India. Babur During this period most of north and central was born in Uzbekistan. He was the king India and some parts of the Deccan were of Farghana province in Central Asia. under their control. The Mughal period was He defeated the Lodi Afghans of North prosperous as far as the development in the India and established the Mughal rule in fields of art and literature, administrative India. The Mughals ruled over India for system, foreign relations, trade etc. are more than three centuries. concerned.

15.1 Mughal rule in India The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could not survive in front of Babur in the battle of In the beginning of the 16th century, the Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi on the political condition in India was somewhat strength of configuration skills, strong disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to artillery, system of secret intelligence and decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi strong leadership. Babur established his rule Sultanate broke down completely and many in Delhi. The Rajput kings came together new independent kingdoms emerged in the under the leadership of Mewar King Rana North, Central and South India. The Bahamani Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the kingdom got divided into five branches. The Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the by the five Islamic ruling houses in the throne. But Humayun was deprived from the South. During the same period Portuguese kingdom due to the defeat at the hands of began to settle on the western coast of India. Shershah Sur of Bihar. The traditional military system of the Indian rulers in the mediaeval period was not Shershah Sur made some reforms in the

110 administrative set up. He brought together the the Mughal rule has to be strengthened in Afghan sardars scattered in North India and India then he had to adopt non-offensive established the Afghan rule. The descendants policies, which would be popular. of Shershah were not efficient. Hence after After Akbar, , Shahjahan and the death of Shershah, Humayun regained his ruled efficiently. Aurangzeb lost kingdom. attempted to expand his empire in the Deccan After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended with prolonged campaigns. Aurangzeb reign the throne. He proved to be the greatest is notable for his wars in frontier provinces, Mughal Emperor because of his qualities his political policies in North and south India, such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness staunch religious policies, and the Mughal- and courage. The kingdom established by Maratha conflict. This period is marked by Babur was transformed into a great empire the expansion of Maratha kingdom, by Akbar. He established his rule from Kabul interference by the Europeans in the political to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh. affairs of India and the decline of Mughal During this period, Rana Pratap, the ruler of power. Finally, the aftermath of the struggle Mewar, put up a strong resistance against of Independence in 1857 C.E., saw the end Akbar. Akbar could never win a war with of the Mughal rule under Bahadur Shah. Rana Pratap. Hence for the expansion of the 15.2 Reforms in revenue system empire, he adopted the strategy of persuasion Akbar made further reforms in the with the Rajputs. Akbar had realized that if revenue system implemented by Shershah

111 Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the Mughal revenue system. He graded the cultivable land based on systematic land survey. The land was classified into four types on the basis of annual yield, i.e. fertile (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat) and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land holdings of farmers were registered. An average of the annual yield in the last ten years was calculated and one third of this average yield was fixed as the base for the tax to be paid. The tax, thus fixed, was applicable for the span of ten years. This offered considerable respite to farmers for a Buland Darwaza, span of ten years. Documents known as ‘Kabulayat’ and ‘Patta’ were prepared from of ‘Baburnama’. The art of painting received the farmers after the fixing of the tax rate. encouragement during the period of Akbar. The tax was collected in cash or in kind. He appointed skilled painters in his court. The farmers were sanctioned loans for tilling During the period of Jahangir, paintings were the land, which could be repaid in installments. done based on the court and hunting scenes. Concessions were also granted to the farmers The paintings of this period were done in a during times of calamities like famine, floods, more realistic style, which is vibrant and and epidemics. These were the Welfare attractive. These paintings, portray birds and policies of Emperor Akbar. Todarmal in animals, cloud formations, human figures, emperor Akbar’s court is known for his and natural scenery. insights regarding the welfare of common people. His insights were instrumental for Akbar’s land reforms. 15.3 Art, architecture, literature The reign of the three emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of peace, order and prosperity. A new era began in the field of art and architecture. The etched designs on the marble walls of Mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence of the highly advanced styles of art and architecture. The carved designs on the tombs of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and are its paramount examples. During the period of Akbar and Jahangir the art of ivory carving received royal patronage. The Mughal paintings originated from the Persian styles of painting. There are miniature paintings of Persian style in the manuscript Mughal Painting

112 For Additional information : In here and arranged huge festival of lights 1758, the army of Afghan King in his honour, for which one lac rupees Ahmadshah Abdali, was pushed back were spent. This occasion was arranged beyond the boundaries of by on the onset of the year known as Maratha army. After driving away Abdali, ‘Bahudhanyasamvatsar’. This opened the Marathas camped at Shalimar garden great future for Raghunath Rao.’’ in Lahore. Riyasatakar G.S.Sardesai in On 21 April 1758, the Maratha Marathi Riyasat Vol.4 states that, Sardar Hari Raghunath Bhide wrote a “Dadasaheb (Raghunathrao Peshwa) has letter to the Peshwa in Pune regarding the captured Lahore. The old palace of the Punjab campaign. He states, “the army Emperor is located outside the city in of the Deccan had previously not marched Shalimar garden. Adina Beg made up to Delhi, but now it has marched up arrangements for the stay of Dadasaheb to Chenab.”

