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INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES IN STANDARD ENGLISH AND KURDISH: A CONTRASTIVE STUDY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LING....

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Kurdistan Regional Government Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Koya College of Languages

INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES IN STANDARD ENGLISH AND KURDISH: A CONTRASTIVE STUDY

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COUNCIL OF THE COLLEGE OF LANGUAGES - UNIVERSITY OF KOYA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

BY KHUNAW SULAYMAN PIROT

SUPERVISED BY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OMRAN MOOSA MAHOOD (Ph.D.)

1429 (Hijri) 2008 2708 (Kurdish)

I certify that this thesis was prepared under my supervision at the University of Koya as a partial requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.

Signature: Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Omran Moosa Mahood

Date: / / 2008

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate by the Examining Committee.

Signature: Name: Dr. Hoshang Farooq Jawad

Head of English Department College of Languages University of Koya

Date: / / 2008

II We certify that we have read this thesis as an examining committee, examined the student in its content and that in our opinion it is adequate with……………………….as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS.

Signature Signature

Name: Asst. Prof. Khalil Ismael Rajia Name: Asst.Prof.Omran Moosa Mahood

Member Member

Signature Signature

Name: Dr. Hoshang Farooq Jawad Name: Prof. Muhammad Ma'ruf Fattah

Member Chairman

Date: / / 2008

Approved by the council of the college of Languages Signature: Name: Dr. Goran Salahaddin Shukir Dean of the College of Languages Date: / / 2008

III

TO: My lovable parents, My dear brothers and sisters, My lovely nieces, and My relatives Sa'dat and Shukrya

IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A word of gratitude goes to the Kurdistan Regional Government, Koya University, the College of Languages and the English Department.

I owe a particular debt of gratitude to my supervisor Assistant Professor Dr. Omran Moosa Mahood for his constant help, suggestions, instructive guidance and detailed advice during the writing of this thesis.

I am indebted to Professor Dr. Majid Al-Mashta, Professor Dr. Muhammad Ma'ruf Fattah and Professor Dr. Waria Omar Amin for their help and valuable remarks.

Many great thanks are due to the Dean of the College of Human Sciences in Rania, Dr. Ja'far A. Rassul, for his support and encouragement.

Many thanks are due to Dr. Hoshang F. Jawad, the head of the Department of English of our College, Mr. Hussein Ghazi, the Dean of the College of Languages in Qaladiza, and Mr. Othman Mahmud who provided me with valuable references.

My thanks are due to all the members of the teaching staff of the Institute of Computer in Rania and my cousins Muhammad R. Pirot and Jamal K. Pirot.

Furthermore, I appreciate the help of my colleague Mr. Muhammad Q. Saeed.

Finally, I am indebted to my dear parents, my sisters and my brothers for their sincere help and patience in the course of my study.

V

Key to Abbreviations and Notations

Adj(s) Adjectives Aff(s) Affixes Agr Agreement Cl(s) Clitic(s) Com Comparative Cop Copula D Demonstrative Def Definite DO Direct object DR Derivation Fem Feminine IC(s) Inflectional Categories Ind Indicative Indef Indefinite INF Inflection Int Intransitive IO Indirect object IS(s) Inflectional Suffix(es) Izf Izafa Masc Masculine N Noun Neg Negative P Past Pass Passive Pl Plural PN Person Poss Possessive PP Past participle

VI Pr Present Pref Prefix Prg Progressive Prp Present participle Psp Person singular present Sff(s) Suffix(es) Sg Singular Sub Subject Subj Subjunctive Sup Superlative T Transitive V(s) Verb(s) * ungrammatical / unacceptable { } morpheme indicator + plus → becomes ~ becomes/alternates / / Phonemic sign = is / becomes ' Primary stress - morpheme separator

VII Key to Kurdish Phonemic Symbols 1) Consonants

/ p / is a voiceless bilabial stop as in pāk 'clean' / b / is a voiced bilabial stop as in bariz 'high' / t / is a voiceless dental stop as in trê 'grape' / d / is a voiced dental stop as in dast 'hand' / k / is a voiceless velar stop as in kirās 'dress' / g / is a voiced velar stop as in gîyā 'grass' / f / is a voiceless labio-dental fricative as in daf 'drum' / v / is a voiced laboi-dental fricative as in mirov 'human' / s / is a voiceless alveo-dental fricative as in sārd 'cold' / z / is a voiced alveo-dental fricative as in zû 'early' / š / is a voiceless alveo-palatal fricative as in šār 'city' / ž / is a voiced alveo-palatal fricative as in žûr 'room' / ç / is a voiceless alveo-palatal affricate as in çāw 'eye' / c / is a voiced alveo-palatal affricate as in cîhān 'world' / m / is a voiced bilabial nasal as in mirdin 'death' / n / is a voiced dental nasal as in narim 'soft' / ŋ / is a voiced velar nasal as in daŋ 'sound' / h / is a voiceless glottal fricative as in bahār 'spring' / ĥ / is a voiceless pharyngeal fricative as in ĥafta 'week' / I / is a voiceless velarized lateral as in balam 'boat' / Î / is a voiced dental lateral as in baÎê 'yes' / r / is a voiced alveolar flap as in bārān 'rain' / ř / is a voiced alveolar trill as in diřik 'thorn' / x / is a voiceless velar fricative as in xêzān 'family' / x / is a voiced velar fricative as in xambār 'sad' / q / is a voiceless uvular stop as in qāz 'goose' / y / is a palato-alveolar glide as in yār 'lover' / w / is a labiovelar rounded glide as in wûrd 'accurate'

VIII 2) Vowels

/ a / low central unrounded, short vowel as in sar 'head' / ā / low central unrounded, long vowel as in řāw 'hunting' / ê / mid very close front unrounded long vowel as in pê 'foot' / i / high close front unroundd short vowel as in mil 'neck' / î / high close front unrounded long vowel as in sî 'thirty' / u / high open back rounded short vowel as in kuř 'boy' / û / high close back rounded long vowel as in sûr 'red' /o / mid open back rounded short vowel as in mor 'purple'

IX List of Tables

Titles Tables Page

The Relation between Affixes and Clitics 10 Table 1

Table 2 Spanish Verbal Inflections for Person and Number 32

Table 3 Common Inflectional Categories 32

Table 4 The Inflectional Suffixes in English 35

Table 5 The Verb Paradigm in English 51

Table 6 The Pronominal Clitics in Kurdish 86

X List of Diagrams

Diagrams Titles Page

The Identification of Affixes in English Diagram 1 6

Cumulation in Inflectional Suffixes{-S3} Diagram 2 54

Diagram 3 The Allomorphs of the Definite Suffix {-aka} 71

Diagram 4 The Allomorphs of the Indefinite Suffix{-êk} 77

Diagram 5 The Formation of the Passive Inflection 99

Diagram 6 Cumulation of the Passive Inflection {-r} 100

XI ABSTRACT

The present study is an attempt to deal with inflections. Affixes differ in their position and function. Two fundamentally different functional categories of affixes are distinguished: derivational affixes and inflectional affixes. Inflection can be defined as the modification in the form of a word typically by adding prefixes and suffixes in a systematic way to yield a new word which reflects grammatically conditioned information such as number, gender, tense, mood etc. These grammatical relationships are obligatory for the word class depending on a particular grammatical context. The affixed nature of inflection is characterized by being regular and fully productive. The inflectional affixes are characterized by stability in meaning and are never category changing. The major syntactic categories that are marked by inflections are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. One of the aims of the study is to assess the various aspects of inflectional suffixes in Standard English and Central Kurdish with respect to their morphological forms, meanings, phonological and grammatical aspects by investigating the role of inflection when attached to a stem. It is generally assumed that the inflectional suffixes are closing suffixes in English i.e. they are the last suffix of any type in the word. The current study falls into five chapters:

Chapter one introduces the problem to be tackled, the aims, the hypotheses, the procedures, limits of the study, and the value of the study.

Chapter two explains some basic concepts in inflectional morphology. The section of affixes comprises definition of affixes, and types of affixes according to position and function. A section is devoted to criteria for distinguishing between clitics and affixes. The last sections demonstrate the syntactic, semantic and formal differences between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes, definition of inflection, inflection and syntax, and inflectional categories for nouns, verbs and adjectives.

XII Chapter three is primarily devoted to the inflectional suffixes in Standard English. It comprises noun inflections, verb inflections, adjective inflections, adverb inflections, and suffixal homophones. It also presents the morphological form, meaning, phonological aspect and grammatical aspect of each inflectional suffix.

Chapter four is concerned with the inflectional suffixes in Central Kurdish. It includes noun inflections, verb inflections, adjective inflections, adverb inflections, miscellaneous and suffixal homophones. It also presents the morphological form, meaning, phonological aspect and grammatical aspect of each inflectional suffix.

Chapter five presents a contrastive analysis of inflectional suffixes in both Standard English and Central Kurdish. It involves points of similarity and difference in noun inflections, verb inflections, adjective inflections, and adverb inflections between the languages contrasted. It also clarifies the problems that encounter the learners of both languages.

The chapter offers a number of conclusions. The most important conclusions that can be drawn from this study are that inflectional suffixes in English close the structure of the word while they do not close the structure of the word in Kurdish and nouns are inflected for definiteness and indefiniteness in Kurdish. Suggestions for further study are also given at the end of this chapter. A bibliography comes at the end of the study. This is followed by a Kurdish and Arabic abstracts.

XIII CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………… V Key to Abbreviations and Notations………………………………….. VI Key to Kurdish Phonemic Symbols………………………………...... VIII List of Tables…………………………………………………………. X List of Diagrams……………………………………………………… XI ABSTRACT………………………………………………………….. XII

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1The Problem………………………………………………………. 1 1.2 The Aims of the Study…………………………….…….....……… 2 1.3 The Hypotheses……….... ……………………………...... 2 1.4 The Procedures……………………………………….…...... 3 1.5 Limits of the Study ……………………………………..…...... 3 1.6 The Value of the Study………………………………….………... 3

CHAPTER TWO: Basic Concepts in Inflectional Morphology 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………….…...... 4 2.2 Affixes………………………………………...... 4 2.2.1 Definition of Affixes……………………………………….…… 4 2.2.2 Identification of Affixes……………………….…………...... 5 2.2.3 Affixes and Classification of Languages………………...... 6 2.2.4 Types of Affixes according to Position……..……………..……. 7 2.2.4.1 Prefixes……………………………..……………………...... 7 2.2.4.2 Suffixes………………………………………………..…...... 7 2.2.4.3 Infixes…………………………………………….……...... 8 2.2.4.4 Circumfixes…………………………………………….…...... 8 2.2.5 Types of Affixes according to Function…………...... 9 2.3 Affixes and Clitics………………………………...... 9 2.3.1Definition of Clitics ………………………………….…...... 9 2.3.2Clitics and Other Linguistic Areas…………………………...... 9

XIV 11

2.3.3 Types of Clitics…………………………………………….…...... 10 2.3.4 Criteria for Distinguishing between Clitics and Affixes…...... 10 2.4 Inflectional Affixes and Derivational Affixes …………..…….……… 13 2.4.1 Syntactic Differences…………………………………………...... 14 2.4.1.1 Relevance to Syntax………...... 14 2.4.1.2 Obligatoriness……….……………………………………...... 15 2.4.1.3 Replacement……………………..………………………...... 16 2.4.1.4 Syntactic Category ………...... 16 2.4.1.5 Productivity (or Generality)...... ………………...... 17 2.4.2 Semantic Differences……………..…………………………...... 17 2.4.2.1 Conceptual Meaning…………...... 17 2.4.2.2 Abstractness………………………...... 18 2.4.2.3 Semantic Regularity………………………………………...... 18 2.4.2.4 Semantic Relevance………..……………………………...... 18 2.4.2.5 Limitation………………..………………………………...... 19 2.4.3 Formal Shapes……………………………………………………… 19 2.4.3.1 Position…………………………………………………………… 19 2.4.3.2 Base Allomorphy………………………………………...... 20 2.4.4 Other Relative Criteria……………...... 20 2.4.4.1 Types of Affixes ………………..………………………...... 20 2.4.4.2 Number: Closed Class Affixes…………………….……...... 20 2.4.4.3 Suffixability……………………………………………...... 20 2.4.4.4 Iteration……………...... 21 2.5 Inflection.………………….…………………………………………. 21 2.5.1 Definition of Inflection …………………...... 21 2.5.2 The Position of Inflection in Grammar…...... 22 2.5.3 Inflection and Syntax…………………..…………………...... 24 2.5.4 Paradigm and Inflectional Categories………………………...... 24 2.5.4.1 Paradigm: Definition…………...... 24 2.5.4.2 Inflectional Categories…...... 25 2.5.4.2.1 Inflectional Categories for Nouns……..……………...... 26 2.5.4.2.1.1 Inherent Categories for Nouns……………………………….. 26

XV 2.5.4.2.1.2 Relational Categories for Nouns………………….…………. 27 2.5.4.2.2 Inflectional Categories for Verbs…...... 28 2.5.4.2.2.1 Inherent Categories for Verbs………………………………. 28 2.5.4.2.2.2 Relational Category for Verbs………………………………. 30 2.5.4.2.2.3 Agreement Category for Verbs……………………………… 30 2.5.4.2.3 Inflectional categories for Adjectives ...... 31 2.5.4.2.3.1 Inherent Categories for Adjectives………………………….. 31 2.5.4.2.3.2 Agreement Category for Adjectives…………………...... 31 2.5.5 Syncretism in Inflectional Paradigm………...... 33 2.5.6 Paradigm Imperfectness………………...... 33

CHAPTER THREE: Inflectional Suffixes in English 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………. 35 3.2 Inflectional Suffixes in English…………………………...... … 35 3.2.1 The position of Inflectional Suffixes within Level-Ordered Model…………………………………………. 36 3.3 Noun Inflections……………………………………………………… 37 3.3.1The Suffix {-S1}……………………………………………………. 38 3.3.1.1 Morphological Forms and Meaning……………………………… 38 3.3.1.1.1The Addition of the Suffix {-s} ………………………………… 38 3.3.1.1.2 Modification of the Stem-final Consonant……………………… 39 3.3.1.1.2.1 Nouns ending in Labio-dental Fricative /f/..……………...... 39 3.3.1.1.2.2 Nouns ending in dental fricative /Ө/……………………...... 40 3.3.1.1.2.2.1 Nouns with a Consonant before /Ө/…………………...... 40 3.3.1.1.2.2.2 Nouns with a Vowel before /Ө/……………………...... 41 3.3.1.1.2.3 Nouns ending in Sibilant Fricative/ s/………………………… 41 3.3.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-S1}……………………………….. 41 3.3.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-S1}…………………………...... 43 3.3.2 The Suffix {-S2}……………………………………………………. 43 3.3.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning………………………………… 43 3.3.2.1.1Singular and Regular Plural………………………………………. 44 3.3.2.1.2 Irregular Plural Nouns………………………………...………… 44

XVI 3.3.2.1.3 Zero (or Bare) Possessive…………………………………... 44 3.3.2.1.4 Gender and the Possessive………………………………….. 45 3.3.2.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-S2}…………………………….. 46 3.3.2.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-S2}……………………….……. 46 3.3.2.3.1 Uses of Possessive 's……………………………….………. 46 3.3.2.3.2 Possessive without a Head Noun……………………………. 47 3.3.2.3.3 Double (or Post) Possessive………………………………… 48 3.3.2.3.4 The Group Possessive ……………………………………… 48 3.3.2.3.5 Possession and other Semantic Relationship………………... 48 3.3.2.3.6 Ambiguity in the Possessive Form…………………………... 49 3.4 Verb Inflections……………………………………………………. 51 3.4.1 The Verb Paradigm……………………………………………… 51 3.4.1.1 Primary vs Secondary Forms…………………………………. 51 3.4.1.2 Inflectional Forms vs Shapes………………………………….. 52 3.4.2 The Morphology of Lexical Verbs………………………………. 52 3.4.2.1 The morphology of Regular Lexical Verbs……………………. 52 3.4.2.2 The morphology of Irregular Lexical Verbs…..………………. 53 3.4.3 The Suffix {-S3}…………………………….…………………… 53 3.4.3.1 Morphological Form and Meaning…………..………………... 53 3.4.3.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-S3}……………………………. 54 3.4.3.2.1 The Suffix {-S3} and Stem Changing……………………….. 54 3.4.3.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-S3}…………………………….. 55 3.4.4 The Suffix {-ing}…………………………………….………….. 55 3.4.4.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………..……………... 55 3.4.4.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-ing}…………………………… 56 3.4.4.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-ing}………………………...... 56 3.4.5 The Suffix {-ed}...………………………………………………. 57 3.4.5.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 57 3.4.5.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-d1} and {-d2}………………….. 58 3.4.5.3 Syncretism between {-d1} and {-d2}………………………….. 58 3.4.5.4 The Grammatical Aspect of {-d2}………...... 58 3.4.6 The Suffix {-en}………………………………………………… 59 3.4.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 59

XVII

3.4.6.2 Morphological Relations between other Forms……………….. 59 3.5 Adjective Inflections ……………………………………...... 61 3.5.1 The Suffixes {-er} and {-est}…………………………………… 61 3.5.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning ………….………………... 61 3.5.2 Morphological and Phonological Properties of the Stem…...... 63 3.5.2.1 Short Adjectives………………………………………………. 64 3.5.2.1.1 Monosyllabic Adjectives...... 64 3.5.2.1.2 Disyllabic Adjectives………………………………………... 64 3.5.2.2 Long Adjectives: Trisyllabic and more….……………………. 65 3.5.3 The Phonological Aspect of {-er} and {-est}…………………… 65 3.5.4 The Grammatical Aspect of {-er}………………………………. 66 3.5.5 The Grammatical Aspect of {-est}………………..…………….. 67 3.6 Adverb Inflections …………………………..…………………… 68 3.7 Suffixal Homophones………………..…………………………… 68

