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MULTIPLE MEANINGS OF of Tai Lue, namely Tai Lue Chiang Mai THE PRONOUN /HAW/ IN (TLC), Tai Lue Luangphrabang (TLL), and Tai Lue Xishuangbanna (TLX). The 1 TAI LUE data were collected through Labovian sociolinguistic interviews (1984), by which Kittinata Rhekhalilit2 27 informants were asked to narrate a story on controlled topics, and through Abstract participant observation. The analysis shows that the three selected dialects of Tai Lue concur in their use of the pronoun In many languages, personal pronouns are /haw/ as first person plural pronoun. used to imply characteristics of speakers However, it is found that each dialect uses and social relationships between pronoun the /haw/ with different shades of participants (Agha 2007). This is meaning when being used by individual particularly true of members of the Tai speakers. Two dialects, TLC and TLL, tend language family, such as Zhuang to use the pronoun /haw/ to index intimacy (Kullavanijaya 2009), Standard Thai while talking to addressees of younger age (Cooke 1968; Palakornkul 1972; Simpson or lower social status. In TLX, pronoun 1997), Standard Lao (Enfield 1966; /haw/ seems to be different in that it is Compton 2002), Kham Mueang and Tai exclusively used by monks. In conclusion, Lue (Rhekhalilit 2010). A number of this study describes sociolinguistic use of studies of Southwestern Tai languages the pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue. It can be have found that the first person plural used either with unmarked first person pronoun /haw/ or /raw/ can be used in plural meaning or first person singular several contexts, apart from referring to a meaning with some social indicates such group of speakers. For example, the as intimacy between participants and the pronoun /raw/ in Standard Thai indexes status of monkhood. intimacy between participants when being used by particular individual speakers. Introduction The current paper investigates the Tai Lue first person plural pronoun and how it can A large body of research generally agrees be used in wider contexts. Adopting a that the use of personal pronouns in qualitative approach, it aims at analyzing several languages is a primary method the pronoun /haw/ spoken in three dialects used to encode the relationships between the participants of the conversation (such

1 as Agha 2007). According to Brown and The first version of this paper was presented in The 4th FLL International Postgraduate Gilman (1960), European second person Conference: Expanding Research in Languages pronouns V and T function as a social and Linguistics in Asia (FLLIPC 2013), 11-12 marker, indicating power and solidarity April 2013, Faculty of Language and between the participants respectively. Linguistics University of Malaya. Similarly, Tai personal pronouns are also This paper was subsidized by RGJ scholarship marked by social meanings. In Standard program by Thailand Research Fund. Thai, for example, first person pronoun 2 Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Linguisitics, /phǒm/ is typically used by a male speaker Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, in formal contexts whereas its counterpart Bangkok, Thailand /di.chán/ is used by a female speaker. In

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casual contexts, the first person pronoun Cooke 1968). Pronoun /raw/ is primarily for males is unmarked /kuu/ which is used as a first person plural pronoun as in reciprocal to the pronoun /mɨŋ/, a second the following examples, person pronoun. In other Tai languages, a paper on Zhuang pronoun systems by (1) กกก Kullavanijaya (2009) describes personal jùu.jùu kru kɔɔ phuut pronoun systems in some dialects of Zhuang as also being marked by social suddenly teacher PART say indexes, such as politeness, intimacy, and kĥn maa naj sìŋ thî social status. For example, pronoun ascend come in something which /kho:i35/ in Debao dialect is used as a phûak.raw kam.laŋ rɔɔ humble self-referring term, reciprocal to we PROGRESS wait pronoun /tsau35/, showing respect to the “Suddenly, the teacher said something we addressee. are waiting for.”