During the Mughal period, the art of The influence of Persian style of music seem to have received royal patronage. architecture was more prominent till Akbar’s During the period of Akbar, the Persian, period. In the later period it evolved by Kashmiri, Turkish musicians were given royal absorbing Indian elements, which came to be patronage. Tansen was a great singer in the known as ‘Indo-Islamic’ style of architecture. court of Akbar. During this period the The architectural style during Sultanate period Hindustani music prospered. During the had great implements on strength and period of Jahangir and Shahajahan, music simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the was encouraged as well. However under focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period Aurangzeb’s rule art declined, since he had of Babur the Kabulbag mosque at Panipat banned all art forms. and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar Pradesh were built in Persian style. The By the way : During the period of memorial built during the period of Shershah Sur at Sahastram (Bihar) is an excellent Aurangzeb, the royal patronage to the example of Indo-Islamic style of architecture. art of painting was withdrawn. The The Purana was built by Shershah at artists were forced to seek patronage Delhi. The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up elsewhere under various rulers in during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Gujarat and like Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza were the provinces of Himalayan ranges. New built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the local styles of paintings emerged there, important forts like , , which are known as ‘Rajasthani’ and Allahabad fort, and Attock fort. The use of ‘Pahari’ paintings. The ‘Ragamala’, Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches ‘Baramas’ paintings depict the different were the salient features of the architecture seasons in nature. The painters of Pahari of this period. style depicted various themes apart from The Mughal Emperors were nature daily life, such as religious, historic etc. lovers. They created huge gardens. Among Later, various styles such as ‘Basauli’, them the Shalimar garden at Lahore, Shalimar ‘Gadhwali’, and ‘Kangra’ emerged out garden and Nishat garden in Kashmir are of the Pahari style of painting. popular even today.

113 Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’, ‘Lilavati’, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’, ‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’. Abul Fazal wrote the famous ‘Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i- Akbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan, was a sanskrit scholar. He translated text of several Upanishada texts in Persian language from Sanskrit. During the Mughal period, number of biographical, historical texts were written. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikh- i-Khafikhan’ is well-known. During the Mughal period, a number of Shalimar Baug, Lahore literary works of high quality were created in local north Indian dialects. To mention a The period of Shahajahan was the most few, ‘Ramacharitamanas’ written by Goswami glorious period of . Tulsidas, the compositions of Surdas and ‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red Meerabai, Padmavat composed by Malik fort, ‘Jama masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built Muhammad Jaysi, dohas of Saint Kabir. during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra 15.4 Trade, industries, social life built by him is incomparable and immortal. During the Mughal period, the Later, the Mughal architecture began to transportation of goods within the empire had decline. become speedy. New highways were built for internal trade. Highways were built from Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat, Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via sea route was mainly carried out from the ports on western coast such as Khambayat, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut. The Indian merchants traded with merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia and some countries of European continent. Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar, ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many such items were exported to foreign countries Taj Mahal from India. The goods imported to India included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc. During the Mughal period excellent During the Mughal period, the Indian literature was created in Persian language. textile industry flourished. Indian cotton cloth Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish had great demand in the regions of Arabia, languages. His autobiography known as East coast of Africa, Egypt, Myanmar, ‘Baburnama’ is well-known. Another Malacca etc. The dyes for textiles were made important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza at Agra. Colours were mainly prepared from Hyder written during the period of Humayun. indigo, turmeric, lac, Kusumba (dried flowers Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in of safflower) etc. Weapons and farming

114 philosophy, agriculture, politics, and astronomy. During the Mughal period, a For Additional information : The foreign trade flourished to a great number of Madarasas were established at extent during the Mughal period. Sambhal (Uttar Pradesh), Ahmedabad Exports from India were larger than (Gujarat) etc. In South India cities like the imports. Many commodities Ahmednagar, Gulbarga, Burhanpur, Bijapur, including silk cloth, precious stones, Golconda, and Hyderabad had also become spices etc. were exported from India famous as learning centres. There was a while the imported goods mainly Madarasa established at Ahmednagar by included luxury items. The foreign Saint Tahir. The libraries in Madarasas use traders had to pay for the Indian to have a special staff appointed for its goods in the form of silver. Hence maintenance. India received silver every year in 15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan large quantities. Edward Terry, an European states, “Just as rivers meet During the rule of Babur and Humayun the sea and stay there similarly the boundaries of the Mughal empire had no tide of silver from all over the world extended beyond North India. The main comes to India and does not return.” ruling powers to the South of river Narmada were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and equipments were the main products of casting Qutubshahi of Golconda. Akbar led a industry. The copper and brass vessels were campaign against Nizamshahi. in demand on large scale. The province of In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of Bihar was famous for paper production. Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana Paper was produced from silk. Siyalkot was (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah, famous for white paper. Salt and sugar successfully resisted the attack with courage production were important industries of this and intelligent strategies. After her death the period. Mughals conquered Ahmednagar, the capital During the Mughal period, most of the of Nizamshahi. Akbar personally came down population stayed in villages. Every village to South and divided the conquered province was self-sufficient. The law and order was into three Subhas namely- Ahmednagar, managed and the daily needs were met at Varhad and Khandesh. While Akbar was the village level. During this period, there engaged in the southern campaign, Prince were no major changes in the social Salim rebelled against him and Akbar had organisation which was based on caste to wind up his campaign hastily. During the system. period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom During the Mughal period, the purdah declined. However, the Adilshahi and system was rooted in the elite class of both Qutubshahi kingdoms manage to survive. Muslim and Hindu community. The education Later, Aurangzeb was successful in system of Sultanate period had continued till uprooting them completely. The Maratha the rule of Akbar. However Akbar made power in the Deccan put up a strong important reforms in this system. Along with resistance to Aurangzeb’s advent. We will education of Islamic religion, he also included study the history of this part in the next new subjects in the syllabi such as Indian lesson.