CHAPTER FOUR: Inflectional Suffixes in Kurdish

4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………….. 71

4.2 Noun Inflections………………………………………………….. 70

4.2.1The Definite Suffix {-aka}………………………………………. 70 4.2.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning………….………………… 70 4.2.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-aka}…………………………… 71 4.2.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-aka}…………………………… 73 4.2.2 The Definite Suffix {-a}………………………………………… 75 4.2.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning…………………………… 75 4.2.2.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a}…………………………….. 75 4.2.2.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}…………………………….. 75 4.2.3 The Indefinite Suffix {-êk } or {-ê}……………………………. 76 4.2.3.1Morphological Form and Meaning …………….…………….. 76 4.2.3.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-êk}.….……………………….. 77 4.2.3.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-êk}….………………………… 78 4.2.4 The Plural Suffix {-ān}………………………………………… 79 4.2.4.1 Morphological Form and Meaning………………………...... 79

XVIII

4.2.4.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-ān}…………………..………… 79 4.2.4.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-ān}…. …………..……………. 81 4.2.5 The Vocative Suffixes {-a}, {-ê} and {-îna}……………………. 81 4.2.5.1 The Vocative Singular Suffix {-a} and {-ê}…………………... 81 4.2.5.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning… ……….……………… 81 4.2.5.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a} and {-ê}………….……… 82 4.2.5.2 The Vocative Plural Suffix {-îna}…………………………….. 82 4.2.5.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}, {-ê} and {-îna}……………. 82 4.2.6 The Genitive (Izafa) Suffix {-î}………………………………… 83 4.2.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning…………………………... 83 4.2.6.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-î}…………………………….. 83 4.2.6.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-î}……………………………... 83 4.2.7 The Izafa Suffix {-a}…………………………………………… 84 4.2.7.1 Morphological Form and Meaning…………………………… 84 4.2.7.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a}…………………………….. 84 4.2.7.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}…………………………….. 85 4.2.8 Izafa and Other Inflected Nouns……………………………….. 85 4.2.9 The Possessive Suffixes……………………………………….. 86 4.2.9.1 Morphological Form and Meaning…………………………... 86 4.2.9.2 The Phonological Aspect of the Possessive Suffixes……….... 86 4.2.9.3 The Grammatical Aspect of the Possessive Suffixes…………. 87 4.2.9.4 The Position of the Possessive Suffixes in Phrases…………… 88 4.2.9.5 Possessive and Other Inflected Nouns………………………… 88 4.3 Verb Inflections…………………………………………………… 89 4.3.1The Present Suffix {-a}………………………………………….. 90 4.3.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning………….………………… 90 4.3.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a}……………………………… 91 4.3.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}……………………………… 91 4.3.2 The Past Suffixes {-ā,-î,-û,-t, -d}……………………………….. 91 4.3.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 91 4.3.2.1.1Past Suffixes ending in Vowels ……………………………... 91 4.3.2.1.2 Past Suffixes ending in Consonants…………………………. 92 4.3.2.2 The Grammatical Aspect of the Past Suffixes………………… 93

XIX

4.3.3 The Past Participle Suffix {-û}………………………………….. 93 4.3.3.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 93 4.3.3.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-û}……………………………… 94 4.3.3.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-û}……………………………… 94 4.3.4 The Perfect Subjunctive Suffix {-bi}……………………………. 95 4.3.4.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 95 4.3.4.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-bi}……………………………... 95 4.3.5 The Near Past Subjunctive Suffix {-bā}………………………… 95 4.3.5.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 95 4.3.6 The Past Continuous Subjunctive Suffix {-āya}………………... 96 4.3.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 96 4.3.6.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-āya}…………………………… 96 4.3.7 The Causative Suffix {-ānd}……………………………………. 97 4.3.7.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 97 4.3.7.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {ānd}……………………………. 98 4.3.8 The Passive Suffix {-r}…………………………………………. 99 4.3.8.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 99 4.3.8.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-r}………………………………. 100 4.3.9 The Verbal Prepositions as Suffixes…………………………….. 111 4.3.9.1 Morphological Form and Meaning of the Suffix {-a}………… 111 4.3.9.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}……………………………… 111 4.4 Adjective Inflections………………………………………………. 102 4.4.1The Definite Suffix {-aka} and the indefinite Suffix {-êk}……… 102 4.4.1.1 The Phonological Aspect of {-aka}…………………………… 102 4.4.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-êk}…………………………….. 102 4.4.2 The Plural Suffix {-ān}………………………………………….. 103 4.4.2.1 The Phonological Aspect of {-ān}……………………………. 103 4.4.3 The Comparative and Superlative Suffixes {-tir} and {-trîn}…… 103 4.4.3.1 The Comparative Suffix {-tir}………………………………… 103 4.4.3.1.1 The Grammatical Aspect of {-tir}…………………………… 103 4.4.3.2 The Superlative Suffix {-trîn}…………………………………. 104 4.4.3.2.1 The Grammatical Aspect of {-trîn}………………………….. 104 4.4.3.3 The Phonological Aspect of {-tir} and {-trîn}………………… 105

XX

4.4.3.3.1 Elision ………………………………………………………. 105 4.4.3.3.2 Assimilation…………………………………………………. 105 4.5 Adverb Inflections…………………………………………………. 106 4.6 Miscellaneous……………………………………………………… 106 4.6.1 The Suffix {-š}………………………………………………….. 106 4.6.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning……………………………. 106 4.6.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-š}……………………………… 106 4.6.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-š}………………………………. 117 4.7 Suffixal Homophones…………………………………………….. 118

CHAPTER FIVE: Contrastive Analysis 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………… 119 5.2 Analytical Contrast of ISs in SE and CK………………………….. 119 5.2.1 Noun Inflections in Contrast…………………………………….. 119 5.2.1.1 The Plural Suffix………………………………………...... 119 5.2.1.2 The Possessive Suffix…………………………………………. 111 5.2.1.3 The Izafa Suffixes...... 115 5.2.1.3.1The Izafa {-î}………………………………………………… 115 5.2.1.3.2 The Izafa {-a}……………………………………………….. 117 5.2.1.4 The Vocative Suffixes ………………………………………… 118 5.2.1.5The Definite Suffixes {-aka} and {-a}…………………………. 118 5.2.1.6 The Indefinite Suffix {-êk}……………………………………. 121 5.2.2 Verb Inflections in Contrast……………………………………... 121 5.2.2.1The Suffix {-S3}………………………………………...... 121 5.2.2.2 The Suffix {-ing}………………………………………...... 123

5.2.2.3 The Suffix {-ed} or {-d1}……………………………………… 124

5.2.2.4 The Suffix {-ed} or {-d2}……………………………………… 126

5.2.2.4.1 The Regular Suffix {-ed}……………………………………. 126

5.2.2.4.2 The Irregular Suffix {-en}…………………………………... 128

5.2.2.5 The Suffix {-a}………………………………………………… 129

5.2.2.6 The Suffix {-bi}……………………………………………….. 131

5.2.2.7 The Suffix {-bā}………………………………………………. 131

5.2.2.8 The Suffix {-āya}……………………………………………… 131

XXI

5.2.2.9 The Suffix {-ānd}…………………………………….…….….. 132 5.2.2.10 The Suffix {-r}……………………………………….…….… 133 5.2.2.11The Suffix {-a}…………………………………….…….…… 134 5.2.3 Adjective Inflections in Contrast…………………….……….….. 135 5.2.4 Adverb Inflections in Contrast………………………………..…. 139 5.2.5 The Suffix {-š} ………………………………..…………….….. 139 5.2.6 Suffixal Homophones in Contrast………………………………. 141 5.3 Conclusions…………………………………………………….…. 141 5.4 Suggestions for Further Study………………………………….…. 141 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... …………………………………… 142 ABSTRACT IN KURDISH...... …………………………………… 158 ABSTRACT IN ARABIC…………………………………………….. 161

XXII CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Problem It is assumed that the problem spots in learning English as a foreign language is due to the formation of the words and the way the major word classes take inflections. Kurdish learners of English encounter various problems related to whether all word classes are included in taking inflections and the type of inflections that are attached to words to form new words in the source language. When the Kurdish learners form a new word, they may face interference of the mother tongue in the process of word formation. The most difficult and confusing aspect to master is the characteristic of suffixablitity of inflection of the foreign language. Some of the problems concerning this study can be summarized as follows:

1) In noun inflections: the learners may say *bookthes instead of the books, this is because in their native language definite inflected nouns take the plural inflection kitêbakān. 2) In verb inflections: the present participle morpheme which shows progressiveness is the suffix {-ing} in Standard English, whereas, progressiveness is formed by the verbal prefix {-da} in Central Kurdish, for example, I am eating : min daxom. 3) In adjective inflections: the length of the adjective stem plays a role in taking inflections in English, whereas, in Kurdish, length is not the criterion for adjective inflections which causes a problem, for example, short ~shorter ~shortest : sarbast 'free' ~sarbastir freer ~sarbastrîn freest. These problems lead to inadequate comprehension and undesirable errors on both recognition and production levels. Accordingly, they require special emphasis on morphological structure of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

23 It is worthy mentioning that the area of suffixation, particularly, addition of inflections has not received its due investigation. This is why there is an urgent need to be studied. 1.2 The Aims of the Study The aim of the study is to point out some of the properties characterized by inflectional morphology. It also presents the inflectional categories that both contrasted languages make use of to construct the morphological structure of the word. Moreover, the study will show that the importance of the study lies in manifesting the morphological forms of the inflectional suffixes of both languages, their phonological and grammatical aspects. It also aims in an attempt at finding out the significant and relevant points of similarities and dissimilarities between the two contrasted languages to shed some light on the universal nature of language. 1.3 The Hypothesis As far as inflectional suffixes in both languages are concerned, it is hypothesized that: 1) inflectional suffixes in Kurdish behave in a similar way to those in English. 2) inflectional suffixes in Kurdish close the structure of the words just as inflectional suffixes do in English. 3) nouns are inflected for number in both languages. 4) nouns are inflected for definiteness, lack of definiteness and vocative in Kurdish. 5) the possessive {-s} is regareded a clitic in English. 6) the plural and indefinite suffixes are not true inflectional suffixes in Kurdish. 7) verbs take the passive and the causative inflections in both languages. 8) verbs are inflected for tense, aspect and mood in Kurdish. 9) adjectives and adverbs take the comparative and superlative inflections in both languages. 10) in both languages, prepositions and pronouns take inflectional suffixes.

24 1.4 Limits of the Study The investigation to be carried out in this thesis is restricted to the study of the inflectional suffixes in Standard English and Central Kurdish. It will concentrate on the suffixes with occasional reference to their morphological forms and meanings in both contrasted languages with their phonological and grammatical aspects when found relevant to the study. 1.5 The Procedures The procedures to be followed in dealing with inflectional suffixes in English and Kurdish can be summed up as follows: 1) Presenting the basic models of inflectional morphology in general with some notions in morphology and particularly the inflectional morphology. 2) Presenting a comprehensive description of the inflectional suffixes in English. 3) Conducting a similar description of the inflectional suffixes in Kurdish. 4) Conducting a contrastive analysis of inflectional suffixes in both languages by setting every suffix against its counterpart. 5) Outlining the conclusions arrived at throughout the analysis in regard with the hypothesis identified and putting forth suggestions for further research. 1.6 The Value of the Study As a result of this analysis, the conclusions arrived at are expected to be of value to teachers of English, English textbook writers, researchers, and to English students as well. It may also be of value to teachers of Kurdish, Kurdish text books, and Kurdish students.

25 CHAPTER TWO Basic Models and Concepts in Morphology

2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the approaches of Inflectional morphology. It sheds some light on some definitions of affixes, types of affixes and the differences between affixes and clitics. It deals with the various aspects of the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes. It covers some definitions of inflection. Paradigm and inflectional categories, and paradigm imperfectness are also included. 2.2 Models of Inflectional Morphology According to Crystal (1971: 199; 1985: 195); and Matthews (1972: 41), there are three principal approaches to inflectional morphology: 1) Morpheme –based morphology, which makes use of an Item-and- Arrangement approach. 2) Lexeme –based morphology, which makes use of an Item-and-Process approach. 3) Word –based morphology, which makes use of a Word-and- Paradigm approach. 2.2.1 Morpheme –based Morphology. In morpheme-based morphology, word-forms are analyzed as arrangements of morphemes (Wikipedia, 2008: 5), for example, the English word farmers is decomposed into three independent morphemes; farm is the root and –er, -s are Affixes (Affs). In Item-and-Arrangement the relation between form and meaning is one -to- one (Spencer, 1991: 50; Lieber, 2004: 3). The way of splitting word-forms into independent segments as if they were made of morphemes put after each other as sequences (arrangements) of morphs (items) is called Item-and-Arrangement (Matthews, 1972: 41; Crystal, 2003a: 246) [(See also Jacobson( 1977: 241); and Plag(2002: 231)]. 2.2.2 Lexeme –based Morphology. Lexeme –based morphology is an Item-and-Process approach. In this approach, a word-form is the result of applying rules in which each rule

26 adds or alters a stem to produce a new one but the relationship between them is one-to-one (Lieber, 2004: 3), for example, the item took is taken from take by a process of vowel change (Crystal, 2003a: 246). 2.2.3 Word –based Morphology. Word-based morphology is a Word-and-Paradigm approach. This model regards the word as the basic unit of analysis and takes paradigm as a central notion (Crystal, 2003a: 502). It is in contrast with Item-and-Arrangement and Item-and-Process (Matthews, 1970: 97) in which the relationship between form and meaning is many-to-one or many-to-many (Spencer, 1991: 51; Lieber, 2004: 3). Each inflected form has at least one inflectional property. One-to-many correspondence called cumulation (or multiple exponence) and many-to-one correspondence in which a single property is realized in more than one way within a word is known as extended exponence. In this model, word –formation rules are processes applying to the base which change the stem vowel, for example, English strong verbs ending in {-en} in the past participle. However, in certain cases the vowel of the stem is unique to the past participle as in write, wrote, written in which a phonological process of vowel change is triggered by {-en} suffix (Sff) (Spencer, 1991: 51). The aim is to define a stem as neutral within the paradigm and formulate the various forms from it (Crystal, 2003a: 502). The relationship between complex words is captured by word-schemas that represent the property of sets of morphological words as showing the similarities among English plural nouns bags, keys, bones, gems (Haspelmath, 2002: 47; Plag, 2002: 236). Thus, words are classified based on the pattern they fit into (Wikipedia, 2008: 6). 2.3 Affixes 2.3.1 Definition of Affixes There are a number of common ways in constructing words. One of the ways is through the use of Affs (Thornbury, 1997: 43). Thus; Words may include morphemes usually as Affs (Johnson and Jonson, 1999: 219). Accordingly, this study deals only with morphological formation of words by means of Affs as the title clearly indicates. In this subsection some definitions of the Affs are introduced:

27 Falk (1978: 29) sees that various bound morphemes can be attached to free morphemes to create new words. These attached bound morphemes are called Affs. As viewed by Lardiere (2006: 66), an Aff as a grammatical morpheme which is attached to a root or to another Aff. It is a discrete morpheme which modifies a root. Any form which an Aff attaches to is called a base (or a stem). Affixes are meaningful dependent elements that can be added to the base form (Crystal, 2003b: 15). Yule (1996: 69) defines Affs as small elements which are not given separate listing in dictionaries. Katamba (1993: 44) regards that an Aff is a morpheme which only occurs when attached to other morphemes such as a root or stem or base. There is no word which only contains an Aff standing in isolation as *–s or* –ed or *–al or even a number of Affs string together as *-al -s. In the view of Leach et al. (2006: 20), the smallest units of grammar are morphemes, but in everyday language they are called stems and Affs which are separated by hyphens as in the following example: (1) Un-know-n to the govern-or-s there were terr- ible mis-under stand- ing-s, and the Board utter-ly fail-ed to reach agree-ment. In the above sentence some of the morphemes are stems which can stand alone: know, govern, there, stand, other morphemes are Affs which are added to stems to make more complicated words: un-, -n, -or, -s, -ible. Stockwell and Minkova (2001: 63) state that affixes are bound morphemes added to a stem. Affixes do not form words by themselves and they have the effect of slightly modifying the meaning of the stem, e.g. –ish in childish ' and co- in coccur are Affs. According to Reed (2005: 14), Affs are morphemes that are appended to roots so as to change meaning. For example, the words driving and redo have Affs: -ing and re- and the roots are drive and do respectively. Affixation is a grammatical method of word formation because it deals with making new lexical items by the addition of prefixes(Pref) and Sffs in a systematic, rule- governed way (Robinson, 2003: 23).