In Rhekhalilit (2010), the pronoun systems In (1), the pronoun /raw/ is marked by of Kham Mueang and Tai Lue are pluralizing marker ก /phûak/, literally analyzed to show the different dimensions meaning ‘group’, emphasizing the group of contrast between these two sister of the speakers, in this case, students. languages. The analysis reveals that pronoun systems in both languages are These studies also reveal that the pronoun marked by eight dimensions of contrast. /raw/ is used to refer to a singular definite Both Kham Mueang and Tai Lue pronoun self-referring expression, mainly indexing systems share the five similar features of intimacy between conversation 1) person, 2) number, 3) relative status, 4) participants. For example, intimacy and 5) the presence of monk. However, they are different in other (2) ก ก dimensions. In Kham Mueang, there are three additional dimensions namely, 6) di.chăn jaak rɔ́ɔŋ.hâaj gender, 7) inclusiveness and 8) deference. I(female) want cry Compared to that of Kham Mueang, Tai raw rák khǎw thɛ̂ɛp taaj Lue pronoun system spoken in Lampang we love he almost die province consists of three additional different dimensions of contrast, tham.maj khǎw mâj rûu specifically, 6) gender of speaker, 7) why he NOT know gender of addressee, and 8) formality. “I (female) want to cry. I love him so much. Why he doesn’t even know.” As mentioned in earlier paragraphs, personal pronouns in Tai languages are From (2), the pronoun /raw/ is used to marked by social markers, particularly the refer to the speaker herself as equivalent to first person pronoun /haw/ or its the pronoun /di.chăn/ in the previous equivalent /raw/. Many studies of the clause. This example shows the singular Standard Thai pronoun system share the meaning of pronoun /raw/ in Standard same conclusion that there are multiple Thai. Moreover, Cooke (1968) and Higbie meanings of the pronoun /raw/ (i.e. and Thinsan (2003), confirm that the Simpson 1997; Higbie and Thinsan 2003;

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pronoun /raw/ is also used as a second To sum up, from the previous studies, the person singular pronoun, exclusively when pronoun /raw/ in Standard Thai has four referring to lower or inferior addressee. different meanings: 1) first person plural, For example, 2) first person singular with intimacy, 3) second person singular with lower status, (3) ก and 4) generic meaning. raw mæ̂æ wâ jàa caj rɔ́ɔn In Standard Lao, Enfield’s analysis (1966) mother COMP we don’t heart hot suggests that the pronoun /haw/ can also paj loej lûuk be used with either a plural or singular go PART child meaning. In contrast with Standard Thai, it “I think that you shouldn’t be hot- is commonly used by children, especially tempered, my son.” when talking to their parents, in order to lower the formality in a family From (3), the mother, who is speaking to conversation. her son, refers to him as /raw/, showing the lower status of the addressee. This multiple usage of pronoun /haw/ is also found in northern branches of the Tai Lastly, Simpson (1997) also adds its language, such as Zhuang. Kullavanijaya generic function, equivalent to generic we (2009) analyses different dialects of in English. For example, Zhuang and finds that pronoun /ɤau31/ in Debao dialect has three different (4) ก meanings, that is 1) first person plural; 2) (Simpson 1997:171) first person singular indexing intimacy; raw and 3) second person singular indexing càʔ aw tɛ̀ɛ caj lower status and intimacy. we will take but heart tua.ʔeŋ kɔ̂ɔ mâj dâj In conclusion, these three examples from self PART NOT get Tai personal pronoun analysis agree that raw tɔ̂ŋ duu rɔ̂ɔp khâaŋ the pronouns /raw/, /haw/, and /ɤau31/ we must look all around share the multiple meanings of first person pronoun; that is, the unmarked plural dûaj wâa mɔ̀ʔsǒm řɨ plàaw meaning and the singular with some social also COMP appropriate or not indexes as summarized in Table 1 below. “We can’t just satisfy our own desire; we have to look around too and see if it’s appropriate or not.”

The example (4) from Simpson (1997: 173) shows the generic use of the pronoun /raw/ in order to “downplay the speaker’s personal experience” and in order to emphasize the shared standpoint of a larger group instead.