115 Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and complete the sentence. Q.2 Explain the statements with reasons. (1) Mughal Emperor Babur was born at (1) The Rajput rulers united against in . Babur. (a) Baluchistan (b) Kazakhstan (2) Shershah Sur was well-known for (c) Uzbekistan (d) Afghanistan his ideal administration. (2) Mughal Emperor Humayun was (3) Emperor Akbar strengthened the defeated by . foundation of his rule in India. (a) Ibrahim Lodi (4) Mughal art declined during the (b) Shershah Sur (c) Babur period of Aurangzeb. (d) Akbar Q.3 Write short notes (3) Akbarnama was written by . (1) Mughal Art (a) Mohammad Qasim (2) Mughal literature (b) Abul Fazl (c) Mirza Hyder Q.4 Answer the following questions in (d) Badauni detail. (B) Find the incorrect pair and write (1) During the Mughal period what were the correct ones. the changes made in the revenue (1) Khafi Khan - Akbarnama system? (2) Malik Muhammad Jayasi - (2) Elaborate the features of Mughal Padmavat architecture. (3) Sant Kabir - Doha Activity (4) Mirza Hyder - Tarikh-i-Rashidi Collect information about the expansion (C) Write the names. of Mughal rule by Emperor Akbar and (1) He defeated Ibrahim Lodi the contemporary cities. (2) She successfully resisted the attack of Akbar and saved the Nizamshahi kingdom 

116 16. Swarajya to Empire (Maratha period)

as Sant Nirmalaba (निर㔮ळाबाई), Sant Muktabai, 16.1 Contribution of Sants Sant Janabai, Sant Kanhopatra and Sant 16.2 Foundation and Expansion of Bahinabai Siurkar also belong to this period. Swarajya The sants, created a sense of belonging 16.3 Maratha war of independence among people toward their native region, 16.4 Administrative system established language, literature, and culture. They gave by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj message of equality to people. Their teachings 16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj were based on the principles of humanity. 16.6 Peshwa period They preached harmonious community life, 16.7 Art, architecture, literature unity and love. Their efforts created social 16.8 Trade, industries and social life awakening. Their teaching helped people to survive situations like foreign invasions, draughts or other natural calamities. Their Alauddin Khalji defeated the Yadavas of devotional songs became a source of a great Devgiri and the rule of Delhi Sultans began moral support for people. Their work created in south India. After Khalji, the Tughluq and a sense of self-esteem among the people of Bahamani kingdoms ruled over Maharashtra. Maharashtra. Later Bahamani kingdom was disintegrated 16.2 Foundation and Expansion of into five parts. Among them, Nizamshahi and Swarajya Adilshahi ruled parts of Maharashtra. The th Mughals turn their attention to south India. In the first half of the 17 century, As a result, Nizamshahi came to an end. Nizamshahi and Adilshahi had established This was the general political scenario during their rule in Maharashtra. Many eminent 17th century, when Chhatrapati Shivaji Maratha sardars flourished under their rule. Maharaj established Swarajya marking the They held Jahagirs in the remote regions of rise of Maratha power. the Sahyadris. The difficult terrain of Sahyadri allowed them to operate independently. 16.1 Contribution of Sants Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent sardar Superstition and rituals ruled at large in in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of the medieval Indian society. People had Nizamshahi rule, become fatalistic and inert. They had become he accepted the inert. The condition of the common people rank of a was miserable. These were the times when Mansabdar* in the sants in Maharashtra made efforts to the Adilshahi bring the masses back to life. court. Shahajiraje In Maharashtra, the tradition of sants, was valiant, which began with Chakradhar Swami, Sant courageous, wise Namdev, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Eknath, and well-versed Sant and Samarth Ramdas. It was in the science of continued by sants coming from various statehood. He strata of the society. For example Sant had successfully Chokhamela, Sant Goroba, Sant Sawata, handled many Shahajiraje Sant Narhari, Sant Sena, Sant Shaikh Adilshahi Muhammad etc. Similarly women sants such expeditions in Maharashtra, Karnataka and

117 . The provinces of Pune, Supe, Shirwal, Indapur and Chakan were given to Shahajiraje as Jahagir. He personally aspired to establish Swarajya. He is regarded as the visionary of Swarajya.