28 In the view of what has been presented, it is evident that the definitions produced by (Lardiere and Katamba) are more comprehensive than others. Accordingly, both definitions will be adapted in the present study. 2.3.2 Identification of Affixes The part of the word that an Aff is attached to is called the base (Plag, 2002: 13). The base is a relative notion which is defined with respect to the notion of Affs. A base that cannot be analyzed further and carry the basic meaning is called the root (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 61), e.g., in readability, read is the root and a base for readable (Haspelmath, 2002: 19). Affixes and bases can be identified both in inflected forms and derived lexemes. In inflected word –forms, a base is called a stem (Haspelmath, 2002: 19). Thus, a stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology (Bauer, 1983: 20; Plag, 2002: 13). It is a part that remains when all the Inflectional Affs have been removed. In touch-ed and untouchable-s, the stems are touch and touchable respectively. But a derivationally analyzable form can be referred to as a base, for example, touchable is a base for untouchable, and untouchable is a stem for untouchables (Bauer, 1983: 20-1). This can be illustrated in diagram (1):

unanalyzable derivational suffix Root (base) -able touch

derivational -prefix analyzable base un- touchable

stem (or base) inflectional suffix untouchable -s

Diagram (1) The identification of Affixes in English. (Bauer, 1983: 21)

29 In the view of what has been said so far, it is possible to say that the morpheme to which an Aff is attached can be termed a base or a stem. 2.3.3 Affixes and Classification of Languages Anderson and Stageberg (1970: 88) mention that an Aff that is freely used to make new words is an active Aff as the Sff –ian, while the one that is not freely used is termed inactive as the Sff –ate. The addition of Affs to lexical morphemes is one way to construct complex lexical items from simple ones (Langacker, 1973: 81). The number of Affs in a word is one of the criteria in the classification of languages into types. Languages which express grammatical relationships primarily by using Affs are called affixing languages, for example, Swahili, a Bantau language, is a prefixing language (Hodge, 1969: 34), a suffixing language as in Latin or Greek (Crystal, 2003a: 15) and Turkish e.g., guz 'eye' , guzum' my eye', guzun 'your eye' (Hodge, 1969: 32-3). Affixes are limited in number and their numbers vary from one language to another (Robins, 1964: 197). English does not have Affs in large numbers, about 50 common prefixes, fewer Sffs, and no clear instances of infixes. But these limited numbers have a complex and productive usage (Crystal, 2003b: 128). 2.3.4 Type of Affixes according to Position Morphologists use various terminologies for different types of Affs depending on their position they occupy with reference to the root or stem (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 68; Haspelmath, 2002: 18; Plag, 2002: 13). As viewed by Falk (1978: 29); Bauer (1983: 18); Yule (1996: 69); and Katamba (1993: 44), there are three major types of Affs according to position: prefixes, suffixes and infixes. Haspelmath (2002: 18); Crystal (2003b: 15); and Lardiere (2006: 66) mention four types of Affs: prefixes, suffixes, infixes and circumfixes. These types of Affs will be illustrated in turn: 2.3.4.1 Prefixes According to Falk (1978: 29); Carstairs-McCarthy (2002: 20); Crystal (2003b: 198); and Leech et al. (2006: 20), a prefix is an Aff which is attached to the beginning of the base. For example, un-, in unable and mis- in misunderstanding are prefixes (Leech et al., 2006: 20).

31 In English, as in many Indo-European languages, prefixation is always derivational (Bauer, 1983: 18) having a purely lexical role which allows in constructing a large number of new words (Crystal, 2003b: 198). 2.3.4.2 Suffixes A suffix is an Aff attached to the end of a base as –ly, -er, -ist, -s, -ed, - dom, -ize, and so as on , e.g., quick-ly, wait-er, book-s, walk-ed, free-dom, central-ize (Johnson and Johnson, 1999: 217; Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 63; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 20; Robinson, 2003: 23). In English, suffixation can be either derivational or inflectional (Bauer, 1983: 18). The simplest way to build word structure is to cumulatively add Sffs and prefixes to derive a more complex word. This kind of affixation is called concatenative morphology because of the concatenation of discrete morphemes as beads on a string (Plag, 2002: 15; Lardiere, 2006: 66). For example, mis-lead has a prefix, dis-respect-ful has a prefix and a Sff, and fool-ish-ness has two Sffs (Yule, 1996: 64). But such combination of morphemes has certain patterns, e.g., unhappyness; any other combination is linguistic garbage: *unnesshappy (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 68). Suffixes have relations to a particular word class, but it can be grouped according to the resultant word class. Consequently, they are called noun Sffs, verb Sffs, adjective Sffs (Quirk et al., 1985: 1547). A Sff is frequently an unstressed addition to the base. But with foreign items is accompanied by stress shift or sound changes required by the foreign language, e.g., the item graph in 'photograph ~ pho'tograph ~photo'graphic has these pronunciations /'fəutəgra:f/, /fəu'təgrəf/and / 'fəutə'græf/ respectively ( Quirk et al., 1985: 1547). 2.3.4.3 Infixes Crystal (1992: 9); Yule (1996: 69); Fromkin et al. (2003: 79); and Lardiere (2006: 67) define an infix as an Aff that is inserted inside a lexical root. Robins (1964: 200), thinks of infixes as Affs that appear within the consonant and vowel sequences occupying fixed positions. An infix is used to express tense, number, or gender (Crystal, 2003b: 128). Infixing is unknown in English and rarely found in Indo-European languages. It is common in non- Indo-European languages (Bauer, 1983:

31 18), as languages of Southeast Asia, the Philipines, and in some Native American languages (Akmajian et al., 1995: 17). In Tagalog, the national language of the philipines, an –um- infix is inserted within the verb root to indicate past tense, as in: (2) tulong help t-um-ulong 'helped' (Lardiere, 2006: 67) English has no system of infixes, but people sometimes use infixes while swearing or expressing negative attitude of the speaker (Plag, 2002: 127) by inserting full word right into adjectives and adverbs. In Britain, a common infix is bloody and bloomin, as in absobloominglutely and kangabloodyroo (Plag, 2002: 14; Fromkin et al., 2003: 79). 2.3.4.4 Circumfixes (or Ambifixes) Crystal (2003a: 15) refers to less common Affs than others which are circumfixes. In this unusual kind of Affs a two part morpheme surrounds a root (Lardiere, 2006: 68). Many past participles in German are formed in this way, as shown in (3): (3) ge – kann – t 'known' (Lardiere, 2006: 68) Fromkin et al. (2003: 80) define circumfixes as morphemes that are appended to another morpheme both initially and finally. Sometimes they are called discontinuous morpheme. Crystal (2003a: 15) provides an example of circumfixes in English as in en- light –en. Both infixing and circumfixing are not truly concatenative processes because they either involve splitting up the lexical root or the grammatical morpheme (Lardiere, 2006: 67). 2.3.5 Types of Affixes according to Function Affixes differ not only in position in the word but also in function. According to function they can be classified into inflectional Affs and derivational Affs (Falk, 1978: 29; Katamba, 1993: 46; Fromkin et al., 2003: 100) (discussed further in later section page 14). Inflectional Affs have a strictly grammatical function. They mark grammatical categories such as tense, number , gender and case and so forth (Fromkin et al., 2003: 100) (See page 27 for more details on inflectional categories). Grammatical forms of care are cares, caring, and cared are called inflections (INFs) (See inflection on page 22). A group of words that

32 share the same root but different Affs as care, careful, careless, carefree are all derivatives of care called derivational (Thornbury, 2006: 246). 2.4 Affixes and Clitics 2.4.1 Definition of Clitics Most languages exhibit morpheme which cause difficulties because they are neither independent words nor clearly real Affs. These are called clitics (Cl) (Zwicky, 1977: 1; cited in Katamba, 1993: 245). Clitics are elements which cannot exist independently as normal utterances (Spencer, 1991: 14). The morpheme clit means 'lean' or 'depend on' (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 118-9). 2.4.2 Clitics and other Linguistic Areas Clitics are function words and show the combination of the domains of morphology, syntax and phonology (Spencer, 1991: 350). One of the area in which there have been difficulties in drawing a clear-cut distinction between syntax and morphology is the status of clitics (Scalise, 1984: 183). Haspelmath (2002: 14) shows that clitics and Affs are bound morphemes. Both of them close the word off in which this quality makes the clitics affix - like (Fattah, 1999: 41), and in particular inflectional Affs (Spencer, 1991: 350). Clitics are regarded as a type of word-forms but what makes them different is that clitics are prosodically dependent and have all the properties of bound forms (Haspelmath, 2002: 150). The relation between Affs, clitics, bound, free and word-forms is shown in Table (1): Bound forms Free forms Word-forms Clitics Free word -forms Affixes (bound word-forms)

Table (1)The Relation between Affixes and Clitics.(Haspelmath, 2002: 150) Clitics are phonologically dependent upon neighbouring words which are called hosts to make a clitic group (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 119). Hosts are elements to which clitics are attached (Haspelmath, 2002: 150) as in: (4) Mary's car (Katamba, 1993: 245)

33 2.4.3 Types of Clitics Phonologically clitics can be divided into proclitic, a clitic which is attached to the beginning of a host and enclitic, the one which is attached to the end of a host (Spencer, 1991: 377; Katamba, 1993: 245). The –s possessive is English is an example of enclitics (Katamba, 1993: 245). It is now not a Sff but a clitic (Wikipedia, 2007: 2). 2.4.4 Critera for Distinguishing between Clitics and Affixes Zwicky and Pullum (1983: 503; cited in Katamba, 1993: 246) present six criteria for distinguishing between clitics and inflectional Affs: 1) Clitics show a low degree of host selection, whereas Affs show a high degree of stem selection. Clitics are attached to any word while Affs are attached to stems belong to a particular category (Spencer, 1991: 350; Katamba, 1993: 246). For example, in English, -est, attaches to adjectives, – ing to verbs, and plural –s to nouns (Katamba, 1993: 246). Similarly, the plural Aff attaches to nouns in Kurdish as in ( kur-ān , ' boys' ), the negative to verbs as in ( nā-xom , 'I do not eat') , and the comparative and superlative to adjectives, and adverbs as in ( cwān-tir, ' more beautiful ' , drêž-tir, ' taller ' ; zû-tir, ' more quickly ' ). Cliticization is freer and less restricted than affixation (Spencer, 1991: 350). Katamba (1993: 248) mentions that clitics tend to have dual citizenship as in:

(5) The boy I stayed with's Granny. (Katamba, 1993: 249)

The word that the clitic -'s leans on morphologically is not the same word syntactically and semantically. The preposition with is a phonological host, and the entire noun phrase the boy is the syntactic and semantic host. An inflectional suffix (IS) is suffixed phonologically, syntactically and semantically to the stem. By contrast, a clitic can be a part of the word that hosts for it for phonological purposes and belongs to other word or phrases for syntactic and semantic purposes. Suffixes exemplify lexical inflection because they are integrated in a word level, and clitics are termed phrasal inflection because they are integrated at phrase level (Katamba, 1993: 249).

34 The same thing is true with the pronominal clitics in Kurdish as shown in the following example (Fattah, 1999: 41):

(6) nān-im xw-ārd 'I ate bread'

bread-I eat -past

da-m xw-ārd 'I was eating' Aspect (progressive)-I eat-past (Fattah, 1999: 41) 2) Affixed-words exhibit more gaps than clitic-hosts. Clitics have automatic attach to any word. But with affixed-words there are many gaps, e.g., in English most count nouns lack number INF as sheep and deer (Haspelmath, 2002: 150). In Kurdish, the regular plural Sff -ān has a temporal meaning as in salān, ' in the past ' (Fattah, 1999: 42).

3) Affixed-words display morphological idiosyncrasy more than clitic- hosts. The plural Sff is combined with the stem yielding a regular plural, e.g., roots and boxes, or a morphologically irregular plural as in feet, mice, oxen. By contrast, cliticization is a regular process. All contracted auxiliaries follow general rules as the rules of voice assimilation (Katamba: 1993: 203). The English plural Sff -s requires idiosyncratic voicing of the final fricative as knives, lives. Conversely, the English possessive-'s never triggers such voicing as in knife's, life's (Haspelmath, 2002: 151) (See Noun Inflections in Chapter three on page 40).

4) Affixed-words exhibit semantic idiosyncrasies rather than of clitic-hosts. Both a simple clitic and a full word are semantically identical as in:

(7) a. I have seen her.

b. I've seen her. (Katamba, 1993: 248)

Fattah (1999: 42) mentions that clitics have both variant full forms and clitic forms in Kurdish as (min,-(i) m, to, - (i) t, ?aw ~ î~ /Ø/~ āt; ?awān ~ yān, ?êwa ~ tān; ?êma ~ mān. By contrast, Affs exist only in reduced forms (êk ~ yak). Although both the clitics and their full forms have different

35 positions, they are identical in meaning (Zwicky, 1985; cited in Fattah, 1999: 42) as in:

(8) min ?awān-im d-î ' I saw them ' (SVO)

I them – I-see-past

d-î-m-in see -past-I -Cl (them) ' I saw them ' (VSO)

5) Affixed-words can be affected by syntactic rules whereas clitic-hosts cannot. Syntactic operation treats affixed-words as single syntactic units, but no syntactic operation treats clitic-hosts as single units, e.g., I've, to's, you'd (Katamba, 1993: 248).

6) Clitics are attached to forms which contain clitics, but no inflectional Affs can attach to clitic-hosts (Katamba, 1993: 248):

(9) a. I'd've brought some for you, if I'd known.

b.*I'd've –ing brought some for you, if I'd known. (Katamba, 1993: 248)

c. sayrān – gā ' beauty spot'

picnic – locative

d. * sayrān gā – oka ' a small beauty spot'

picnic locative – diminutive. (Fattah, 1999: 42)

2.5 Inflectional Affixes vs Derivational Affixes

Affixes have different effects when they are affixed to roots or bases (Langacker, 1973: 79). Two fundamentally different functional categories need to be distinguished, giving two different kinds of complex words: derivational Affs, which form derived lexemes and inflectional Affs, which form inflected word-forms (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 65-6). This is a reflection of recognizing two major morphological processes: INF and derivation (DR)(Katamba, 1993: 47; Finch, 2000: 104; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 30). Both can be defined as the modification of bases or stems by

36 adding Affs (Jacobson, 1977: 240). The distinction between INF and derivation reveals how languages work (Robins, 1964: 242). Although the distinction between them is not always clear-cut, they have certain contrasting properties (Langacker, 1973: 79; Akmajian et al., 1995: 36).

Grammarians are not in full agreement which processes are to be treated as inflectional and which are to be considered derivational. An inflectional process in one language may be derivational in another (Katamba, 1993, 205). It may happen that a derivational process in one language and an inflectional one in another have the same semantic construction, e.g., in English the category of number is regarded as inflectional, while in Japanese it is classified as derivational (Robins, 1964: 242).

Both types of Affs indicate a relation between elements of a pair. With inflected forms it is a two-way relation: the singular (Sg) form implies its plural(Pl) form and usually vises versa. In the case of derivation, the reverse is not true, e.g., the word unclear is formed by the pattern un + base, the same pattern cannot be applied to the adjective dirty (Adams, 1973: 11).

Since inflectional Affs work at sentence level, they are giving alternate forms of the existing ones which are called allolexes. Separate explanation for consults, consulted, and consulting are dealt with in a grammar. However, separate entries for consult, consultant, and consultation are found in dictionaries which are called lexemes (Allerton, 1979: 214).

The criteria to distinguish inflectional Affs from derivational Affs are as follows:

2.5.1 Syntactic Differences

2.5.1.1 Relevance to Syntax

Inflected word-forms are relevant to the syntax, but derived lexemes are not (Haspelmath, 2002: 70; Plag, 2002: 22). Affixes which serve syntactic functions are inflectional (Langacker, 1972: 75). The function of inflectional Affs is to signify the relationship between words. The addition

37 of an inflectional Aff to a word in sentence is not only relevant to that word (Adams, 1973: 11), e.g.:

(10) a. A cow eats grass.

b. Cows eat grass. (Adams, 1973: 11)

The choice of the verb forms eats and eat depends on whether the subject is singular or plural and it is not possible to consider them as different words, but they are variant forms of the verb to eat (Adams, 1973: 11).

Thus, inflectional Affs shape a given lexeme to play its role in the sentence. The inflected word-forms have a dual role. They directly express the categories and indirectly make syntactic relation through agreement (Agr) (Allerton, 1979: 231). By contrast, derivational Affs are not dependent on the form of other parts of the sentence, their real function is to create new words, e.g., in English, the Sffs such as , -y, -let and –ette are derivational because no syntactic rules refer to the property of diminutive, as in book ~ booklet (Katamba, 1993: 210). Derived lexemes are not involved in syntactic relation with words (Robins, 1964: 242).

2.5.1.2 Obligatoriness

Inflectional Affs are obligatory, but derivational Affs are optional (Haspelmath, 2002: 71). Inflectional Affs exist when syntax obligatorily imposes choices of Affs. The sentence will be ungrammatical if the wrong choice is made. For example, both the demonstrative (D) and the noun (N) must have the same number category (Katamba, 1993: 206), as in:

(11) D sg N sg D pl N pl D sg N pl D pl N sg

this book these books *this books these book

that book those books *that books those book

In the case of derivation, such syntactic obligatoriness cannot be found and syntax does not force the choice of a particular lexical item to avoid the

38 ungrammaticality.For example, an English noun does not have to be affixed with-er in any syntactic position. Nouns without the agentive Sff –er can substitute the subject noun phrase without being ungrammatical, as in:

(12) a. The farmer is in the barn.

b. The cow is in the barn. (Katamba, 1993: 206)

Some Affs syntactically show obligatoriness more than the others, e.g., the IS in verbs which syntactically realizes 3rd person singular present (Psp) tense is obligatory, but the prefix ex- as in ex-wife can appear in any syntactic position (Katamba, 1993: 207).

2.5.1.3 Replacement

Inflected word-forms can not be replaced by simple words, but derived lexemes can be replaceable (Haspelmath, 2002: 73). Illustrative as follows:

(13) a. Brazil is bigger (not: big) than Argentina.

b. Snoopy walks (not: walk) home. (Haspelmath, 2002: 73)

Derived lexemes can be replaced by simple words to produce similar sentences (Allerton, 1979: 214), e.g.:

(14) The flouriest ordered those beautiful flowers.