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Table1 A comparison of meanings of the first person plural pronouns in some Tai languages

Standard Thai /raw/ Standard Lao /haw/ Zhuang Debao /ɤau31/ First person plural X X X First person singular X X indexing intimacy First person singular X lowering formality in a conversation Second person X X singular indexing lower status of the addressee Generic meaning X

Table 1 summarizes the multiple meanings native speakers, the number of studies on of pronouns /raw/, /haw/ and /ɤau31/ in the use of personal pronouns in this dialect some Tai languages. Clearly, these are still limited. As a result, this paper pronouns share the first person plural aims to provide an insightful explanation meaning, but their singular meanings are of the pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue to fill in differently marked by some social the gap in the literature in this area. indexicalities such as intimacy and lower status of either the speaker (as found in According to Lewis, Simons and Fenning Standard Lao /haw/) or the addressee (as (n.d.), Tai Lue is a literary Tai language found in Standard Thai /raw/ and Zhuang spoken in several areas of Southeast Asia, such as Xishuangbanna in Yunnan ɤau31 / /). It is also found that pronoun province in China, Luangphrabang in Lao /raw/ in Standard Thai can have a generic PDR, some areas in Vietnam and some function, equivalent to ‘anybody’ in provinces in Northern Thailand. It is a English. In order to contribute to the body tonal language with six distinctive tones in of literature on the multiple meanings of its phonological system (Gedney 1996). the pronoun /haw/, the current study aims Syntactically speaking, it is also classified to investigate whether the first person as an S-V-O language with head-modifier plural pronouns in the three dialects of Tai pattern, and serial verb constructions. Lue in three different countries share the same sociolinguistic meanings or not. In addition, Tai Lue is normally treated as a minority language in countries where it Background of Tai Lue is spoken. For example, according to Prasithrathsint (2005), Tai Lue is regarded Tai Lue is selected in this present study as a displaced language in Thailand. It is because despite the wide population of its mainly spoken in family and friendship domains as a vernacular, and most of its

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native speakers are bilingual in Tai Lue and Kham Mueang in Chiang Mai, and in Tai Lue and Standard Lao in Luangphrabang, as well as in Tai Lue and Mandarin in Xishuangbanna.

Fieldwork conducted for the present study revealed that linguistic landscape also reflects the minority status of Tai Lue in the chosen communities. In Chiang Mai and Laungphrabang, Tai Lue written scripts are rarely found in public spaces. Figure 1 A signpost of Tai Lue village Most public signs are written only in where only Standard Lao scripts are Standard languages of each country: Thai written in Chiang Mai and Lao in Luangphrabang.

This might suggest the lower status to Tai Lue in that the language policy of the authorities does not support the languages of an ethnic minority. For example, Figure 1 shows the public signpost of Tai Lue village, Ban Pha Nom, which is known to be a Tai Lue community. Despite the ethnic majority of the village being Tai Lue, its signpost name is still written monolingual Standard Lao. In contrast, Tai Lue in Xishuangbanna is widely supported by the local government as reflected in its regional linguistic landscape. For example, Tai Lue scripts are normally written above that of Figure 2 Traffic sign in Xishuangbanna Mandarin in traffic signs authorized by the where Tai Lue scripts are written local government, as shown in Figure 2. This might imply governmental support The present study towards Tai Lue as the largest minority language group in the region. According to Casas (2011), Old Tai Lue script was used As mentioned above, some studies on Tai as a means of teaching in Xishuangbanna pronouns agree that first person pronoun Autonomous prefecture until the Chinese forms such as /raw/ and /haw/ can be used government attempted to reform the with different shades of meanings. educational system in 1952. Now Modern However, there are still a limited number Tai Lue script plays an important role in of studies on Tai languages which are official documents and signs as mentioned spoken in different countries. Most of earlier. previous studies focus specifically to a language spoken only in one particular country. As a result, this study intends to study a language which is mostly found in different countries: Tai Lue. The purpose

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of this study is to describe the use of first Twenty seven participants, aged from 10 person plural pronoun /haw/ in three to 71, were selected based on the dialects of Tai Lue spoken in Chiang Mai following criteria: 1) they had to be Tai (TLC), Luangphrabang (TLL), and Lue native speakers; 2) they could be Xishuangbanna (TLX). This present study bilingual, but Tai Lue vernacular was gathered data from three different dialects definitely required; and 3) they were of Tai Lue to widen the scope of analysis. expected to have lived in the village longer The dialects of Chiang Mai and than half of their lives. Next, they were Luangphrabang can be considered similar asked to narrate a story based on the three in term of their minority language status sets of modules: 1) family domain; 2) while the dialect of Xishuangbanna is religion domain; and 3) friendship domain different in that it is obviously supported as illustrated in Figure 3. by the local authority. Thus, it is interesting to study the language of the same minority ethnic groups such as Tai Lue, which is spoken in different countries with different social backgrounds to compare the language use, in this case pronoun /haw/.