*A military officer who maintains his own division of soldiers. He sent his son Shivajiraje and his wife, Veermata Jijabai from Bengaluru to Pune along with his loyal and capable associates. Veermata Jijabai encouraged Shivaji Maharaj to fulfil the dream of Shahajiraje of establishing Swarajya. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj She was a visionary and an efficient Maharashtra, valour of the local Mawalas, Veermata Jijabai administrator. She the administrative and military experience constantly guided her son in the mission of gained by the Maratha sardars while working establishing Swarajya and provided him with with Nizamshahi and Adilshahi and above excellent education necessary for the king of all these the able leadership of Shivaji Swarajya. Maharaj could make it possible. The concept of Swarajya was visualised After joining the Adilshahi court, Shahaji by Shahajiraje and it was turned into reality Maharaj entrusted the administration of his by Shivaji Maharaj. Shivaji Maharaj laid the Jahagirs at Pune, Shirwal and Supe region foundation of Swarajya from the Mawal (pargana) to Shivaji Maharaj. Yet the forts region. Several factors like topography of located in those Jahagirs and nearby areas were in the custody of Adilshahi court. The one ‘who owns the forts owns the land’ was For Additional Information : The the ruling of the day. Hence Shivaji Maharaj Mawal region is a mountaineous terrain and began with capturing the forts in the vicinity is not easily accessible. The vallyes at the of his jahagirs. He took over the fort of foot of Sahyadri ranges in Maharashtra are Torana and laid the foundation of Swarajya. known as ‘Mawal’ and the local people of Shivaji Maharaj established the first capital Mawal are known as ‘Mawalas’. The of Swarajya at the fort of Rajgad. Chandrarao Mawalas in the army of Shivajiraje played a More proved to be a hindrance in Shivaji great role in establishing Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj’s efforts to create Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj had created a feeling of trust and Maharaj successfully took over Javali. After affection in their minds. Shivaji Maharaj set this victory the activities of Shivaji Maharaj himself on the task of establishing Swarajya in Konkan were escalated. Realising the with the support of these Mawalas. Many of danger of the increasing activities of Shivaji his close associates like Kanhoji Jedhe, Maharaj, the Bijapur court sent their powerful Tanaji Malusare, Netoji Palkar, Baji General Afzalkhan to curb the increasing Pasalkar, Baji Prabhu Deshpande, Murarbaji power of Shivaji Maharaj. Deshpande etc. were from the Mawal region. Shivaji Maharaj had anticipated the

118 For Additional Information : In the year could later build war ships on their own. Till 1657 C.E., after conquering Kalyan and 1675 C.E., Shivaji Maharaj had four hundred , the boundaries of Swarajya extended small and big ships in his fleet. During the upto the coastline. The British and the French second sack of Surat, Shivaji Maharaj brought were involved in Salt trade. Shivaji Maharaj those ships to the coast of Surat and loaded wanted to establish control over the sea waters. the huge booty on them acquired from Surat. However, he did not have any knowhow of It is apparent that Shivaji Maharaj wanted to building war ships. The Portuguese were afraid establish complete control over the land as of the . Shivaji Maharaj assured the well as on the sea. Shivaji Maharaj was the Portuguese to fight the Siddis. In turn, Shivaji first to have the foresight to create his own Maharaj sent some selected fishermen with the navy. Hence, he is known as the ‘Father of Portuguese ship builders named Rui Leitao the Indian Navy’ Maynak Bhandari, Viegas and his son Fernao Viegas and got Daulatkhan, were experts of twenty war ships built with their help. These Marine war strategies. fishermen were the people, who once trained, intentions of Afzalkhan, who had taken up the Shaistakhan had no alternative but to hastily challenge of killing Shivaji Maharaj. He met leave Lal Mahal. Shivaji Maharaj gained Afzalkhan at . As expected more confidence and he attacked Surat, the Afzalkhan attempted treachery but Shivaji prosperous economic capital of Aurangzeb Maharaj was well prepared and killed and collected a large booty. Enraged by this, Afzalkhan in self defence. Afzalkhan’s huge Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars Mirza army was set on the run and huge booty and Raje Jaising and Diler Khan to attack weapons were collected left behind by them. Swarajya. They captured many forts in the This made Swarajya’s treasury richer. Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj had the wisdom After Afzalkhan’s defeat, the Bijapur to comprehend the situation and decided to court sent Jauhar to attack Swarajya. retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of He seized the fort of Panhala and closed all Purandar’. According to the treaty, Shivaji posibilities of escape for Shivaji Maharaj. In Maharaj had to present himself before this difficult situation Shiva Kashid, a loyal Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as Sambhaji Maharaj. Aurangzeb acted Shivaji Maharaj and made it easy for Shivaji treacherously and put Shivaji under house Maharaj to escape. When Siddi came to arrest. Shivaji Maharaj very cleverly misled know the truth he killed Shiva Kashid. Thus the guards and escaped from Agra. Shiva Kashid sacrificed his life for the cause Soon after returning to Swarajya Shivaji of Swarajya. Bajiprabhu took up the task of Maharaj conqured the forts which were held blocking Siddhi Masud’s path in Ghodkhind by Aurangzeb. and stop him in his chase of Shivaji Maharaj. To announce the sovereign and Bajiprabhu was succussful in doing this. He independent status of Swarajya it was fell dead only after receiving the news of necessary to make it official. Realising this Shivaji Maharaj reaching safely. Shivaji Maharaj decided to get himself At the time of ascending the throne, coronated. With his coronation as a sovereign Aurangzeb was aware of the ambitious plans king the provinces under his rule assumed the of Shivaji Maharaj. He sent his maternal status of an independent kingdom. After uncle Shaistakhan on an expedition against coronation he began the Karnataka expedition. Shivaji Maharaj. Shaistakhan camped in Lal However, he did not live long after the Mahal in Pune. Shivaji Maharaj who knew victory in the south. He passed away on 3rd Shaistakhan’s intentions manage to enter the April 1680. His untimely death caused an Lal Mahal and cut off Shaistakhan’s fingers. irreparable loss to Swarajya.