In the above sentence there are two derivational Affs flouriest and beautiful. Each one can be substituted by simple words as man, girl etc. and nice, pretty, etc. Since inflectional Affs have their role to express syntactic relation such as agreement, they are replaceable by similar structure.

2.5.1.4 Syntactic Category

Inflectional Affs never change the syntactic category of the base word, but are only able to modify the grammatical form of a word that can fit into a particular syntactic slot (Scalise, 1984: 103; Plag, 2002: 20). Inflectional Affs change the subcategory such as plural or past to make an agreement

39 with another class in the sentence (Allerton, 1979: 214). For example, both old, and older; eat, and eats, and girl and girls are adjectives, verbs, and nouns respectively. The Sffs –er, -s, and –s create variant versions of the adjective, verb and noun (Yule, 1996: 77). On the other hand, derivational Affs typically change the major syntactic category of the base word resulting in a change in meaning (Spencer, 1991: 9). For example, the additions of the Sff -ize to the noun energy results in a verb energize (Hudson, 2000: 62).

But in some cases, the presence of a derivational Aff does not effect a change in syntactic category (Akmajian et al., 1995: 37). Such a change is minor which alters a base into another subclass, e.g., both assign and re- assign are verbs (Hudson, 2000: 62) and the Sff –ship changes a concrete noun into an abstract noun as friend ~ friendship (Katamba, 1993: 47).

2.5.1.5 Productivity (or Generality)

Productivity is a characteristic of inflectional Affs, but derivational Affs are not fully productive (Katamba, 1993, 207; Plag, 2002: 20). It is closely tied to regularity (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 85). Novel uses of inflectional Affs in new words can be predictable (Hudson, 2000: 64). Thus, inflectional Affs are regular and general in their form and recurrence and automatically applied to all numbers of a grammatical class or subclasses (Allerton, 1979: 231; Katamba, 1993: 207), e.g., in English all nouns have singular or plural forms and every verb takes the Sff –ed of past, as a new verb glock, its past will be glocked and if it is a new noun, its plural will be glocks. By contrast, novel uses of derivational Affs cannot be predictable, for example, a verb derived from a new noun glick can be glickify, glickize, or glickate (Hudson, 2000: 64). Derivational Affs are less regular than inflectional Affs (Jefferies, 2006: 80). Productivity runs into trouble because of the regular derivational process of the Sff –ly as in quickly for deriving an adverb from an adjective which is predictable as inflectional Affs (Katamba, 1993: 207). Thus, not all affixes posses this property to the same degree (Plag, 2002: 55).

41 2.5.2 Semantic Differences

2.5.2.1 Conceptual Meaning

Inflected word-forms express the same concept as the base, whereas derived lexemes express new concepts (Haspelmath, 2002: 73). Inflectional Affs do not change the cognitive meaning of the base, but only change certain aspects of grammatical meaning, e.g., the same concept can be expressed in go and goes, and dog and dogs (Scalise, 1984: 112). On the other hand, the attachment of derivational Affs changes the conceptual meaning of the base, as in kind vs unkind in which both are adjectives with the new concept which shows opposite meaning (Katamba, 1993: 47). Both inflected word-forms and derived lexemes can express idiosyncratic meanings. For example, in English nuts in plural form indicates the meaning of crazy (Scalise, 1984: 113).

2.5.2.2 Abstractness

Inflectional categories express abstract meaning such as tense of verbs {-ed} in walked, whereas derivational meanings are concrete as decide (Hudson, 2000: 63; Haspelmath, 2002: 73). But abstract meanings can also exist with derivation as the meaning of 'status' of hood in childhood (Haspelmath, 2002: 73; Plag, 2002: 113).

2.5.2.3 Semantic Regularity

Inflected word-forms are semantically regular, whereas derived lexemes are semantically irregular (Haspelmath, 2002: 74). Inflectional Affs are characterized by stability in meaning, e.g., plural {-s} has the same meaning regardless of its context (Adams, 1973: 12), and the relation between the meaning of the base + Aff is quite regular, e.g., the meaning difference between tree and trees is the same as pairs which consist of a noun + noun + Aff (Akmajian et al., 1995: 30). By contrast, many derivational Affs have more than one meaning and attachable to different word classes, for example {-able} can be added to a verb as in allowable

41 meaning 'can be allowed', and to a noun knowledgeable meaning 'having knowledge' (Adams, 1973: 13).

2.5.2.4 Semantic Relevance

The inflectional meanings are less relevant to the meaning of the base, whereas, derivational meanings are very relevant to the meaning of the base. The semantic irregularity is in relation to a higher degree of semantic relevance (Bybee, 1985: ch.4; cited in Haspelmath, 2002: 75). Agreement and case are not relevant to the base meaning. Tense is hardly related to the meaning of the base. Aspect interacts directly with the meaning of the base. Because of the higher relevance of derivational meaning, derivatives are more likely to develop idiomatic meanings [For further details, see Katamba (1993: 212)].

2.5.2.5 Limitation

Inflectional categories can be applied to their base without limitation, whereas derivational formations may be limited. All lexemes must have the relevant agreement and case marked forms. In general all verbs have the entire tense -aspect-mood forms and all the adjectives have comparative and superlative forms. When there is exception, it refers to the incompatibility of the inflectional meaning and the base meaning. For example, stative verbs may not have certain aspectual forms, (e.g. *she is knowing me), and non-gradable adjectives do not have comparative forms (e.g. *Mammoths are deader than Neanderthals). In derivation, by contrast, conceivable lexemes may be lacking without semantic explanation, for example, in English, female nouns –ess as in priestess, but *presidentess do not exist in spite of their perfect semantic sense ( Haspelmath, 2002: 75).

2.5.3 Formal Shapes

2.5.3.1 Position

Inflectional Affs occur at the periphery of words, but derivational Affs occur next to the root (Langacker, 1972: 75; Haspelmath, 2002: 75). When

42 both inflectional and derivational Affs are attached to the root on the same side, the inflectional Affs mark the outermost layer of the word, whereas, the derivational Affs mark the inner layer of morphological structure (Akmajian et al., 1995: 30; Yule, 1996: 77). This can be shown as follows:

(15) Root DR INF (Scalise, 1984: 102)

The above sequence of Affs can be clarified by the following examples:

(16) king Root -dom DR status -s plural INF (Haspelmath, 2002: 75)

2.5.3.2 Base Allomorphy

Inflected word-forms cause less base allomorphy, but derived lexemes cause more base allomorphy (Haspelmath, 2002: 75), e.g.:

(17) Root Inflected Forms Derived Lexemes

destroy /distroi/ destroy-ed / distroid/ destruct-tion / distr^ kŚºn/

broad/ bro:d/ broad-er / bro:də/ bread-th /bretӨ /

2.5.4 Other Relative Criteria

2.5.4.1 Types of Affixes

Inflectional Affs, in English, are all Sffs but derivational Affs include both prefixes and Sffs (Akmajian et al., 1995: 30; Celce-Murcia and Larsen- Freeman, 1999: 32; Plag, 2002: 19). For examples,-s,-'s, and-ed in cats, man's, judged, etc. are all Sffs (Wardhaugh, 1977: 85) but un-luck-able contains a prefixes and a Sff (Fromkin, et al., 2003: 86).

2.5.4.2 Number: Closed Class Affixes

The number of inflectional Affs tends to be smaller than the number of derivational Affs (Nida, 1964: 99; cited in Rassam, 1987: 13). The members of the class of derivational Affs are less interdependent and new items emerge now and then (Falk, 1978: 30). By contrast, English contains fewer

43 ISs but are central to the marking of syntactic relations within sentences (Robins, 1964: 242). Inflectional Sffs do not come and go and new items are not added to the set of ISs (Crystal, 2003b: 198).

2.5.4.3 Suffixability

Inflected word-forms are characterized by non-suffixability, whereas suffixibility is the characteristic of derived lexmes. The derivational Affs in English can be added to other derivational Affs (Hudson, 2000: 62). Thus, the output of derivational Affs undergoes additional application of the derivational Affs (Scalise, 1984: 102). For example, in the noun formalizability three successive Sffs occurs in a single word formal-ize- abil-ity. But adding a plural Sff closes the word, formalizabilities (Hudson, 2000: 62). These derivational Affs must be attached in certain order, e.g., the form of *judgealment and *reantiarm are not possible. By contrast, the English ISs are not followed by other Sffs and only one IS has existence in each to close the word (Wardhaugh, 1977: 85).

2.5.4.4 Iteration

Inflected words can not be iterated, but derived lexemes can be iterated. Thus, INF is restricted, e.g., double plurals as *cats-es are not true. Iteration is possible with English prefixes as post-post- modern but it is not also common (Haspelmath, 2002: 76-7) [For further information on this topic see the references given above]. 2.6 Inflection 2.6.1 Definition of Inflections Inflection (or inflexion) (the term inflection is adopted in this study) is a term used in morphology to refer to one of the main processes of the word- formation which is inflectional morphology. Inflectional morphology signals grammatical relationships, such as plural, past, and possession. A word inflects for past, plural etc. e.g., walk, walks, walked constitutes a single paradigm. In traditional grammatical studies, the two terms "accidence" and "flexion" were used (Crystal, 2003a: 233).

44 Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 15) define INF as the variation in the forms of a lexeme. For example cat and cats are different inflectional forms of the same lexeme CAT. Similarly, big, bigger, biggest are inflectional forms of the lexeme BIG. These differences are purely grammatical. They are covered under a single dictionary entry and there is no exact mentioning of the word-forms in the dictionary. The lexeme form can be represented by boldface in order to be distinguished from various word-forms. Many linguists write lexeme in SMALL CAPITALS to be distinguishable from other forms (Bauer et al., 2006: 77) (in this study the small capitals stand for the lexeme). In Lardiere's point of view (2006: 81), INF is the modification of a lexeme which adds grammatical information to the lexeme depending on the particular syntactic requirements of a language. This kind of information denotes a feature within a set of grammatical contrasts, such as singular vs plural, 1st person vs 2nd person, masculine vs feminine, present vs past and many others. Syntactic requirements mean context to make such a contrast. In the following English sentence, the presence of the quantifier two helps to create a context in which the property {+plural} can be realized: (18) Olivia bought two ------on line yesterday. The grammatical property {+plural} is required by the rules of syntax rather than by any particular morphological form. The syntax does not care which particular form is chosen as long as the noun is plural. As viewed by Robinson (2003 : 24 ), INF is taking a word out of a lexicon and putting in it in a sentence in which the word is changed to work in the right way in relation to that particular sentence. Aronoff (1976: 2) claims that INF is generally viewed as encompassing the purely grammatical information such as number, gender, case, tense, person etc. He also states one of the characteristics of INF is that it is paradigmatic. Thus, every English non-modal verb shows a paradigm which consists of the following forms: (19) V V- s V -d1 V -d2 V -ing sigh sighs sighed has(sighed) sighing Sometimes a paradigm is defective (see page 35).

45 As viewed by Lyons (1981: 10), the practical understanding of the term INF can be started with the term "word". The question of "How many words are there in English?" is ambiguous. One interpretation sing, sings, singing, sang and sung can be regarded as distinct words. In another interpretation they are considered as different forms of the same word SING. Thus, SING is a lexeme and sing, sings, sang etc. are word-forms. But sing has a position among other forms of SING: it is the base form. Carstairs-McCarthy (2002: 144) defines inflectional morphology as the area of morphology concerned with changes in word shape through affixation determined by the grammatical context in which a word appears. According to Thornbury (2006: 137), inflectional morphology describes that words such as verbs, nouns, adjectives are inflected to convey various grammatical meanings as in she works , she worked , she is working in which the Sffs -s, -ed , -ing are different ISs. Inflection is the process of adding Affs to the base or root to determine its grammatical significance (Hurford and Heasley, 1983: 112; cited in Rasssam, 1987: 6). Inflectional morphology is the process of adding an Aff to a word and chaning its form according to the rules of grammar (Richard et al., 1985: 139; cited in Saadi, 1999: 5). From all what has been presented so far, the definitions produced by Lardiere and Carstaris-McCarthy cover most of the aspects of inflection. Both definitions will be adapted throughout the thesis. 2.6.2 The Position of Inflection in Grammar Investigating with inflectional morphology involves the internal organization of the inflectional system and the way inflectional morphology interacts with other aspects of grammar particularly phonology and syntax. The first is dealt with the notion of inflectional paradigm (See page 26). The second is the interface in which inflectional morphology is tightly enmeshed with phonology. It is very common to find INFs undergoing a variety of allomorphic and morphophonemic processes. The second interface is with syntax (See next section) (Spencer, 1991: 205-6).

46 Scalise (1984: 101) states that there are at least two possible hypotheses concerning the position of INF in a grammar: the Strong Lexicalist Hypothesis in which INF operates within the lexical component, and the Weak Lexicalist Hypothesis in which the process of INF is in a syntactic component. Within the group of Strong Lexicalist Hypothesis supporters like Halle, Jackendoff, Williams who claim that inflectional process is essentially of the same type as derivational process, and others like Booji, Scalise, Kiparasky, and Selkirk claim that they are different processes. The group of Weak Lexicalist Hypothesis supporters can also be divided into two subgroups: those who maintain that INF is a syntactic process are Chomsky and Halle, Aronoff, Siegel, and those who maintain it is a phonological process are Anderson and Flinders (Scalise, 1984: 101 ). Strong Lexicalists as Halle and Williams claim to be able to accommodate the notion of paradigm. Other Strong Lexicalists, as Lieber, think that the paradigm is a mere side-effect, while Weak Lexicalism permits the paradigm to play a role (Spencer, 1991: 230). 2.6.3 Inflection and Syntax It has been assumed that inflectional morphology is an aspect of syntax for many generativists (Spencer, 1991: 205). In certain languages there is a gap between the syntax and phonology. This gap is covered by the term INF in Traditional Grammar. This is contrary to many textbooks of linguistics that it is INF not morphology which opposes syntax. The distinction between them is formulated on the basis of the distinction between a lexeme and its forms. Syntax and INF constitute the principal part of grammar i.e. they are complementary. They determine the grammaticality of sentence. There is a sublevel as the 3rd Psp tense form, the possessive (Poss) singular form, which is intermediate between INF and syntax (Lyons, 1981: 101-2). The post-Bloomfieldian distinction of syntax vs morphology is similar to the traditional distinction. They are different in two respects: (a) Morphology includes derivation and INF, and (b) it handles both of them by means of rules which operate upon the same basic units. For example, the inflectional form singing consists of two

47 basic units: sing and –ing and the derivational form singer consists of sing and –er (Lyons, 1981: 103). Syntax plays an important role in the approaches based on syntactic Affixation in which the interface between the morphology and syntax is essentially syntactic (Spencer, 1991: 230). Chomsky's theory of syntax is morpheme-based but it adopted the traditional view of the complementarities of syntax and INF (Lyons, 1981: 104). 2.6.4 Paradigm and Inflectional Categories 2.6.4.1 Paradigm: Definition A paradigm is away of displaying the various forms of a lexeme in the form of a list of table (Thornbury, 2006: 153) in which the word-forms of the same inflectional category (IC) are indicated in a column or row labelled with the name of the IC and each combination of ICs defines a cell (Haspelmath, 2002: 61 ). Usually the most frequent word-form is chosen from the paradigm to stand for the lexeme. Consequently, in Latin verbs are st listed in the 1 person singular form e.g., SCRIBO represents the lexeme that means 'write': scribo 'I write ', scribi 'you write' etc. In Arabic, by contrast, rd the 3 person singular perfect KATABA represent the lexeme 'write': kataba 'he wrote', katabu 'they wrote', etc. (Haspelmath, 2002: 14). The words have a paradigmatic relationship with each other in which they fill the same 'slot' in a sentence. Vertical slots contrast with horizontal 'chain' in which the relationship between them is called syntagmatic relationship. In English, the elements in the sentence This lttile pig went to market has the same syntagmatic relationship to the elements in This little pig stayed at home. On the other hand, the words went and stayed share the same paradigmatic relationship as the words market and home (Thornbury, 2006: 153). Any regular English verb has any of these four different forms as with walk, walks, walked, walking. English does not have very many forms for each of the verbs. French verb paradigm is very large around 33, each verb in Finnish is around 850, and Archi, a language spoken in Caucusus, is reported to have one a half million forms of verb paradigm ( Bauer et al., 2006: 76-7).