It is hypothesized that, based on other Tai languages studies, pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue has multiple meanings in which it mutually refers to a group of speakers and is also used to refer to an individual speaker with social meanings, such as Figure 3 Characteristics networks of relative status and intimacy. modules for Tai Lue native speakers

The data were collected by a Labovian It is noted that the organization of these sociolinguistic interview (1984; cited in three modules can be shuffled in each Milroy and Gordon 2003) and through interview, so that interviewee A might be participant observation. According to asked firstly about friendship domain Milroy and Gordon (2003), sociolinguistic while interviewee B might be asked about interviews have been the most common religion domain first. This was in order to strategy for data collection. Compared to start the interview with the most familiar survey questions, they are relatively domain of questions based on the flexible and open-ended. The primary background experience of the interviewees. objective of sociolinguistic interviews is to Each interview took approximately 30 stimulate the interviewees’ natural usage minutes. of language. The interview in this present study was designed based on Labov’s They were then asked to create or translate Philadelphia project in 1984. The a conversation from Standard Thai or Lao questions were set into three different sets or Chinese to Tai Lue on the related topic based on the daily life and familiar which was set to control the relationship of experience of the interviewees. the participants. Finally, they were asked directly how they would refer to

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themselves or to an addressee or even non- Unmarked first person plural participants in the conversation. For meaning instance, “How do you refer to yourself while talking to your parents?” or “How The basic function of pronoun /haw/ is do you refer to your friend at school?” etc. unmarked first person plural pronoun, like After the interview, the data were verified its counterparts in other Tai languages. For using a sentence completion test in which example, the interviewer used the elicited personal pronouns to fill in a set of sentences to (5) A male TLC native speaker aged 41 check their feasibility. For example, “Can talking to the interviewer. we use X to talk about Y?” or “Can we say pá.ka.tí haw càʔ ní.mōon túu.câo kâo X to refer to a dog, as in “X is coming?” This technique was used to verify the data tǒon collection as to whether a pronoun could “Normally, we will invite nine monks.” be used to refer to Y or not. From (5), pronoun /haw/ is spoken by a Apart from the sociolinguistic interview, male TLC speaker when the interviewer participant observation was used to collect asked him to narrate an event about a information on the use of personal Buddhist ceremony. Pronoun /haw/ is used pronouns in the selected community. to refer to his family as a whole. Participant observation is another primary Generally, unmarked first person plural sociolinguistic method of ethnography pronoun can co-occur with pluralizing (Johnstone 2000). As Stocking (1983) has morpheme /mùu/, literally meaning indicated, an important element of ‘group’ to emphasize the plural meaning participant observation is for the as /mùu. haw/. researcher to enter the selected community as a stranger and to investigate the native’s Not only is this found in the TLC dialect, point of view as reflected in the way he or but the unmarked first person plural she behaves. In the present study, while I function of pronoun /haw/ is also found in was interviewing the informants, I was TLL dialect as shown in Example (6) also observing the natural use of the below. For example, personal pronouns of the native speakers, not only those that were being interviewed (6) A female TLL informant aged 66 but also the surrounding participants at the talking to the interviewer time of the interview. haw nai bâan nia mii hōong.hīan tîi Findings diaw In our village, there is (only) one school The data analysis reveals the multiple meanings of pronoun /haw/ in the selected Surprisingly, it can be noticed that TLL dialects of Tai Lue as hypothesized earlier. first person plural pronoun /haw/ can co- This section describes the sociolinguistic occur with pluralizing morpheme /phuak/, usage of pronoun /haw/ presented as instead of /mǔu/ as found in TLC as follows. shown in Example (7).

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(7) phuak.haw bɔ̀ɔ mak kin cín first person dual pronoun, in contrast to plural form /mùu.haw/. For example, we NEG like eat meat “We don’t like to eat meat/beef” A male TLC informant aged 65, talking to Sentence (7) shows that a TLL native his wife speaker chooses the pronoun /phuak.haw/ (9) haw càʔ ni.mōon túu.câo kìi tǒon? when referring to her family. “How many monks will we invite?”