119 16.3 Maratha war of independence thirty years. After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji While leaving for Jinji, Rajaram Maharaj Maharaj, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was entrusted Ramchandrapant Amatya, coronated as the king of Swarajya. During Shankaraji Narayan Sachiv, Santaji Ghorpade his reign, a constant conflict continued with and Dhanaji the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s Jadhav with the rebellious son Akbar had established friendly responsibility of relations with Sambhaji Maharaj. Enraged by defending Raigad. this Aurangzeb The guerrilla came down to tactics of Santaji Deccan along and Dhanaji with a huge proved the large army and able scale artillery and sardars, who huge cannons of were veterans of the Mughals to be warfare. For the of little use. Chhatrapati Rajaram next 25 years he Despite of holding Maharaj camped in very few assets Maharashtra and the Marathas continued to create havoc for fought against the Mughals. Rajaram Maharaj safeguarded Chhatrapati Sambhaji the Marathas. Swarajya in these trying times. This was a Maharaj But he could not great task in itself and a great success of succeed in destroying the Swarajya. Aurangzeb Rajaram Maharaj. killed Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in a After the death of Rajaram Maharaj very cruel manner (11th March 1689). (March, 1700 C.E.), his wife Maharani Aurangzeb hoped that the Maratha power Tarabai continued to fight against Aurangzeb. will be weakened with Sambhaji Maharaj’s Maharani Tarabai led the Swarajya movement death but it did not happen. Instead the under extremely unfavourable conditions. She Marathas unitedly fought against the Mughals single-handedly took charge of the and expanded their rule. administration and After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, fought for Swarajya Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj took over the for twenty five years reins at Raigad. Aurangzeb sent Zulfikar with the help of her Khan to seize the fort of Raigad. Chhatrapati sardars. At times, Rajaram Maharaj, Maharani Tarabai, the Marathas had to Maharani Yesubai (Queen of Chhatrapati fight the Mughals on Sambhaji Maharaj) and her son Prince Shahu lands beyond the were staying on Rajgad. All the Maratha boundaries of royalties, thus staying at one place was Swarajya, but she dangerous. It would have been strategic to did not stop them. fight the Mughals from two places at a time. This was an Maharani Tarabai Hence, Maharani Yesubai asked Chhatrapati indication that the Rajaram Maharaj to leave for Jinji. Maharani scenario of the war was changing. The Yesubai herself stayed back at Raigad and Maratha War of Independence was a tussle continue to fight. In 1689 C.E., the Mughals between the Mughal ambition of expanding succeeded in taking charge of Raigad. their Empire and the desire of independence Maharani Yesubai and Prince Shahu were cherished by the Marathas. Finally the death arrested and sent to Delhi. Maharani Yesubai of Aurangzeb put an end to this fighting. In remained in captivity of the Mughals for next the beginning, the Mughal rulers adopted an

120 aggresive policy while the Maratha the administration. There was a special policy remained that of defence. But by the officer called ‘Darakdar’ appointed to look second half of the 18th century, this condition after every department of the ministry. Other changed. With the weakening of Mughal officers were ‘Diwan’ (secretary), ‘Majumdar’ power, the Marathas could extend their rule (auditor and accountant), ‘Phadnis’ (Deputy almost all over India. Auditor), ‘Sabnis’ (office in-charge), 16.4 Administrative system established ‘Karkhanis’ (Commissary), ‘Chitnis’ by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Correspondence clerk), ‘Jamdar’ (Treasurer), ‘Potdar’ (assay master) etc. The regions in Maharashtra including The Kingdom was divided into two parts Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, for the sake of administration. One of it was Sindhudurga, Ratnagiri, Raigad; Belgaum, the province which was geographically bound Karwar, Dharwad in Karnataka; some regions together and the other comprised scattered of Andhra, Jinji and Vellore in Tamil Nadu regions in the south. The first province was comprised Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj set up divided into three sections. The northern an ideal administrative system for the smooth section was assigned to the Peshwa which running of Swarajya’s affairs. included the regions from Salher to Pune and The formation of the Ashtapradhan North Konkan. The central part consisted of Mandal (council of eight ministers) and its south Konkan, Sawantwadi and Karwar. This growth took place alongwith the expansion was assigned to the Sachiv. In the third part of the kingdom. After coronation, Chhatrapati the regions of high plateau i.e. Satara-Wai to Shivaji Maharaj created special posts of Belgaum and Koppal was assigned to the Ashtapradhans. It included ‘Peshwa’, ‘Mantri’. A separate ‘Subha’ of Karnataka ‘Amatya’, ‘Sachiv’, ‘Mantri’, ‘Senapati, was created and Hambirrao Mohite and Raghunath Narayan Amatya were appointed ‘Sumant’, ‘Nyayadhish’ and ‘Panditrao’. on it. ‘Sarsubhedars’ were appointed on all Shivaji Maharaj had a strong intelligence these regions in association with the ‘Pradhans’ network of his own. Bahirji Naik was the (Ministers). This was known as ‘Rajmandal’. Chief of this network. Before starting on any The appointment of ‘Killedar’ (keeper of the expedition, Shivaji Maharaj obtained detailed fort) and ‘Karkun’ (clerks) was made by the information from his spies and then planned King himself. The Pradhans had to submit his expedition. annual accounts to Shivaji Maharaj. When the ministers went on expedition, Sarsubhedars taking care of provincial their representatives (Mutalik) looked after administration were known as ‘Deshadhikari’.