48 2.6.4.2 Inflectional Categories Haspelmath (2002: 60) mentions that morphologists usually use different terms for INF and derivation. For instance, inflectional formations are used to refer to inflectional properties as present tense, e.g. she /he walks and past, e.g. she /he walked. The term derivational formations represent the derived lexemes as walker. The reason behind this distinction is that inflectional properties do not have a clearly identifiable meaning, but only a syntactic function. The English present and past are properties of the IC: tense. Another different terminology for INF and derivation is the use of the term allomorphy. When an inflectional properties is expressed by different Sffs e.g., the German plural Sffs -en, -er, -e, it has to be said that these are different allomorphs of the plural morpheme. But when a derivational meaning is expressed by different formal means as the English Sffs -ation, - ment, -al, in reform-ation, entertain –ment, arriv-al, it cannot be said that these are allomorphs of a morpheme. In word-based morphology, as INF is complementary to syntax, so ICs are complementary to parts of speech (Lyons, 1981: 112) in which ICs characterizes nouns, verbs, and adjectives, but rarely Adverbs. Most ICs are related to nouns and verbs (Allerton, 1979: 240). 2.6.4.2.1 Inflectional Categories for Nouns 2.6.4.2.1.1 Inherent Categories for Nouns ● Number The most fundamental contrast is between singular 'one' and plural 'more than one'. Latin is a typical language in number inflection. Most languages have number marking and a few languages distinguish a dual number in as in Classical Greek (Haspelmath, 2002: 64), Arabic, Czech (Allerton, 1979: 241) and Slovenian as in mesto (Sg) 'city', mesti( dual ) 'two cities' and mesta (Pl) ' cities '( Lardiere, 2006: 81). Some have trial number (Allerton, 1979: 241). They have different forms for singular, a few things (paucal), and many things (Pl) (Horsey, 2001: 60). Some languages lack number contrasts as in Japanese a noun like hon ' book , books ' used for singular and plural meaning ( Akmajian et al., 1995:

49 19) and Chinese which has a system of classifiers , a morpheme that affixes to quantifiers as wǔ-ge rén (five-classifiers-person) meaning five people (Lardiere, 2006: 82). In IIocano, a language of Philippines uses the process of reduplication as a means of inflectional form in which the plural is formed by repeating the first part of the singular form as in úlo 'head' ulúlo 'heads', dálan 'road' daldálan 'roads' (Yule, 1996: 81) (See Langacker, 1973: 175 on reduplication). English is not so complicated as many other languages such as German in which adjectives and all verb forms are inflected for number (Thornbury,

2006: 146). English nouns generally have two word-forms as in ISLAND: island, islands (Haspelmath, 2002: 14). ●Person The IC of person (PN) is often combined with number such as 3rd person singular or 1st person plural. When speaking of number/person, one usually refers to agreement (Lardiere, 2006: 81) (See agreement on page 31). All languages have the three-way contrasts in person (Allerton, 1979: 244). ●Gender In some languages gender is marked on the noun (Tallerman, 1998: 51- 2). The number of gender can be high as Swahili (Allerton, 1979: 240) or a two-way contrast such as masculine (Masc) and feminine (Fem) (like French and Spanish) or a three-way contrast masculine, feminine and neuter (like German and Russian). In Spanish, nouns ending in-o are masculine as in un amigo 'friend' and nouns ending in –a are feminine as in una umiaga (Lardiere, 2006: 82). Some Bantu languages have 16 genders on the basis of animacy, size, shape and so on (Horsey, 2001: 34). English has no grammatical gender (Trask, 1999: 45; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 105). ●Definiteness Minor nominal ICs of INF include definiteness (Allerton, 1979: 244). In many languages, including English, definiteness is not marked on the nouns. Some languages such as Norwegian and Swedish can mark definiteness morphologically. For example, in Swedish, nouns can have definite (Def) Sff as mus-en (mouse-Def) meaning 'the mouse' (Tallerman, 1998: 52).

51 2.6.4.2.1.2 Relational Categories for Nouns ● Case Sometimes languages use morphological case to indicate different cases (Horsey, 2001: 17). Case forms indicates the relation of the noun to the verb as its subject (Sub), direct object (DO) or indirect object (IO) labelled nominative, accusative, and dative respectively or to another noun as in the possessive or locational relation( Lardiere, 2006: 85). Most languages have a possessive case (Allerton, 1979: 246). Many languages have no case contrast, and a few have more that ten different cases (Haspelmath, 2002: 63-4) as in Finnish (Allerton, 1979: 245). English has very little case morphology and only pronouns change in form. On the other hand, some languages have rich case system, such as Turkish, Latin, and Slavic languages (Tallerman, 1998: 53). Latin has five different cases (Haspelmath, 2002: 64). Inflection in Russian nouns has several different case Sffs (Fromkin et al., 2003: 103). For example, a single word as KOŠKA 'a cat', has these forms: koška,' cat '(Sub); koški, 'of a cat'; koške' to/for a cat; košku ' cat (DO) koškoi 'by a cat ' (Spencer, 1991: 5). Many Indo-European languages express number and case cumulatively (Haspelmath, 2002: 64-5) as in the Serbian/Crotian noun ovca 'sheep' which means that the Aff expresses two different ICs (Haspelmath, 2002: 32). 2.6.4.2.2 Inflectional Categories for Verbs 2.6.4.2.2.1 Inherent Category for Verbs ● Tense Tense is a grammaticalized location in time (Comrie, 1976: 3; cited in Dahl, 1985: 23). It refers to the way that verbs are inflected (Thornbury, 2006: 226). Many languages use an IC of tense to locate an event or state in relation to a point in time such as present, past and future. In English future tense is not morphologically marked via INF. For this reason, English is claimed to morphologically distinguish between present (Pr) and past (P) (Lardiere, 2006: 87) as in: (20) a. Kim helps Lee everyday. b. Kim helped Lee yesterday. (Tallerman, 1998: 53-4)

51 The present tense of the verb in (20 a) is marked with –s Sff which refers to a habitual event. The past tense in (20 b) is marked –ed Sff which does not change for person and number. Other languages may have more or even fewer tense contrasts than English (Tallerman, 1998: 53-4). Some languages lack tense as Malay (Allerton, 1979: 247), Chinese, and Dyirbal (an Australian language) (Comrie, 1985; cited in Lardiere, 2006: 87). ● Aspect Aspect encodes whether the action is ongoing, completed, repeated or habitual (Lardiere, 2006: 87). It is closely related to tense (Tallerman, 1998: 55). Some languages such as Chinese neither tense nor aspect are found. English makes a distinction between perfect and progressive (Prg) aspect (Horsay, 2001: 12). The progressive aspect marked partly by the-ing Sff on the main verb but also with the addition of an auxiliary verb: a form of be as in Kim was writing to Chris. The perfect aspect refers to a completed action which is also marked partly by changes in the verb form and partly by another auxiliary verb: a form of have as in Kim has written to Chris (Tallerman, 1998: 55). The tense category is inflectional, whereas the aspect is syntactic which appears in phrases (Rashid, 1981: 15). In practice, past tense is interactive with perfect aspect (Dahl, 1985: 23), e.g.: (21) John painted the kitchen. (Lardiere, 2006: 88) In the above sentence the past form encodes the perfect aspect: the painting event is situated prior to the moment of speaking i.e. past and the painting of the kitchen is completed i.e. perfect aspect (Lardiere, 2006: 88). In other languages, aspectual contrasts are marked entirely by verbal morphology as in Bantu: (22) ba-léé- bomba (progressive) 'They are working.' (Tallerman, 1998: 55) ●Mood The majority of all languages express mood contrasts morphologically. Although often marked on verbs, mood really applies to the entire clauses. Common mood contrasts are the indicative, interrogative, subjunctive,

52 imperative, and the conditional. For example, the indicative (Ind) mood of the Italian verb ventir 'to come' is shown below: (23) Vien-e dall-a biblioteca. Come-3rd Sg-PN-Ind from-the library 'He/she is coming from the library.' (Lardiere, 2006: 89) Some languages have a verbal modification for the interrogative as the Sff –me/ma in Turkish (Allerton, 1979: 247). Tense, aspect, and mood INFs exist in all languages that have any INF (Hapelmath, 2002: 65). They are connected with concepts that are fundamental to human thinking as time, action, and event. In traditional view, these categories combine to produce the correct form. But certain combinations are incompatible, for example, perfect aspect does not go together with present tense and the imperative mood does not combine with the past tense in English. Thus, many linguists nowadays work with a single category (Dahl, 1985: 2). ●Polarity Many languages, such as Japanese, have polarity (affirmative vs negative-Neg) INF, e.g. kir- u ( cut – present ) which shows affirmative and kir – ana-i (cuts – Neg – present) meaning does not cut shows negative (Haspelmath, 2002: 67). 2.6.4.2.2.2 Relational Category for Verbs ●Voice The voice contrast is between active and passive (Pass). In English, there is no specific passive Aff (Tallerman, 1998: 56). Some languages have passive voice INF as in Swedish kasta 'throw' kasta-s 'be thrown' (Haspelmath, 2002: 67). The most important valence-changing operations are passive, causative, reflexive and so on (Haspelmath, 2002: 235). Causatives are the most common type of morphological valence-changing operation in the world's languages (Haspelmath, 2002: 216)(See Haspelmath (2002: 216) for further examples on causatives). 2.6.4.2.2.3 Agreement Category for Verbs Another important group of ICs consists of agreement markers. Agreement is a kind of grammatical relation in which the inflectional

53 behavior of words or phrases is governed by the properties of nominal constituent (Haspelmath, 2002: 65). The inherent categories of the noun are marked on verbs (Tallerman, 1998: 57). The most familiar to speakers of European languages is the subject-verb agreement. This is valuable in languages of free word order. English, which has a relatively fixed word order, has only inflectional agreement marker and only on present tense verbs: 3rd Psp –s (Lardiere, 2006: 81), e.g.: (24) a. [the boy] [walks] b. [the girl-s] [walk] (Lardiere, 2006: 81) The verb walk (s) agrees with the subject in number (Haspelmath, 2002: 65). This indicates the interaction of morphology and syntax which are twin aspects of the grammaticality of language (Finch, 2005: 74). This kind of agreement is widely observed among the world's language (Lardiere, 2006: 60). Agreement may be in number, person, gender, and case (Haspelmath, 2002: 65). In verbs, transitivity often plays a role. For example, in Ossetic intransitive (Int) and transitive (T) verbs show different agreement INF in the past tense as shown in (25) (Haspelmath, 2002: 117): (25) Int Verb T Verb 1st Sg xuyssy-d-an ' I slept' dzyr-d-on ' I said' 2nd Sg xuyssy-d-a dzyr-d-daj 3rd Sg xuyssy-d dzyr-d-a (Isaev, 1966: 247; cited in Haspelmath, 2002: 117) 2.6.4.2.3 Inflectional Categories for Adjectives 2.6.4.2.3.1 Inherent Categories for Adjectives ● Degrees of Comparison In addition to these kinds of ICs there are a few others that are less widespread (Haspelmath, 2002: 67). Comparison is the only inherent category represented on adjectives (Tallerman, 1998: 58). The kind is uncommon in the world's languages. It is found in the languages of Europe and South Western Asia. In English adjectives have ISs of comparative (Com) and superlative (Sup) degree big, bigger, and biggest (Haspelmath, 2002: 67). Every German adjective has the form of a comparative and a

54 superlative, for example, läng-, länger, längst 'long, longer, longest' (Allerton, 1979: 248). Conversely, some languages have an extra degree of comparison such as Welsh which has an –ed equative Sff: (26) Mae-'r cwpan cyn llawn –ed a - 'r botel. is-the cup as full-equative with -the bottle. 'The cup is as full as the bottle.' (Tallerman, 1998: 58) 2.6.4.2.3.2 Agreement Category for Adjectives Adjectives are also marked to agree with the nouns they modify. For example, in French and many European languages, adjectives agree in gender with the head noun, changing in form as in: (27) a. le vin blanc b. la porte blanche the: Masc wine white: Masc the: Fem door white: Fem (Tallerman, 1998: 58) Haspelmath (2002: 62) illustrates paradigms and ICs by giving examples on Spanish language where verbs inflect for number and person. The following Table is illustrative:

Spanish Number

singular plural st 1 camin-o camina-mos

2nd camina-s caniá-is Person 3rd camina-θ camina-n

Table (2) Spanish Verbal Inflections for Person and Number. (Haspelmath, 2002: 62) Languages vary in the amount of inflectional complexity. Languages such as Vietnamese and Igbo have no inflectional properties, while others have more than a dozen inflectional properties. More than two-thirds of all inflectional properties fall into one of the classes of the Table (3) (Haspelmath, 2002: 62):

55

On Nouns On Verbs On Ns ,Vs, Adjs Number Tense Agreement in (singular, (present, past…) number,case, plural…) person, gender Case Aspect (nominative, (Perfect, imperfect…) accusative, Mood genitive…) (Indicative, subjunctive,imperative…)

Table (3) Common Inflectional Categories with modification. (Haspelmath, 2002: 63) Finally, there are a few languages that have inflected prepositions as Celtic and the Semitic families. They inflect to agree with their objects in person, number and gender. In Irish, for example, the preposition with is le as in le Seamas ' with Seamas', leis ' with him' and léithi ' with her ' ( Tallerman, 1998: 58). 2.6.5 Syncretism in Inflectional Paradigms Huddleston (1984: 77); and Haspelmath (2002: 136- 7) state that when two or more word-forms in an inflectional paradigm are orthographically and phonologically identical, it can be said that there is syncretism between them. For example, in the present tense paradigm of German verbs the 3rd Psp tense and the 2nd person plural and the 1st person plural and the 3rd person plural are identical: (28) 3rd Sg spielt he / she plays 1st Pl spielen we play 2nd Pl spielt you play 3rd Pl spielen they play Syncretism is frequent in ISs (Spencer, 1991: 195). The same form represents different morphological concepts. For example, regular past tense walked as in I walked and regular past participle walked as in I have walked (Katamba, 1993: 37). They manifest more than one component of meaning

56 (Langacker, 1972: 64). The present-day syncretism can be explained by phonological changes. Diachronically there are a few verbs whose past and past participle forms are identical through morphological, not phonological change: stand/ stood/ stood, sit / sat, sat (Haspelmath, 2002: 138). 2.6.6 Paradigm Imperfectness Haspelmath (2002: 142) pinpoints the imperfectness in inflectional paradigm: 2.6.6.1 Defectiveness Defectiveness means that cells in the inflectional paradigm may lack word -forms. It is usually applied to lexemes rather than to entire categories and it disturbs the functionality of language. Thus, lexemes which lack word-forms are called defective lexemes e.g., in French, the verbs frire 'fry' and clore 'close ' lack a progressive past tense, in Russian the noun mečta 'dream' lacks a possessive plural form (Haspelmath, 2002: 142). In Aronoff's (1976: 2) view, missing form is an uninflected one. In English, forms such as scissors, and trousers are found but * scissor, and * trouser are not. 2.6.6.2 Deponency Deponency means that when a formal Aff is used in the wrong function to indicate a different category. For example, Latin has tense deponents õ d ĩ 'I hate' which has a perfect tense form, it indicates a present tense meaning (Haspelmath, 2002: 142). 2.6.6.3 Periphrasis In this phenomenon missing cell can be filled by syntactic processes in order to express the suitable concepts. For example, for phonological reasons many adjectives in English lack the comparative form -er as in *beautifuler,* interestinger, *activer. They can be expressed by a syntactic phrase more beautiful, more interesting, more active. These comparatives are called periphrastic (Haspelmath, 2002: 142).

57 CHAPTER THREE Inflectional Suffixes in English

3.1 Introduction This chapter is devoted to the inflectional suffixes in Standard English (SE). It deals with their morphological forms with their semantic, phonological and grammatical aspects. In addition to the suffixed homophones, some of the spelling rules are also included. 3.2 Inflectional Suffixes in English. Lexical words may take ISs to indicate meaningful relationship similar to those expressed by function words as the girls' mother vs the mother of the girl, commoner vs more common. The rule of INF is limited i.e relationships are frequently expressed by function words. These syntactic categories are marked by INFs: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (Biber et al., 1999: 57). An IS is sometimes called a desinence (Wikipedia, 2004: 1). The few INFs of English are signaled by a small number of regular morphemes (Anderson and Stageberg, 1970: 90). English has a very small number of ISs (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 66). There are eight ISs in English (Fromkin et al., 2003: 100). The ISs can be schematized as follows:

ISs Examples ICs/properties Noun {-S1} dogs noun plural INFs {-S2} boy's / boys' noun possessive rd Verb INFs {-S3} vacates 3 Psp {-ing} discussing present participle {-d1} chewed past tense {-d2} chewed/chosen past participle Adjective {-er} bolder comparative INFs {-est} boldest superlative

Table (4) The Inflectional Suffixes in English. (Stageberg, 1971: 112)

58

Crystal (2003b: 198) adds another ISs to the already existing number which is the contracted negative-n't. The contracted form of not is used as an INF with some verbs as auxiliaries in which most of them appear in two forms: does not or doesn't. In some cases the form and pronunciation of the verb is altered: (29) will not → won't do not→ don't /dəunt/ Some auxiliaries do not permit the Sff as *amn't (Crystal, 2003b: 205). In the light of what has been presented, it is clear that this is incompatible with the properties of ISs because negation changes meaning. 3.2.1The Position of ISs within Level-Ordered Model Two classes of Affs are recognized in English: class 1, the stress- affecting affixes, and class 2, the stress-neutral affixes (Carr, 1993: 113; Ahmad, 2007: 9-10). The processes of INF are of two types: regular and irregular. Regular ISs are within class 2 Affs (Szpyra, 1989: 42; Katamba, 1993: 139; Plag, 2002: 216-18; Ahmad, 2007: 18). Class 1Affs are added to roots at a 1st level of word formation; e.g., the adjective personal can be derived from the noun person and the noun personality from the adjective personal. Class 2 Affs, i.e. ISs, are not added until the 1st level affixation has completed. Consequently, the 1st level has yielded personality, and the second personalities. This approach is known as level-ordered model of affixation (Carr, 1993: 173-4). After morphological and phonological operation at each level of the lexicon is completed, the role of the next level starts which is not involved in internal make up. For example, the suffixation of plural morpheme functions independently whether the stem is morphologically complex as in nationality ~ nationalities or simple as city~ cities. In both cases, the regular plural Sff is added, and then the application of the regular phonological process which governs the form of the Sff. In effect, regular plural affixation happens at a later stage (level 2) of word formation (Carr, 1993: 176; Ahmad, 2007: 18) which does not lead to confusion and unpredictability Ahmad, 2007: 18).