I have hypothesized that the possible Example (9) shows that a male TLC native reason is that pluralizing morpheme speaker who is 65 years old employs /phuak/ has been borrowed from either pronoun /haw/ to refer to his wife and Standard Thai or Standard Lao as a means himself. of public communications. Even though, TLL native speakers lived in Lao PDR, the From the in-depth interview, it is noted main broadcasting programs on televisions that this dual meaning usage is only found are transmitted from Thailand. Thus, it is in TLC native speakers aged over 60. very common for TLL speakers may However, those who are under 60 tend not acquire some grammatical elements of to apply this meaning to their pronoun Standard Thai, in contrast to Tai Lue system. On the other hand, this may speakers in Thailand who may realize the suggest different pronoun systems across differentiation between their Tai Lue generations, and it implies pronoun change vernacular and Standard Thai taught at in progress in TLC. According to the school. However, a deeper study must be variationist approach of language change conducted to prove this hypothesis. (such as Romaine 2001), the synchronic variation across age groups can indicate Undoubtedly, pronoun /haw/ in TLX also language change in progress where the refers to a group of speakers, as with its variety of older generation represents the counterparts in TLC, TLL and in other Tai variation which may be lost in the future; languages. For example, while, that of younger generation represents the new form of the language. (8) A female TLX informant talking to the That is, this dual pronoun usage in TLC interviewer may be lost through time. khon baàn haw caʔ ni.moon tuʔ First person singular indexing taan.bun intimacy between participants “We, the villagers, normally invite monks to make merit.” As in other Tai languages, pronoun /haw/ in TLC is used to refer to an individual Just like /haw/ equivalents in other Tai speaker, mostly when talking to intimate languages, in (8) the pronoun /haw/ refers addressees. For example, to the villagers.

First person dual meaning (10) A male TLC informant aged 10, talking to his classmate.

Interestingly, TLC native speakers aged over 60 tend to use the pronoun /haw/ as a

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haw húu wâa tǒo bɔɔ̀ maa (12) A monk TLX native speaker talking “I knew you didn’t come.” to a villager haw caʔ tɤń bɔɔk̀ cāo Example (10) shows the first person “I will explain and tell you.” singular meaning of pronoun /haw/, equivalent to pronoun ‘I’ in English. In Example (12) shows the use of singular addition, it also indexes the intimate meaning of the pronoun /haw/ in TLX. relationship between the speaker and the This usage, according to Ampornpan’s addressee, in this example, a classmate. (1986) Tai Lue Nan grammatical sketch, is also found in Tai Lue spoken in Nan In addition, pronoun /haw/ in TLL also province in Northern Thailand too. refers to a single speaker as a self-referring expression, especially in intimate To conclude, this section provides the conversation. For example, sociopragmatic description of pronoun /haw/ spoken in three dialects of Tai Lue. The data (11) A TLL female informant aged 23, analysis reveals that pronouns /haw/ in all talking to her younger sister. three dialects share the first person plural meaning of the pronoun. However, they haw càʔ paj tōoi might acquire additional social indexicality “I will go too.” when being used as a single self-referring expression, that is, intimacy in TLC and Sentence (11) shows the use of pronoun TLL dialects, and monkhood status in TLX /haw/ as a single self-referring expression as summarized in Table 2 below. to show intimacy between participants in the conversation, in this case, between two Discussion female siblings. In the previous section, it was found that However, it is not found in the interview pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue spoken in three that TLL native speakers use pronoun different dialects can be used to refer to /haw/ to refer to only two speakers as either a group of speakers or an individual found in TLC dialect. That is, there is no speaker. The latter usage is marked by a dual and plural distinction between social index, such as intimacy and status of pronoun /haw/ and /phuak.haw/. They can monkhood. When compared to its equivalent be used interchangeably by the native TLL in other Tai languages mentioned previously— speakers. that is pronoun /raw/ in Standard Thai, pronoun /haw/ in Standard Lao, and pronoun First person singular indexing status ɤau31/ of monkhood / in Debao Zhuang—it is seen that they mutually share the plural meaning. As a result, we may conclude that the plural meaning of Uniquely, when used with definite these three equivalents is unmarked in the singular meaning, pronoun /haw/ in TLX Tai pronoun system. is exclusively used by monks, unlike its counterparts found in TLL and TLC, as in According to some linguists (such as Agha the following example. 2007 and Siewierska 2004), personal

pronoun usage in some languages relies on

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the reanalysis of multiple meanings in indexicals reflecting the characteristics of which the speakers of such languages tend the speakers or the relationships between to convert the linguistic units denoting the speaker and the addressee in the speakers or addressees into the social conversation.