For additional information : village and determined various criteria of Determining the grade (prat) of the land calculating revenue such as ‘Dhara’, formed the basics of the Revenue System. ‘Chavarana’, ‘Pratbandi’ etc., based on the The land revenue system introduced by annual yield. Chavarana means deciding the Malik Amber of Nizamshahi was in practice. boundaries of land by measurng it. But Shivaji Maharaj introduced a new Assessment of land in the hilly regions was system. He fixed the measuring unit of not done areawise but yieldwise. While ‘Kathi’ (measuring stick) for the measurement collecting the revenue, the quality of the of the land. The length of this kathi was 5 yield was also taken into consideration cubits (length of a forearm) and 5 closed along with the grade of the land. Revenue fists. Based on this following units were was fixed only after the calculation of the decided: the area of 20 kathis was 1 ‘Bigha’ average yield of previous 3 years. Land and 120 Bighas made one ‘Chavar’. Annaji such as Barren land, jungle, grazing land Datto (Sachiv) travelled from village to etc. were not counted for land revenue.

121 There was a difference between the Nanasaheb was administration under the Islamic rulers and appointed as the the administrative system set by Chhatrapati Peshwa. Meanwhile, Shivaji Maharaj. Sarsubhas in the Swarajya the Marathas were were meant to be the zonal divisions for defeated in the third overall administration, while under Islamic battle of Panipat. rulers a division merely served the purpose The Maratha rule of revenue collection. became weak. The Subhedars were assisted by Madhavrao Peshwa ‘’ and ‘Deshpandes’. The main tried to re-establish task of a Deshmukh was to collect the land the Maratha power. revenue, to develop waste land into cultivable The defeat in land and settle new villages. All government Bajirao Peshwa I Panipat was not officials received salary in the form of cash just a political instead of land grant (watan). defeat but it also lowered the morale of the ‘Village’ was the basic unit of the Marathas greatly. administrative system. New villages were Madhavrao Peshwa tried to elevate the settled. The people were provided with cattle, spirits of Marathas as well as re-establish the seed money, money for daily utilities. The Maratha power in farmer was given a period of two years, to the north. The repay the advance after a good harvest. This Marathas were system was known as ‘Batai system’. successful in 16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj overcoming the great defeat at The Mughals continued their efforts to Panipat and create defeat the Marathas, even after the death of a politically strong Aurangzeb. For position for that purpose they themselves in the adopted the politics of the Madhavrao Peshwa strategy of dividing north. This factor the Marathas. was very important. Malharrao , They released Ahilyabai Holkar, Raghuji Bhosale, Mahadji Shahu Maharaj Shinde, Nana Phadanvis played a great role from captivity in in the re-establishment of Maratha influence. 1707 C.E. After his release there Malharrao was was a conflict the founder of the Chhatrapati Shahu Holkar State at between Maharani Maharaj Tarabai and Shahu Indore. He served Maharaj. Shahu Maharaj won the ensuing the Maratha power battle. Balaji Vishwanath played an important for a long time. He role on behalf of Shahu Maharaj and later had a great share in he was appointed as Peshwa. establishing the Maratha prestige in 16.6 Peshwa period the north. After the After Balaji Vishwanath, his son, Bajirao death of Khanderao, I was appointed as the Peshwa. He expanded Malharrao Holkar son of Malharrao. the upto Malwa, Rajasthan Ahilyabai Holkar and Bundelkhand. He defeated the Nizam. assumed the reins of Indore administration. After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias Maheshwar was the seat of administration

122 For additional information : The India. He invited Ahmedshah Abdali, the Pathans from Afghanistan had settled at the ruler of Afghanistan, to India. At the behest foothills of the Himalayas near Ayodhya of Najib Khan, Abdali invaded India. He province. These Pathans were known as returned to Afghanistan with a huge booty. ‘Rohillas’. This province later came to be However, the Marathas pursued Abdali’s known as ‘Rohilkhand’. Najib Khan was the soldiers upto Attock and raised there the leader of the Rohillas. He was not happy Maratha standard successfully. Attock is with the supremacy of the Marathas in North presently in Pakistan. under her. She built the regions in Eastern India upto Bengal temples, ghats, under the Maratha dominance. After the dharamshalas, and miserable defeat of drinking water facilities the Marathas at at various pilgrim Panipat, Mahadji centres. She was a Shinde was capable, astute, and instrumental in re- excellent administrator. establishing the Raghuji Bhosale Maratha supremacy was the most capable and prestige in North ruler among the Bhosales India. He trained his of Nagpur. He brought Ahilyabai Holkar Raghuji Bhosale

123 Army and Peshwa, Pilaji Jadhavrao are available. modernised his Murals are found on the facade of the artillery under the Wadas, as well as on the walls of reception guidance of French areas (Diwankhana) and bedrooms. In the military expert, temples, the mandapa wall, owri (varanda), Benoit de Boigne. shikhara, gabhara (sanctum sanctorum) and Mahadji managed chhat (ceiling) were also decorated with the difficult affairs paintings. The 18th century murals have with strong survived till today at places like the Naik- determination and Nimbalkar wada at Vathar, Nana Phadanavis remained incharge wada at Menavali, Rangamahal at , of Delhi affairs Mayureshwar mandir at Morgaon, Shiva Mahadji Shinde during 1771 C.E. temple of Pandeshwar, and Matha at to 1794 C.E. Nana Phadanvis and Mahadji Benawadi. Mythological stories form the Shinde set the affairs of the state right after main theme of these murals. They include the death of Peshwa Madhavrao. scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata The two who succeeded Peshwa and Puranas. The paintings of Dashavatara Madhavrao, namely Narayanrao and Sawai and Krishnaleela are found almost everywhere. Madhavrao, did not live long. Their untimely The subjects of contemporary social life were death set the decline of Maratha power. At also popular in the paintings. Royal court, this time, the Mughal power had also become royal meetings, processions were also included weak. Taking advantage of this situation, the in them. British started interfering in the internal strife During the Maratha period, keertan and among the Maratha sardars. Peshwa Bajirao II was defeated by the British and the British established their supremacy over India. The British brought entire India under their dominance. 16.7 Art, architecture, literature Art : The development of Maratha miniature Paintings is seen through illustrations on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra and patrikas. The same style is maintained in the glass paintings as well. Illustrated manuscripts of Sanskrit texts such as ‘Bhagvat Gita’, ‘Devi Saptashati’, ‘Bhagvat Purana’ as well as Marathi texts such as ‘Dnyaneshwari’ (Bhavarthadipika), ‘Shivaleelamrut’, ‘Pandavapratap’ etc. are available. The paintings of Dashavatara are included in them. The wooden stands of the pothis have Miniature painting - Maratha period paintings of various deities such as Ganapati, singing of Bhajans were popular. Powadas Riddhi-siddhi, Ramapanchayatana, (Ballads) were composed during this period Gopalkrishna, Vishnulakshmi in dark red, to encourage the spirit of heroism among the green and yellow colours. The miniature people. The ballads known as ‘powadas’ and paintings, include human portraits and themes ‘katavas’, composed by the Shahirs were the like ragamalas, talamala, processions etc. types of historical poetry. The powadas Remarkable portraits of Bajirao I, Nanasaheb

124 composed by Adnyandas on the slaying of Afzalkhan and Tulsidas on the battle of For additional information : are well-known. Dressed stones, raw and baked bricks The literary tradition of ‘Lavani’ were used in the construction of wadas. developed in the later Peshwa period. Shahirs The ground floor walls of the wada were built in stone while the upper storeys like Anantafandi, Prabhakar, Ramjoshi, were of bricks. There were generally Saganbhau and Honaji Bala are known for three to five storeys supported on wooden their beautiful compositions. pillars and beams. The rooms were built Various dance forms from the Maratha around the rectangular courtyard (chowk). period have existed till today such as Usually there use to be two courtyards including lavani, koli dance, Gaja Nrutya in the wada. However, sometimes there etc. The tradition of vocal music also received could be three to seven courtyards as patronage in Maratha States. well. Wadas such as Vishrambaug wada Architecture : Shivaji Maharaj gave in Pune and Nana Phadanavis wada in priority to build forts. The tradition of Menavali and Raghobadada’s wada are building forts was prevalent in the Deccan among the fine examples of wada since three centuries. This tradition proved to architecture. The wooden pillars and be of advantage to Shivaji Maharaj. The beams in the wada were square in shape. required expertise of maintaining forts was Motifs such as parrot, peacock, and easily available to him. The Kasaba temple monkeys were popular. in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai. Jejuri etc. These are huge in size. The plan During the Peshwa period, the Maratha of these temples is in star shaped design, the kingdom regained its prosperity and all forms foundation of the temple was multi layered, of art and architecture once again received and were named accordingly. The construction patronage. Pune, Satara and Nashik developed of shikhara is made in bricks and stucco into big cities. These cities had well paved method. The ‘Kalaram’, ‘Goraram’ and roads, wadas on both sides of the road and ‘Sundarnarayan’ temples at Nashik and arched gates at intervals. ‘Mahadev’ temple at Trimbakeshwar, The construction of temples began on a ‘Mohiniraj’ temple at Nevasa were similar to large scale during the later Peshwa period. the temples in Malwa and Rajasthan. The These temples were of three types. Examples temples were constructed in stone. These of the temple architecture of this period are temples were embellished extensively with found at Saswad (‘Vateshwar’, sculptures as compared to other contemporary ‘Sangameshwar’), Mahuli (‘Vishweshwar’), temples. In the third type of temples, the