Table 2 Multiple meanings of the pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue

Tai Lue Chiang Mai Tai Lue Luang Tai Lue Phrabang Xishuangbanna First person plural X X X First person dual X - - First person singular X X - indexing intimacy First person singular - - X indexing status of monkhood

Figure 4 The possible changing pattern of the participant deixis in pronoun /haw/ in Tai Lue.

In the case of Tai Lue in this study, the Additionally, this phenomenon is not grammatical category of pronoun /haw/, a idiosyncratic to the Tai personal pronoun plural marker, is converted into the systems. A cross-linguistic study of the indexicals reflecting the relationship conversion from speaker-addressee between particpants in a conversation, referents to social index by Head in 1978 which is intimacy in TLC and TLL, and reveals that a large number of languages the inherent characteristics of the speaker, convert number distinction (that is, which is the status of monkhood in TLX as singular & non-singular) in the personal summarized in Figure 4. pronoun system to convey the social meaning. The very well-known account,

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mentioned in the introduction, of T and V especially those denoting a plural entity, pronouns in European languages by into the social indexicals, or the Brown and Gilman (1960) might be a relationship between the participants. good example of this. In French, second person pronouns vous and tu were Conclusion formerly different only in terms of number. Pronoun vous was basically used This study examines the sociolinguistic to denote a group of addressees, a plural usage of the pronoun /haw/ in three entity, while pronoun tu was mainly used dialects of Tai Lue. As hypothesized to denote only one, a singular entity. Later earlier, it is found that pronoun /haw/ is on, pronoun vous was used to denote the typically used to refer to a group of king with his accompany. As a result, speakers in all selected dialects. In TLC, pronoun vous changes its basic meaning speakers who are older than 60 tend to use from the plural meaning to show the pronoun /haw/ as a dual pronoun to refer power of the addressee instead. On the to only two speakers, as opposed to other hand, pronoun tu is used to show /muu.haw/ which is marked with plurality solidarity between participants in the meaning more than two speakers. conversation. When referring to an individual speaker, Apart from the addressee-referring terms, the pronoun /haw/ in TLC and TLL is the self-referring terms in many languages marked by social index, showing intimacy also match this pattern of conversion in th between the participants in a conversation their meanings. In 18 century Chinese or speaker and addressee whereas in TLX (Lee 1999), when talking to a superior it is used exclusive by a monk when addressee, a native speaker of Chinese, referring to himself. That is, it shows the especially women, servants, and children, attribute of monkhood of the speaker. This normally chose the first person plural pattern of multiple meanings of pronoun pronoun when denoting to him/herself in /haw/ in Tai Lue can be also found in other order to show a sense of inferiority to the Tai languages such as in Standard Thai, addressee. Standard Lao, and in Zhuang.

From these two examples, it can be Acknowledgements noticed that the meaning of personal pronouns, i.e. vous, meaning ‘you’, in I would like to express my gratitude to the French and women, meaning ‘we’ , in Thailand Research Fund for financial Chinese, both denoting a plural entity has support of my fieldwork research. I am been changed to index the different social also highly indebted to Prof. Dr. Amara relationship between participants. The Prasithrathsint and Prof. Dr. Thom former reflects the superiority of the Huebner, who give me suggestions and addressee while the latter reflects the supports on this paper. I also would like to opposite meaning, the humbleness of the thank two anonymous readers for their speaker. useful comments on the earlier drafts. Last

but not least, I would like to thank my Tai The above-mentioned examples from Tai Lue informants from Chiang Mai, languages, French, and Chinese illustrate Luangphrabang, and Xishuangbanna who the changing pattern of personal pronouns, participated in this interview.

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