Sindhudurga

125 wrote the history of India in 12 volumes named ‘Gulshane-i-Ibrahimi’. In the 18th century well-known literary works were composed such as, ‘Yatharthdeepika’ by Vaman Pandit, ‘Naladamayanti Swayamvara’ by Raghunath Pandit, Pandavapratapa, Harivijay, Ramavijay by Shridhar Pandit and the translation of Mahabharata by Moropant. Bakhar literature is important among the historical literature in Marathi. It contains eulogies of the heroes and stories of historic events, battles, lives of great men. Sabhasad Bakhar, Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, Panipatchi Jejuri Bakhar are some of its exmaples. Krushna temples at Pune, Satara, Wai, etc. were built Dayarnav and Shridhar were the main poets in independent style. It included arches, during the Peshwa period. Poet Mahipati wooden hall (sabhamandapa) and sanctum composed ‘Bhaktivijay’ in this period. sanctorum (gabhara). The Shikhara slopes 16.7 Trade, industries and social life inwards at the top. In the small niches of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was aware the Shikhara, beautiful sculptures are made of the importance of a flourishing trade for of stucco. It includes images of dashavataras the economic well being of the state. He and other deities as well as male and female encouraged the traders and merchants by figures. The stone deepmala is a remarkable creating Peths (market places). ‘Shete’ and feature of these temples. The stone deepmalas ‘Mahajan’ were the officers who supervised at Jejuri were built by Shahajiraje. Since the transaction of these Peths. Chaul, Rajapur, most of the villages and temples were located Dabhol, Kelshi, Ratnagiri were some of the on river banks, stone steps (ghats) were also important ports and trade centres of this built on the river. Such extensive ghats are period. Commodities like black pepper and seen at Nashik, Puntambe, Wai, Menavali, lac* etc. were exported from Dabhol. Silk, Mahuli etc. The Chhatris (Samadhis) built at various places are noteworthy. For additional information : Literature : developed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was keen greatly during this period. Sant Tukaram of on protecting the local industries. Here this period was a poet of the warkari sect. we can cite the example of salt industry. Samarth Ramdas wrote ‘Dasbodh’ and He protected the salt industry in Konkan. ‘Manache Shlok’ in Marathi. Chhatrapati At that time, traders imported salt from Shivaji Maharaj got the the Portuguese territory and sold in ‘Rajyavyavaharakosha’ prepared which was Swarajya. That affected the local trade a compilation of Sanskrit lexicon for Persian in Konkan areas. So Maharaj charged terms. Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was a heavy duty on the salt imported into great writer and Sanskrit scholar. The Sanskrit Swarajya from the Portuguese territory. text ‘Budhabhushan’ was written by him. The intention was that the salt imported This text is an overview of ancient texts on from the Portuguese territory would then polity. Apart from Sanskrit, he also knew cost more and as a result its import many other languages. He wrote texts in Brij would be discouraged and the sale of the language namely ‘Nayikabhed’, ‘Nakhshikh’ local salt would increase. and ‘Satasattak’. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta

126 opium, and indigo were exported from Nashik, Paithan, etc. Traditional festivals Chaul. Black pepper, cardamom, cotton cloth (utsavas), pious observances (Vrata vaikalye) were the items of trade in Rajapur. Foreign were celebrated with great enthusiasm in the traders procured required goods from Rajapur society. Celebrating the festivals was and transported them on ships to the Red Sea encouraged by the State, as such celebrations and Iran. help to create joyous and hormonius society. A self-sufficient village was the basic unit of the Swarajya. The economic system For Additional Information : of the village was never affected greatly by Urbanisation during Maratha period - external political changes. Every village had Many market cities of the Maratha 12 ‘balutedars’ (service providers in the period emerged because of political village). Their occupations were hereditary in expansion and development of various nature. Every occupation in this system had industries, trade, professions etc. The a specific status in the social hierarchy. The process of urbanisation gained balutedars, for example goldsmiths (sonar), momentum during the Peshwa period. blacksmiths (lohar), braziers (tambat) etc. There was extensive development of practiced their hereditary occupations. Weekly Pune, the capital of Peshwas. There markets were set up in big villages. Such was increase in the number of market villages were known as ‘Kasba’. People cities (Bazar peths). Pune, Indapur, visited weekly markets to buy daily provisions Saswad, Junnar, Kalyan, Bhiwandi, and other goods. Some industries of this Vengurla, Paithan, Kolhapur, Satara, period include textile industry, metallurgy, Ahmednagar, and small and big ports sugar industry etc. on the Konkan coast flourished with the development of trade and industries. *Lac is a resinous substance used for sealing, varnish, making ornaments, etc. The journey from the founding of The rural Maharashtra of Maratha period Swarajya to the expansion of the Maratha was organised into different social classes empire, is an important part of Indian history such as nobility (sardars), landlords of mediaeval times. The Maratha power (watandars), Balutedars and Ryot (rest of the came to an end and the British brought most subjects). of India under their dominance. The transition There were traditional schools took place in various sectors. It marks the (pathshalas) established in cities like Wai, onset of modern era.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (2) The Pathans from Afghanistan had complete the sentence. settled in , the province at (1) is known as the Father of the foothills of the Himalayas. Indian Navy. (a) Varanasi (b) Mathura (a) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (c) Ayodhya (d) Delhi (b) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (3) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj wrote (c) Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj the Sanskrit text . (d) Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj (a) Nayikabhed (b) Budhabhushan (c) Nakhshikh (d) Satasattka

127 (B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.3 Explain the statement with reasons. the correct ones. (1) Shahajiraje is known as the visionary (1) Naik-Nimbalkar wada – Vathar of Swarajya. (2) Nana Phadanvis wada – Menavali (2) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built (3) Kalaram temple – Jejuri the naval force. (4) Mohiniraj temple – Nevase (3) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj charged (C) Write the name. heavy duty on the salt imported (1) He was the Chief of the intelligence from the Portuguese territory. network of Shivaji Maharaj - Q.4 Write short notes. (2) He assisted in the provincial affairs - (1) Maratha Art (3) Leader of the Rohillas - (2) Maratha Architecture Q.2 Complete the following concept map.

Characteristic architecture 

Sculpture Characteristic Places of Maratha Temples

Building material

128 B{Vhmg B. 11 dr

B{Vhmg B. 11 dr B{Vhmg B. 11 dr