59 3.3 Noun Inflections Although English has a highly impoverished system, there are major word classes which have distinctive inflectional properties (Radford, 1997: 29-30). Inflection is one of the distinctive properties of nouns. Morphological characteristic of nouns is that they are inflected for number (Huddleston, 1984: 227-8; Biber et al., 1999: 62) which is an obligatory IC in English nouns (Katamba, 1993: 233). The most fundamental contrast is between singular denoting 'one' and plural denoting 'more than one' (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 80; Lardiere, 2006: 81) which are known as variable nouns (Finch, 2000: 111). The singular form is the unmarked lexical stem (Crystal, 2003b: 200) and the plural is formed by different morphological operations. When nouns are inflected, their forms are changed for certain inflectional properties through special Sffs. English nouns have very few inflectional forms. There is nothing that might really be called case (Huddleston, 1984: 227-8).

English nouns have only one IS {-S1} (Gleason, 1961: 97). There is another Sff which is the possessive Sff in which the characteristic spelling form {-s} used for both Sffs, although the possessive is written as {-'s}. The symbol {-S1} for the plural and {-S2} for the possessive are used for their identification. On the basis of this, nouns have a paradigm which typically inflects for number and case (plural and possessive): (30) Singular Plural Stem student students Possessive student's students' (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 82) Thus, nouns have only four forms in English. These are the singular base form, the plural form and the two possessive forms adding to singular and plural forms as shown above (Willis, 1975: 5; Jefferies, 2006: 77). In the noun paradigm, not all nouns have the four forms. Most nouns have both a singular and a plural form (Trask, 1999: 39-40). Many nouns do not have the possessive form in which the 'of structure' takes place of the {-S2} Sff as saying the ceiling of the room not the room's ceiling (Stageberg, 1971: 120).

61 3.3.1The Suffix {-S1} 3.3.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning Count nouns are variables. Variable nouns have singular and plural forms: cat~ cats; knife~ knives (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 34). Their plurals are regular and irregular (Aziz, 1989: 112-3) as in these patterns: 1) The majority of plural in English are formed by addition of the Sff to the singular stem (Thomas, 1965: 49; Al-Hamash and Abdulla, 1976: 118). 2) With a few nouns the Sff is added but they are coupled with stem- modification (Al-Hamash and Abdulla, 1979: 100-1) (discussed in the following subsections). 3.3.1.1.1The Addition of {-s} and {-es} Suffixes Singular nouns share morphological properties whose plurals can be formed by adding a Sff (Haegenan and Gue'ron, 1999: 54) in a regular predictable way (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 31). The change for the plurals of the vast majority of nouns consists of adding one of the Sffs {-s} or {-es} to the singular stem forms (Frank, 1972: 3; Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 133; Biber et al., 1999: 285) as in: (31) Stem cross book Plural crosses books (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 277) The two shapes of Sffs are alternates used in different context (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 267). The normal plural Sff is {-s} as in cat~cats (Crystal, 2003b: 200), but if a noun stem ends in (s, z, x, sh or ch) the Sff takes the form {-es}: box, boxes (Biber et al., 1999: 285). If the noun ends with 'ch' pronounced /k/, the Sff {-s} is added as in stomachs /stmk/ (Sinclair et al., 2004: 609). In some cases spelling creates numerous changes when {-S1} is added (See page 71) (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 80; Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 340). A noun like fool can be differentiated from an adjective foolish by the fact that only regular nouns can carry noun IS {-s} e.g.: (32) They are fools (noun) *They are foolishs (adjective) (Radford, 1997: 30)

61 This type of morphological changes is the commonest. It is found not only in the countless of the noun stems, but also in the vast majority of newcomers (Strang, 1968: 105-6) in which new words find their way forming their plurals in the regular manner regardless of their foreign origin (Lambert, 1972: 130). It is called a productive subclass (Gleason, 1961: 99). The tendency of English morphology is toward complete regularity (Lambert, 1972: 130). Accordingly, the plural of nouns, like many aspects of morphology, are also becoming simple. If one is asked 'How do you form a plural noun in English?' The answer would be 'adding an -s.' (Robinson, 2003: 31) [For further information see Strang (1968: 105-6); and Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 267)]. 3.3.1.1.2 Modification of the Stem- final Consonant Irregular plurals are unpredictable and have to be learned individually (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 80). One of the cases is voicing as in changing a voiceless sound to a voiced sound when adding {-s} Sff. The following three types of voicing occur in English: (33) i) / f / → / v / shelf / elf / shelves / elvz / ii) / Ө / → / ð / path /pa:Ө/ paths /pa:ðz/ iii) / s / → / z / house /haus / houses / hauziz / (Al-Hamash and Abdulla, 1976: 119 -20) 3.3.1.1.2.1 Nouns ending in Labio-dental Fricative / f / ●Regular Plural only The majority of nouns ending in -f or -ff takes the regular plural Sff and never changes their pronunciation /fs/ as in beliefs, chiefs and so on (Azar, 1992: 68; Biber et al., 1999: 286). Words as loaf, sheaf etc. are rendered with regularized plurals. Nouns of this group come to use the regular type of plural formation (Gleason, 1961: 99; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 23). ●Voiced Plural only Inflectional forms are formed in different ways by different operations. One of the operations is adding the Sff {-s} to the end of the stem, but modification of the stem also plays a role. Sometimes both operations are combined (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 253; Huddleston and Pullum,

62 2005: 266). The addition of the plural Sff is accompanied by a modification of the consonant at the end of the stem (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 277). Thus, singular nouns ending in f or fe have a tendency to change their pronunciations in plural forms to their corresponding voiced fricatives /vz /spelled -ves when adding {-s} Sff (Kanaan, 1984: 61; Alexander, 1988: 44; Sinclair et al., 2004: 609) and the mute e is added if not already present (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 277), e.g.: (34) a. Singular nouns ending in f, e.g.: thief → thieves b. Singular nouns ending in fe, e.g.: wife → wives (Parrott, 2000: 403) ●Both Regular and Voiced Plurals A number of nouns have coexisting regular and irregular plurals in pronunciation and spelling: -fs /- fs/ or -ves /-vz/ (Huddleston, 1984: 228; Alexander, 1988: 44) i.e. this stem-modification is optional (Parrott, 2000: 403) as in scarf → scarfs / scarves. But the plurals of hooves, scarves and wharves are more common than the plurals in –fs (Swan, 2005: 515). The following nouns have regular spelling -s, but they have both regular and irregular pronunciation in the plural (/fs/ or/ vz/), e.g.: (35) handkerchief→ handkerchiefs roof→ roofs (Alexander, 1988: 44) Two noun stems have the vowel change in the stem, namely, hoof /huf/~ hooves / hu:vz / and staff /sta:f/ ~ staves / steIvz/(Strange, 1968: 103-4). 3.3.1.1.2.2 Nouns ending in Dental Fricative / Ө / Some nouns ending in consonants represented as -th undergo a similar modification as -f (Lamberts, 1972: 135 ; Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 278) and construct their plural on voicing pattern as in mouths (Crystal, 2003b: 200). They are few words (Gleason, 1961: 98-9) and there is no change in spelling (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 80). 3.3.1.1.2.2.1 Nouns with a Consonant before / Ө / Leech and Svartvik (1975: 217; 1994: 340-1) mention that the plural is regular with a consonant before –th as in month /monӨ / ~ months /monӨs.

63 3.3.1.1.2.2.2 Nouns with a Vowel before / Ө / ●Nouns having regular plural With a vowel before / Ө /, the plural is often regular as in deaths (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 340-1). These nouns ending in / Ө / never change their pronunciations when adding the {-S1} as cloth → cloths / kloӨs/ (Parrott, 2000: 403). ●Nouns having voiced plural In a few cases singular nouns with a vowel sound ending in /Ө/ have a tendency to change their pronunciation in plural forms pronounced as /ð/ (Parrott, 2000: 403). For example, the singular nouns path /pa:Ө/ is pronounced /pa:ðz/ when adding {-S1} Sff (Sinclair et al., 2004: 609). ●Nouns having regular and voiced plural Sometimes this modification is optional i.e. there are both regular /Өs/ and voiced plurals /ðz/ (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 85; Parrott, 2000: 403). The nouns are spelled in the same way, -ths (Crystal, 2003b: 200). The following nouns exemplify regular and voiced plural: Singular Plural (36) oath / əuӨs/ → oaths / əuӨs/ or / əuðz / youth / ju:Ө/ → youths / ju:Өs / or / ju: ðz / (Swan, 2005: 519) 3.3.1.1.2.3 Nouns ending in Sibilant Fricatives /s/ In one case the voiceless fricative is / s/ and the plural is / -ziz/ (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 80; Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 266). In speech, the noun house undergoes similar changes in the stem (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 278) having the voicing in the plural but the spelling is regular (Alexander, 1988: 44). Thus, the noun house /haus/ is pronounced houses /hauzIz/ when adding {-S1} plural Sff (Sinclair et al., 2004: 609). 3.3.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-S1}

The English plural Sff {-S1} has three allomorphs /s /, /z/ and /Iz/ depending on the nature of the adjacent sound of the singular noun (Elkins, 1974: 13; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 22). These allomorphs are all phonologically conditioned because each occurs when certain definable conditions occur (Halliday et al., 1964: 43; Aitchison, 1999: 58).

64 The English plural Sff {-s} on nouns as in cats in which the final sound of the stem is voiceless, is realized as voiceless /s/; in dogs, where the final sound of the stem is voiced, the plural Sff is also voiced /z/; and finally, in cases where the stem ends in sibilant, normally /s, z, , 3, t, d3 /, a vowel is inserted for reasons of ease articulation, since sequences of two sibilants are not allowed in English giving horses with /әz/ or /Iz/ (McMahon, 2002: 61). /-Z/ is the basic underlying form of the plural Sff and the other allomorphs are phonological variants (Jacobson, 1977: 239; Allerton, 1979: 217). /z/ is phonemically impossible after voiceless consonants and must be replaced by /s/. And any sibilant is impossible immediately after another sibilant; hence / i /must occur between them. Once it is inserted, the following sibilant obeys the same constrain as all the other words ending in vowels: it is always voiced (Jacobson, 1977: 243). This is called a progressive voice assimilation in which the preceding sound affects the following sound (Lass, 1984: 171; Roach, 1991: 124-5) which is common between morpheme boundaries. It occurs in the allomorphy of English plural, possessive, 3rd Psp (Wardhaugh, 1977: 78; Lass, 1984: 175). Similarly, singular and plural nouns forms like knife ~ knives might represent a case of neutralization, in which the contrast between /f/ and /v/ is suspended before /z/, but this cannot be ascribed to the phonetic context because there are cases as in (37) where either the singular and plural have voiceless fricatives or voiced ones: (37) chief – chiefs hive – hives (McMahon, 2002: 61) The allomorph consists of voicing of the final fricative of the stem plural /z/. Forms as wife~ wives, /waif/ ~ / waivz / are two allomorphs of the stem (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 23). The allomorph is determined both lexically (it is restricted to certain nouns) and grammatically (it occurs before the plural Sff not before other morphemes). Thus, wife has two forms: /waiv/ before the plural and /waif / in other positions in which the former is bound and the latter is free (Jacobson, 1977: 240; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 23). Similarly for bath: /ba:ð/occurs before a plural and /ba:ө/ occurs elsewhere (Jackson, 1979: 113). This type of morphophonlogical alternation applies to very few words (Gleason, 1961: 98; Haspelmath, 2002: 181).

65 3.3.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-S1} Nouns change their form in certain ways for grammatical purposes within sentences (Trask, 1993: 39). In the sentence (38) He plans to contact her in a few weeks. the noun week must be affixed with plural -s as required by the qualifier phrase a few. The morphological mechanism of suffixation is used to convey grammatical information. However, the resultant would be ungrammatical if the Sff -s is not added, as in: (39) * He plans to contact her in a few week. (Lardiere, 2006: 73) The grammatical category of number operates through subject-verb agreement. When the singular form of a noun is used as a subject of a verb, the singular verb is used, as in: (40) A dog likes to eat far more meat than a human being. When the plural form of a noun is used as a subject, the plural verb is used, as in: (41) Bigger dogs cost more. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 6) 3.3.2The Suffix {-S2} 3.3.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The structure based on apostrophe s {-'s} is a way to express possession (Celece-Murcia and Larsen –Freeman, 1999: 302). When it is added to a noun or a name it is called a possessive form, some grammarians call it the genitive (Sinclair et al., 2005: 102). There are two kinds of possessive, the {-'s} possessive and the zero (or bare) possessive: (42) 1) 's girl~girl's woman~woman's women~women's James~James's 2) zero girls~girls' barracks~barracks' James~James' (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 279) The chief meaning of the 's structure is possession (Crystal, 2003b: 202) which indicates the relation of the noun to another noun (Allerton, 1979: 245-6). The possessive 's signals that one noun is the head and the other is the modifier which adds additional specification to the head (Katamba, 1993: 240). This can be illustrated in the following sentence: (43) John gave Mary his sister's old bicycle. (Lardiere, 2006: 85)

66 In the above sentence, the possessive relations between sister and bicycle marked with the possessive Sff -s (Lardiere, 2006: 85). In Mary's dress, the possessor Mary is inflected with 's and the head noun dress appears without INF. The presence of the word Mary's makes the referent of dress more specific than to say a dress (Katamba, 1993: 240). 3.3.2.1.1 Singular and Regular Plural Nouns The possessive is formed by adding -s to the singular form of the noun (Frank, 1972: 5). In writing, this appears with a preceding apostrophe -'s (Crystal, 2003b: 202) as in Ralph's voice (Sinclair et al., 2004: 402). The -'s form is added to singular nouns ending in -s as in a waitress's job (Sinclair et al., 2004: 402). With the regular plurals, an {-s} Sff is already present, so the possessive is formed by adding ( ') following the plural {-s } Sff (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 91) as in my colleagues' office (Sinclair et al., 2004: 402). The {-'s} is not added to nouns that refer to things as in *the building's front (Sinclair et al., 2004: 402). 3.3.2.1.2 Irregular Plural Nouns In a few irregular plurals that is not marked by -s/-es Sff, the possessive is formed by adding 's (Sinclair et al., 2005: 443). Irregular nouns distinguish the forms in speech and writing: (44) Singular plural The child's toy the children's toys (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 91) 3.3.2.1.3 Zero (or bare) Possessive Not all singular nouns can accept a possessive Sff (Crystal, 2003b: 202). The zero possessive is not overtly marked in speech but in writing it is marked by the final apostrophe (Zandvoort, 1965: 96; Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 279). In being identical with the plural, the regular possessive is sometimes called the zero possessive (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 102). It is common with: (a) few Greek names of more than one syllable ending in -s in which the only signal is the apostrophe as in Socrates' bust not *Socrates's bust (Crystal, 2003b: 202) or with names of biblical origin: Matthias' Church

67 (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 276) in which there is no change in pronunciation (Alexander, 1988: 52). (b) proper names which end with -s pronounced /z/ have different usages in which both Dickens's novels and Dickens' novels can be found (Swan, 2005: 414). They may take either 's or( ' ) (Frank, 1993: 13). But -'s is more common (Swan, 2005: 414). These spelling forms are pronounced differently (Sinclair et al., 2005: 443). With some famous names ending in -s, only the apostrophe is added pronounced /s/ or /iz/ as in Keats' works. Possession can be shown in the plural forms ending in –s by adding the apostrophe as in Joneses' houses (Alexander, 1988: 52). (c) fixed expressions of the form for...sake as for goodness' sake (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 200). From all what have been said, it is evident that zero possessive is usually obligatory, but it may be optional as with certain proper nouns ending in -s Socrates' (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 279). 3.3.2.1.4 Gender and the Possessive The possessive is not used with all nouns (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 104). The choice of the possessive can be more related to gender classes in which the possessive-s is favoured by animate nouns (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 94). The following normally take the possessive 's/s': (45) ◘Personal names: Jones's car ◘Personal nouns: the doctor's surgery ◘Indefinite pronouns: someone's responsibility ◘Collective nouns: the committee's decision ◘Higher animals: the horse's stable, the horses' stables ◘Some lower animals: an ant's nest The inflected noun is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns: (46) ◘Geographical names: Europe's future ◘Institutional names: the school's history ◘Place noun+ superlative: New York's tallest skyscraper ◘Temporal nouns: a week's holiday ◘Fixed expressions: (be) at death's door (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 96-7; Alexander, 1988: 53)

68 3.3.2.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-S2} The {-S2} Sff has four allomorphs / -z,-s, -iz, ø/ (Gleason, 1961: 100). It has the same phonologically conditioned allomorphs as the regular plural /s/, /z/ and /iz/ (Stageberg, 1971: 127) as in Rose's/ iz/; Kate's /s/; Jane's //z/ (Hudson, 2000: 79). / ø/ is used after plural Sff which ends with /s/ or /z/ as the cats' paws ; James'( or James's) books (Al-Hamash and Abdullah, 1979: 107) which is a variant of the regular possessive /iz/. There is vacillation in the pronunciation of these names, but the most common is /iz/ (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 94). With the shorter form Dickens', both pronunciations are possible: /dikinz/ and /dikinziz/ (Crystal, 2003b: 202), whereas in adding -'s, the possessive is pronounced /iz / (Sinclair et al., 2005: 443). Although the apostrophe does not have any correspondence to any speech sound, one does not omit it from English writing (Lamberts, 1972: 145). The possessive plural is phonetically identical either with the possessive singular or nominative plural. This neutralization can be shown in the following sentences: (47) a. The cows /kauz/ were grazing. b. One cow's/ kauz/ tail was waving. c. All the cows' / kauz/ tails were waving. (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 102) The possessive does not trigger any modification of the stem. The possessive of wife is wife's, not *wive's (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 280). 3.3.2.3The Grammatical Aspect of {-S2} 3.3.2.3.1 Uses of Possessive's The following clarifies the uses of possessive –s: 1- Something belonging to a person: The possessive -s is used to: ◘indicate that something belongs to or is associated with: (48) a woman's voice (Sinclair et al., 2004: 749) ◘emphasize that something belongs or relates to a particular person and nobody else, the word own is used: (49) We must depend on David's own assessment. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 104) ◘The definite articles are dropped when possessive is used:

69 (50) the car that is John's = John's car (Swan, 2005: 414) ◘If something belongs to more than one person or thing whose names are linked by and the 's is put after the second name: (51) Helen and Tim's apartment (Sinclair et al., 2005: 443) 2- Quality possessed by a person: The possessive -s is used to refer to a quality possessed by a person or animal: (52) the woman's abruptness (Sinclair et al., 2004: 749) 3- Quality possessed by a thing: The possessive 's is used when referring to an object when specifying a part of it: (53) I like the car's design. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 103) 4- Part of a person or animal: The possessive -s is used to refer to part of a person or animal: (54) the patient's leg. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 750) 5- Part of a thing: The possessive -s is used to refer to one part of a thing: (55) the car's engine (Sinclair et al., 2004: 750) 6- Action done by a person: The possessive -s can sometimes be used with nouns which refer to an action indicating who is performing the action as in: (56) Mr. Lawson's resignation (Sinclair et al., 2005: 104) 7- The possessive forms can be used with abbreviations and acronyms: (57) He will get a majority of MPs ' votes in both rounds. The majority of NATO's members agreed. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 443) 3.3.2.3.2 Possessive without a Head Noun Possessives can be independent on the following nouns. It is common to omit the following noun (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 91). The omission of the noun after 's or s' is typical to the following: ◘If the reference is contextually clear a possessive is used without a following noun as in: (58) Whose is that? ~ Peter's (Swan, 2005: 415) ◘When talking about two things of the same type belonging to different people, the possessive is used so that one can omit repeating the thing itself: (59) My room is next to Karen's. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 104) ◘Where someone lives: The possessive form can also be used on its own to refer to someone's home:

71 (60) He's round at David's. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 104) ◘ Shops and businesses: The possessive form is also used to indicate place of businesses as the butcher's, etc. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 402): (61) She hasn't been back to doctor's since. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 104) In modern English, expressions like the doctor, the dentist etc. are often used without 's: (62) Alice is at the hairdresser ('s). (Swan, 2005: 414) 3.3.2.3.3 Double (or Post) Possessive What is called double possessive is that the independent possessive follows the of -structure (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 276): (63) a play of Shakespeare's (one of Shakespeare's play) (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 92) 3.3.2.3.4 The Group Possessive With a group of words functioning as a unit, the Sff {-S2} can also attach to the last word in the phrase (Frank, 1993: 13). The last word in a noun phrase is not always a noun (Parrot, 2000: 13) as in: (64) that man you met yesterday's bicycle (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 37) Adam (1973: 13) adds that the phrase the man in the brown coat's has a word like role in the man in the brown coat's newspaper. The function of the-'s is not relevant to the word it is attached. It links the word newspaper with the premodifying structure. The possessive 's is probably best regarded as an enclitic particle or postposition (Allerton, 1979: 245-6). Accordingly, the possessive forms do not count as further inflected forms because what -'s attaches itself to is not a morphological unit such as a noun root but a syntactic unit, namely a noun phrase (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 37). 3.3.2.3.5 Possession and other Semantic Relationships The term possessive is not a satisfactory label for this morpheme because of the existence of various semantic relationships between the possessive noun and the noun that follows (Stageberg, 1971: 127). These semantic relationships are as follows: ◘Physical characteristics (description): The 's structure is used when the first noun refers to a person or animal (65) Peter's eyes are like your. (Swan, 2005: 415)

71 ◘Origin: The 's structure is used to talk about things that people produce: (66) I didn't believe the girl's story. (Swan, 2005: 415) ◘Subject: The 's structure often corresponds to a sentence in which the first noun is the subject of have or some other verbs: (67) the dog's tail (the dog has a tail) (Swan, 2005: 416) ◘Object: The first noun may correspond to the object of a verb: (68) the prisoner's release (they released the prisoner) (Swan, 2005: 416) ◘Attributive: The 's structure can be used attributively: (69) The victim's outstanding courage. (The victim was very courageous) (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 103) ◘Measurment of Time: The possessive 's is used to indicate that something lasts a particular length of time: (70) two years' imprisonment. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 752) ◘ Worth: If talking about an amount (value)’s used: (71) a month's salary (Sinclair et al., 2004: 752) Parrot (2000: 13) mentions other relationships as family relationship, as the other girl's twin, and creation, as Einstein's theory. Frank (1972: 5; 1993: 13) further adds other relationships as the use of possessive with words referring to natural phenomena as the earth's atmosphere, and with names referring to people working together as in the ship's crew. Of the kinds of relationships expressed, possession is the most dominant and the possessive of nouns is avoided when referents cannot possess as in a student's book not *a book's student (Hudson, 2000: 85). 3.3.2.3.6 Ambiguity in the Possessive Form A noun possessive shows ambiguity when it expresses more than one of the above relationships at the same time. For example, His son's loss grieved him has two meanings: 1) He lost his son (object of underlying verb) and this grieved him, or 2) his son (subject of underlying verb) lost something and this grieved him (Stageberg, 1971: 128). Thus, the semantic classification is partly arbitrary.

72 3.4 Verb Inflections The forms of verbs vary to make the conjugation of verbs (Vs). The ICs in relation to verb forms are person, number, tense, aspect and mood (Strang, 1968: 142). In most languages the verbs show greater morphological complexity than any other word class. Inflectional categories add further specification to the event, state, process or action indicated by the verb. Tense and aspect are inherent verbal categories. The aspect used for incomplete action is called imperfective (or progressive) (in this present thesis the term progressive is used) and the one used to indicate completed action is called perfective (or perfect) aspect (in this work the term perfect is used) (Katamba, 1993: 220). The grammatical forms are described in connection with tense. The different tenses are expressed by verb Sffs or by auxiliaries (Frank, 1993: 49). It is to be recalled that English is claimed to morphologically distinguish only two tenses: past and present (Allerton, 1979: 247; Lardiere, 2006: 80). Number is different from the sense of number in relation to nouns. In verbs, it is a dependent grammatical function because it depends on the number of the subject i.e. the feature of agreement and not on anything inherent in the verb (Strang, 1968: 142). English verb lexemes have more grammatical forms than nouns or adjectives (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 138). Verbs can be identified by their inflectional morphology (Willis, 1975: 6). Most verbs have five distinct inflectional forms (Radford, 1997: 30; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 39). The changes in form are through adding an INF to the stem form which can be labelled V0, V-s, V-ed, V-ing, V-en (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 138; Leech et al., 2006: 54). The relevant inflections are the stem, the 3rd Psp tense Sff {- s}, past Sff {-ed}, the present participle (Prp) Sff {-ing}, and the past participle Sff (PP) {-ed} or {-e (n)} (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 26; Radford, 1997: 30) as in studies, studied, studying, had studied, and has flown (Bolinger, 1975: 145). The ICs give rise to these different grammatical word forms (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 138). Of these inflectional forms three are morphologically regular (Lamberts, 1972: 181).

73 3.4.1 The Verb Paradigm The verb paradigm is fairly simple in English. The great majority of verbs in English have paradigms consisting of six inflectional forms. Table (5) shows the paradigm for the verb walk, with sample sentences (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 30):

paradigm Example sentence Primary Past walked She walked home Forms 3rd psp walks She walks home Plain present walk They walk home Secondary Plain form walk She should walk home Forms Present participle walking She is walking home Past Participle walked She has walked home

Table (5) The Verb Paradigm in English. (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 30) 3.4.1.1 Primary vs Secondary Forms Primary forms show inflectional distinctions of tense past vs present and can occur as a sole verb in a clause. Secondary forms have no tense INF and cannot occur as a head of a clause (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 30). One of the properties of word-class verb is INF. Verbs are tensed: they have one of the inflectional properities past tense and present tense. For example, in He lived in Sydney and He lives in Sydney, the words lived and lives are prototypical verbs. In the present the verb agrees with the subject as 3rd person singular vs general (not 3rd person singular): He lives in Sydney vs I/we/you/they live in Sydney (Huddleston, 1984: 124). Verbs have tensed forms: (72) Tensed Non- Tensed Past Present base form -ing form -en form 3rd Psp general took takes take take taking taken (Huddleston, 1984: 125)

74 3.4.1.2 Inflectional Forms vs Shape In Table (5) above the word walk and walked appear twice in the paradigm. There is a distinction between inflectional form and its shape. Shape means spelling or pronunciation. The past and past participle are different forms but they have the same shape walked. Similarly, the present and the stem form share the shape walk (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 30). 3.4.2 The Morphology of Lexical Verbs Lexical verbs can be discussed under two heads: regular and irregular. In all of the forms the {–s} Sff and {–ing} participle are predictable from the stem (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 28). The V-ed and V-en can vary in a number of different ways. The V-en forms are called V-en because they sometimes have a distinctive Sff {-en} as in eaten instead of {-ed} (Leech et al., 2006: 54). The regular and irregular verb forms are as follows (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 39-40): (73) Forms Stem 3rd Psp Prp P PP

ISs {-s 3} {-ing 1} {-d 1} {-d 2} Models perform performs performing performed performed give gives giving gave given Irregular lexical verb forms vary from three e.g., put, puts, putting to eight (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been).The modal auxiliaries are defective (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 26). They distinguish two (can, could) or even just one (must) (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 40). Stageberg (1971: 141) claims that one of the clues to the classification of a word as a verb is its participation in the verb paradigm. If a word fits into three or more of the slots, it is labelled a verb. 3.4.2.1 The Morphology of Regular Lexical Verbs Regular lexical full verbs have the following forms in which each play a different role in the clause (Frank, 1972: 35). They are formed as follows (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 25; Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 54): 1) Verb base form called the infinitive form: play. 2) Verb + -s: The-s form adds to the stem a Sff in {-s}: plays. 3) Verb + -ing present participle. The {-ing} participle adds to the stem form a Sff in {-ing}: playing.

75 4) Verb + -ed past /participle. The {-ed} form adds to the stem form a Sff in {-ed}: played. The dictionary form without INF or without modification is called a base. The base is used to constitute the first tense -aspect-mood. It is formally and functionally the unmarked form (Strang, 1968: 144). The base form is identical to the infinitive and the present. This form is the identifying form of the lexeme (Jefferies, 2006: 78). It is called the stem which occurs after to, auxiliaries, and in the present except for the 3rd Psp, e.g., to sit, can go, and we eat (Stageberg, 1971: 131). The vast majority of English verbs are regular (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 142, Leech et al., 2006: 54). Furthermore, all new verbs that are coined or borrowed follow the regular pattern (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 28; Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 142). Of the inflectional forms the present participle and the 3rd Psp tense are very straightforward (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 273). In all regular verbs as in call, two {–ed} forms are identical as in I called him and I have called him (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 25; Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 142; Leech et al., 2006: 54) which have different functions in phrases and sentences (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 142). 3.4.2.2 The Morphology of Irregular Lexical Verbs Irregular verbs have either an unpredictable form or predictable -ed form or both (Crystal, 2003b: 204) (See {–en} Sff on page 60). 3.4.3 The Suffix {-S3} 3.4.3.1 Morphological Form and Meaning This form is normally formed by adding {-s} or {-es} Sff to the stem (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 273) (sometimes with a spelling change see page 71). The {-s} Sff means the 3rd person singular present tense rd (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 273). The 3 Psp consists of the stem+ {-S3} (Lamberts, 1972: 186) as in walks. Irregular verbs make their forms by adding a Sff {-s} to the stem (Crystal, 2003b: 204). Robinson (2003: 34) claims that finite verbs are marked for person, number and tense. The difference between: I walk and he walks is that {-S3} marks the 3rd person. The difference between the 3rd person he walks and the

76 third person they walk is one of number. The {-S3} marks the singular and present he walks. When an INF carries more than one piece of information, like this Sff {- S3}, it is an example of cumulation as shown in diagram (2). Thus, the IS {-S3} is the inflected form which indicates three ICs: person, number and tense (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 144). But in English there is a lot of syncretism in the verbs. The present shows syncretism except in the 3rd person singular. Hence, the morphology of English has been getting simplified as time goes by.

Distrusts V

V {-s}

{-dis} {trust} IS bound 3rd person Singular Present tense Diagram (2) Cumulation in the Inflectional Suffix {-S 3} (Robinson, 2003: 34) 3.4.3.2The Phonological Aspect of {-S3} The pronunciation of the {-S3} Sff follows the same general rules as applied to the regular noun plural Sff and to the possessive Sff (Lamberts, 1972: 186). It has the same allomorphs in the same distribution of these forms of the nouns depending on the quality of the preceding sound of the stem (Strang, 1968: 145; Crystal, 2003b: 204): /s /, / z / and /iz / as in cuts, begs, and buzzes (Stageberg, 1971: 131) which are phonologically conditioned (Gleason, 1961: 101).

3.4.3.2.1 The Suffix {-S3} and Stem Changing With three verbs the pronunciation of the stem is changed when the –s Sff is added (Strang, 1968: 145; Al-Hamash and Abdulla, 1979: 111). In these three verbs, there are minor irregularities: do /du: / ~does /d٨z /, have /hæv/~ /hæz/ and say / sei / ~ says/ sez/. These cases are formed by special

77 allomorphs of {-Z3}, /z/ plus /ə/← (u :) /, /z/ plus/ Ǿ← (v) /, and /z/ plus /e← (ei) /. The changes are considered as part of the stem, in which the stem has two allomorphs /du: ~ də- /, hæv~ /hæ- / and / sei~ se- / (Gleason, 1961: 101). The first two have special forms when unstressed /dəz/, /h əz/, /s/, /z/ and / ə z/ (Strang, 1968: 145). For do the form is does /dəz/ not* /du:z/ (Lamberts, 1972: 186; Crystal, 2003b: 204), the vowel has been downgraded to /ə/ as the result of frequent unstressing. The form of have is has /hæz/ rather than */ hævz / a form which may never have existed at all. For say, the acceptable form is /sez/ rather than*/seiz/. The latter has a spelling pronunciation which is quite rare (Lamberts, 1972: 186) [See also Huddleston (1984: 125); and Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 26-7)]. The same stem forms occur before {-d2} in done /dən/, had /hæd/ and said /sed/ (Gleason, 1961: 101). 3.4.3.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-S3} The Sff {-S3} is found if the verb is in the present (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 145). The 3rd Psp is used with singular nouns, pronouns he / she/it, and words for which these pronouns substitute and with word groups: (74) a. That freshman cuts his class every Wednesday. b. He cuts his class every Wednesday. c. Each cuts his class every Wednesday. (Stageberg, 1971: 131) The 3rd Psp exemplifies person-number combination. When speaking with ICs of person and number, one is usually referring to a grammatical agreement relation, most often subject-verb agreement. English has only one inflectional agreement marks for its regular verbs and only on present tense verbs: 3rd person singular {-s} as in: (75) He/ She/ It runs. (Lardiere, 2006:80) 3.4.4 The Suffix {-ing} 3.4.4.1 Morphological Form and Meaning Another verb INF is the progressive {-ing} Sff. All English verbs, regular and irregular have this form (Jefferies, 2006: 79). The English present participle consists of verb stem + {-ing} Sff (Lamberts, 1972: 187; Robinson, 2003: 35) and it indicates that there is a clear failure to complete

78 a particular activity (Allerton, 1979: 248). This formation of the present participle is very simple and regular in which the Sff {–ing} /iŋ / is the only Sff used. The {-ing} Sff is a straightforward addition to the stem: (76) push+ -ing = pushing sleep+ ing = sleeping (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 28) The detective verbs as can, shall, will, may, must, and ought to lack the present participle forms (Al-Hamash and Abdulla, 1979: 112). 3.4.4.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-ing} Of the three ISs, / iŋ / is unique in having only one allomorph in most forms of English (Gleason, 1961: 101). When adding the Sff {-ing}, ◙ syllabic / l / cease to be syllabic before the INF as in wriggle/rigl/ ~ wriggling /rigliŋ/ and ◙ final / r / is pronounced before the INF, as in pour ~ pouring /po: /~ /po: riŋ/ (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 27). It is usual to pronounce words like carrying, pitting and so on as /kæri:iŋ/ , /piti:ŋ /, where the word ends in / i / ( O'Conner, 1980: 88). 3.4.4.3The Grammatical Aspect of {-ing} What is called the progressive tenses of a verb is constructed by using any of the copula be plus the present participle (Lamberts, 1972: 188; Lardiere, 2006: 80).The syntactic distribution is that it combines with seven of the eight forms of be : am , is , are , was , were , be , been – to make verb phrase, e.g .: (77) a. They were writing letters. b. She must have been sleeping. (Stageberg, 1971: 131) The progressive encodes that the action is (was) ongoing or in progress, repeated or habitual, e.g.: (78) a. John is painting the kitchen. b. John was painting the kitchen. (Lardiere, 2006: 80) The forms is painting/was painting are called progressive forms. They indicate that the action of the painting is / was going on and John never completed painting the kitchen (Lardiere, 2006: 80). The {-ing} Sff is also used as: ●a non –finite verb form in a subordinate clause:

79 (79) After carrying all the suitcases, the hotel porter expected a tip. ●a personifying adjective in noun phrase: (80) The singing policeman ●a derived head noun, in the position normally taken by nouns: (81) The dancing was wild and dangerous. (Jefferies, 2006: 79) 3.4.5 The Suffix {-ed} 3.4.5.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The morphology of English past is complicated and unpredictable. There is a regular pattern, but there are also a number of irregular patterns (Lamberts, 1972: 189). They are arranged in order of descending size: {-d1} and {-d2} and the others are {-en} forms of {-d2} (Gleason, 1961: 102). The two forms of past and past participle are taken together since all regular and a high proportion of irregular ones are morphologically identical. The regular past and past participle are constructed by adding either {-d} or {-ed} Sff to the orthographic stem form and often with a spelling change (See spelling on page 71) (Stageberg, 1971: 131; Crystal, 2003b: 204; Jefferies, 2006: 79). Examples are given below: (82) Stem laugh stop hope deny P and PP laugh-ed stopp-ed hop -ed deni-ed (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 274) This Sff morpheme indicates the past of English regular verbs: {-d1} (West, 1975: 114). This {-ed} Sff has just one use: to express the past, as in: (83) I kicked the ball (Crystal, 2003b: 204) The use of past indicates that the event happened sometime prior to the moment of speaking (Lardiere, 2006: 80). The past form {-d1} is simple because it shows no variation for person and number. It is an open-class of morpheme because of its productivity (Lamberts, 1972: 199). New verbs added to the English vocabulary regularly acquire the {-ed} Sff (Thomas, 1965: 56; Crystal, 2003b: 204). The {-ed} Sff represents two distinct functions that are differentiated in the forms of some irregular verbs, e.g.: (84)a. She laughed at us. {-d1} b. She has laughed at us. {-d2} c. She has spoken to us. {-d2}(Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 54)

81 3.4.5.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-d1} and {-d2} The {-ed} Sff of regular verbs is pronounced in three possible ways (Crystal, 2003b: 205) in which a similar range of phonological variations appear as allomorphs in the past Sff {-d1} being governed by the nature of the preceding sound (Jefferies, 2006: 79). Both {-d1} and {-d2} have a set of phonologically conditioned allomorphs /-d~ -t~ id/ (Gleason, 1961: 101; Stageberg, 1971: 131). Thus, the past {-d1} and the {-d2} participle of regular verbs has three allomorphs (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 22; Jefferies, 2006: 79): (85) /t / after stems ending in voiceless sounds other than /t/, e.g. passed /d / after stems ending in voiceless sounds other than /d /, e.g. budged / id / after stems ending in /t / and / d /, e.g., ended, wanted 3.4.5.3 Syncretism between {-d1} and {-d2} In regular verbs the {-d1} and the {-d2} forms are syncretised (Huddleston, 1984: 125; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 40). Weak verbs never distinguish the past and past participle (Lamberts, 1972: 199). These two verbal forms have great similarity in their forms and distribution (Al- Hamash and Abdulla, 1979: 109) i.e. there is syncretism between the past and past participle as in I walked and I have walked (Robinson, 2003: 35). 3.4.5.4 The Grammatical Aspect of {-d2} The {-ed} participle form encodes a kind of temporal characteristic whether the action is (was) completed, e.g.: (86) John has painted the house. (Lardiere, 2006: 80) The English {-ed} participle form has four grammatical functions: ◘It expresses a past participle aspect (Crystal, 2003b: 204). In connection with the auxiliary have to form verbal phrases, the past participle form is called perfect tense. The idea is not that the action has been completed, but it has current relevance (Lamberts, 1972: 190), e.g.: (87) I have kicked the ball. (Crystal, 2003b: 204) ◘It expresses the passive voice. With the auxiliary be the past participle construct the passive (Stageberg, 1971: 131; Lamberts, 1972: 190), e.g.: (88) The ball was kicked. (Crystal, 2003b: 204) ◘It begins a clause in certain types of a subordinate clause:

81 (89) Kicked and battered, I hobbled off the field. (Crystal, 2003b: 204) ◘It is used as an adjective, e. g.: (90) A watched kettle never boils. (Robinson, 2003: 35) The -ed past participle form is not restricted to past time as in I will be kicked, and it tends to be avoided in modern grammar (Crystal, 2003b: 204). 3.4.6 The Suffix {-en} 3.4.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The verb-en is called the perfect participle (Kuiper and Allan, 1996: 144). In most cases the participle contains a distinctive Sff spelled in three alternative ways as shown in (91): (91)1) n after vowel or re: grown lain seen sewn torn 2) ne for bear, do, go: borne done gone 3) en elsewhere: broken chosen fallen swollen taken (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 275) Grow, see, and sew end in complex symbols, and {–n} is added directly to them. With lay there is a case of y replacement. When the Sff is added to tore the mute e following r is deleted. The second items are exceptions. The –en alternant is found in all other cases. When it is added to a form ending in the mute e, the ordinary rule of e deletion applies as in broke + -en = broken (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 276). 3.4.6.2 Morphological Relations between other Forms Irregular verbs differ from regular verbs in that either the past INF or the {-ed} participle INF is irregular (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 29). The formation of past participle is not regular (Lamberts, 1972: 199). A variety of morphological relations between the stem, past and past participle can be found. A sample of examples is shown below: (92) A B C D E Stem show take ride speak fly Past showed took rode spoke flew PP shown taken ridden spoken flown (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 276)

82 Type A. Past: Regular; past participle: Stem+ nasal suffix Verbs with regular past forms make their past participles with suffixed – {-(e) n} after the stem (Strang, 1968: 147). Showed is a regular past, while shown consists of a stem and the past participle Sff. Thus, {-d2} has two forms, one regular and the other is nasal (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 29). The following types with irregular pasts form their past participles in various ways: Type B. Past: Irregular; Past participle: Stem+ nasal suffix The past participle is formed in the same way as in type A i.e. from the stem plus a nasal Sff. But the past is irregular (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 276). {-d2} is always suffixed with {-en} having the same vowel as the stem as in know~ known (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 29). Type C. Past: Irregular; Past participle: modified stem+ nasal suffix The stem to which the past participle Sff is added is modified. In speech the stem vowel is changed; in writing mute -e is dropped and d or t is doubled (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 276). They are formed with vowels different from those of the stem or past plus the nasal Sff as in write ~wrote ~ written. The formation can be shown as stem /ai / ~ past /əu/ ~ past participle / i / (Strang, 1968: 147). Type D. Past: Vowel change; past participle: past form+ nasal suffix In this type the past participle Sff is not added to the lexical stem but to the irregular past form plus the nasal Sff (Strang, 1968: 147; Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 276). Thus, {-d2} is different from the stem as in break~ broke~ broken which they have variation in their stem vowel (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 29). Type F. Miscellaneous Few verbs do not fit into any of the above pattern. With fly, the three forms have different vowels, but the past participle also contains a Sff; similarly with do~ done. With be and go the past participle consists of the stem + Sff, been and gone (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 277). (For further examples see the references given above). Phonologically, the Sff {-en}/ (ə) n/ is often syllabic /ņ / as in written / ritņ/ (O'Conner, 1980: 50). For the verb stem show the allomorph is the Sff

83 /n/. But the allomorph of the past participle of go is coupled with a vowel change from/ əu / to / o/ (Jackson, 1979: 116). Grammatically, the irregular past participle {-d2} is used with has, have, had, and having to form verbal phrases, e.g. .: (93) She had never flown in a helicopter. (Stageberg, 1971: 131) 3.5 Adjective inflections

Comparison is an adjectival category which is present in many languages including English (Allerton, 1979: 248). It can be to the same degree, to higher degree, or to a lower degree. For a higher degree comparison, English has a three-term inflectional contrast: absolute, comparative, superlative (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 153; Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 97; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 40).

The base form of adjective is called absolute form which some Grammars call plain or positive. In this study the term positive is used. Higher degrees of comparison are expressed through INFs (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 97). The INFs identify two steps in the expression of a higher degree: adding a comparative Sff {-er} and a superlative Sff {-est} (Crystal, 2003b: 199). Morphologically varied forms of adjectives are found in only a small proportion of adjectives (Strang, 1968: 134). Only gradable adjectives enter into inflectional contrasts (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 131).

There is also a syntactic way of expressing a higher degree through the use of pre-modifiers more and most for comparative and superlative respectively which is called periphrastic (Crystal, 2003b: 199). Such adjectives are uninflected for phonetic reasons (Sami, 1984: 94). The notions like the same and the lower degree are also expressed syntactically (Crystal, 2003b: 199).

3.5.1 The Suffixes {-er} and {-est} 3.5.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning Inflections provide the way in which the quality expressed by an adjective can be compared (Willis, 1975: 10). It is one of the characteristics

84 of adjective in which they form comparative and superlative by taking {-er} and {-est} (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 129). Adjectives form a comparative form with the meaning of 'adjective -to a higher degree' and a superlative form with the meaning of 'adjective - to the highest degree' (Allerton, 1979: 248).

Inflection of adjectives is relatively simple and regular: {-er} / ə(r) / and {-est} / ist / which are constant in form in the vast majority of adjectives (Gleason, 1961: 104). The regular inflections sometimes involve changes in spelling (see page 71) or pronunciation (see page 67) (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 255). The comparable paradigm is as follows:

(94) Forms Stem Comparative Superlative

ISs {-er} {-est}

Models long longer longest

happy happier happiest

(Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002: 40)

The above paradigm furnishes the pattern for these groups: nearly all monosyllabic adjectives as hot; some disyllabic adjectives, in particular those ending in - ly and-y as lovely; a few adverbials of one or more syllables as fast and one preposition near (Stageberg, 1971: 142).

Adjectives inflect to show contrast between positive, comparative and superlative forms (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 112). A Comparative is used to describe something which has more of a quality than another. Qualitative adjectives consist of adjectives with {-er}. A comparative is used to compare one person, thing, action, event or group with another person, thing, etc. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 85), e.g.:

(95) Max is taller than Tom. (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 195)

85 In the above sentence the comparison is between Max's height and Tom's height. The sentence does not say how tall they are (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 195-6).

In the case of superlative, one is concerned with some set, as in:

(96) Max was the tallest boy in the class.

(Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 195)

It is a comparison between members of some set: one member is located at a higher position than others. The comparison is between the set of boys with respect to their height. Max occupies a higher position than all the others (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 195). This means a superlative is used to compare somebody or something with the whole group that she/he /it belongs to (Swan, 2005: 115).

Morphological change in adjectives is a quite different from the contrasted forms of nouns and verbs. Those of adjectives present a choice referentially not grammatically determined. For example, the sentence *The small girl are presenting a bouquet is ungrammatical. It should be said The small girl is presenting a bouquet or The small girls are presenting a bouquet. Then turning to the referential considerations in which one girl is involved. Thus, the sentence should be The smaller girl is presenting a bouquet (Strang, 1968: 134).

This selection of smaller from the series of small, smaller, smallest is like a selection from lexical items not like a selection from items of grammatical paradigms. Formally, the {-er} and {-est} Sffs are like inflections, but functionally they are like derivational morphemes. Grammatical predication can be made about the selection of the form by using than (Strang, 1968: 134) (See Grammatical Aspects on page 67). 3.5.2 Morphological and Phonological Properties of the Stem

The morphological and phonological properties of the stem determine whether an adjective form can undergo the inflectional processes or not

86 (Huddleston, 1984: 299). Descriptive adjectives have special morphological forms for comparison. The length of adjectives plays a role in determining of the use of {-er} and {-est} (described in the following subsection) (Crystal, 2003b: 199).

3.5.2.1 Short Adjectives 3.5.2.1.1 Monosyllabic Adjectives Adjectives of one syllable normally take the IS {-er} and {-est} at the end of the adjective as in (tall) –er in the comparative and (tall) –est in the superlative (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 217; Frank, 1993: 118), e.g.:

(97) He drove faster this morning. (Parrott, 2000: 201)

Some monosyllabic adjectives are not inflected: true, *truer, *truest (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 255).

3.5.2.1.2 Disyllabic Adjectives

The rules for constructing comparative and superlative of two-syllable adjectives are more complicated (Frank, 1993: 117). Some adjectives form their comparatives and superlatives with {-er} and {-est}. Many of them permit both forms of comparison, e.g., That is a quieter / more quiet place (Crystal, 2003b: 199).

Zandvoort (1965: 189); Leech and Svartvik (1975: 217); and Huddleston (1984: 299-300) state that disyllabic stems that take {-er} and {-est} are either morphologically simple ending in:

◘syllabic / l / (-ple, -ble, -tle, -dle) as in simple~ simpler~ simplest,

◘ /(-er / (ə) r /, - ow /əu/ or -some) as in cleverer, narrower, handsomer

or morphologically complex ending in -ly or -y preceded by a consonant happy~ happier~ happiest (Frank, 1993: 118; Leech and Svartivk, 1994: 255) or beginning with the prefix -un as in unkind (See Long Adjectives below). But the second groups are less formal (Greenbaum

87 and Quirk, 1990: 155). [For further exemplification see Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 155); Frank (1993: 118); and Sinclair et al. (2004: 561)].

3.5.2.2 Long Adjectives: Trisyllabic and more

Stems of more than two syllables do not inflect except for a few as in unfriendly(Huddleston, 1984: 300). A few three-syllable adjective beginning with the Sff -un allow ISs of {-er} and {-est} as in unhappier~ unhappiest (Celece-Murcia and Larsen –Freeman, 1999: 302) as in:

(98)He felt crosser and unhappier than ever. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 561)

Long adjectives as awkward etc.,-ed adjectives, and -ing adjectives are not inflected for comparative and superlative (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 255), e.g.: interesting,*interestinger, *interestinest; wonded, *wondeder, *wondedest (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 135). Constructions such as present and past participle of verbs which modify nouns take both forms although the inflected form is limited to spoken English as in:

(99) Sven said that was the dancingest girl she had ever met.

(Lamberts, 1972: 259)

3.5.3 The Phonological Aspect of {-er} and {-est}

Phonologically the suffixes {-er} and {-est} are pronounced / ə(r) / with a potential linking / r / and /ist/ respectively. The addition of ISs results in phonological modifications. The adjectives which are subject to this kind of change are a closed class consisting of monosyllables and disyllables ending in a syllabic consonant, or a vowel or stressed on the second syllable (Strang, 1968: 134). The phonological changes are as follows:

♦The stem-final syllabic / l / loses its syllabicity or ceases to be syllabic before ISs as in simple~ simpler~ simplest (Strang, 1968: 134; Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 133-4).

88 ŋ / which becomes younger / j٨ The final / ŋ / becomes / ŋg / in young / j٨♦ ŋgist / (Huddleston, 1984: 301) in which /g/ is ŋgə (r) / and youngest / j٨ pronounced after/ ŋ / before a preceding vowel (O'Conner, 1980: 53).

♦Linking /r / is realized or pronounced before ISs as in poor / puə / ~ / puərə/ ~/ puərist / (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 134).

Such modifications of boundary morphemes between the stem and either INF are phonologically conditioned (Strang, 1968: 134).

3.5.4The Grammatical Aspect of {-er}

The comparative inflected adjectives have the following usages:

◘ Inflected adjectives can be used as modifiers in front of a noun, e.g.:

(100)The family is moved to a smaller house. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 562)

◘ It can also be used as complements after a linking verb, e.g.:

(101) His breath became quieter (Sinclair et al., 2004: 562)

◘ Inflected adjectives can be modified by intensifiers, e.g.:

(102) much easier (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 153)

◘Comparatives are often followed by than by saying exactly what is compared by using a number of structures after than, which can be noun phrases, or clauses:

(103) an area bigger than Great Britain. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 85)

◘In formal English, a subject pronoun follows than, but in informal spoken English, an object pronoun often follows than (Swan, 2005: 114), e.g.:

(104) a. I am older than he is. b. I am older than him.

◘When two descriptions are compared; comparative INF is not possible:

(105) * He is lazier than stupid (Swan, 2005: 114)

89 ◘One amount of a quality is linked to another amount by using two contrasted inflected adjectives preceded by the. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 86). The second part of the inflected adjective is the result of the first part (Azar, 1992: 338) as in:

(106) The earlier you detect a problem, the easier it is to cure.

(Sinclair et al., 2004: 563)

3.5.5The Grammatical Aspect of {-est}

Another way of describing something that has more of a quality than anything else of its kind is done by using a superlative adjective. The superlative {-est} has the following usages (Sinclair et al., 2004: 56):

◘Only qualitative adjectives have superlative but few colour adjectives also have them (Sinclair et al., 2005: 87), e.g.:

(107) some of the greenest scenery in America. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 56)

◘Inflected superlative adjectives are nearly always preceded by the because one is talking about something definite. They can be used as modifiers in front of a noun, e.g.:

(108) He was the cleverest man I ever knew. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 87)

◘They can also be used as complements after a linking verb:

(109) He was the youngest. (Sinclair et al., 2004: 563)

◘They can be used on their own if it is clear what is being compared as in:

(110) The sergeant was the tallest. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 87)

◘In fairly formal English inflected superlative adjectives are used as head words, e.g.:

(111)They are often too poor to buy even the cheapest of houses.

(Sinclair et al., 2005: 89)

91 3.6 Adverb Inflections

The inflectional system applies to a small number of other lexemes such as adverbs (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 195). Adverbs that are identical in form with short adjectives as fast, early, etc. have the {-er} and {-est} Sffs for comparative and superlative (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 217; Sinclair et al., 2004: 565). They follow the same spelling and phonetic rules as for adjectives (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973: 135), e.g.:

(112) late~ later~ latest (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 98)

Comparative and superlative adverbs are used to say how something is done by one person or thing compared with how it is done by someone or something else (Sinclair et al., 2004: 564).

(113) Tim tries the hardest. (Alexander, 1988: 124)

Soon, which has no corresponding adjective, is frequently used in the comparative sooner, but it is not common in the superlative soonest (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 156).

The inflected comparative is followed by than (ever, anyone), e.g.:

(114) He concentrated harder than ever. (Alexander, 1988: 124) 3.7 Suffixed Homophones Suffix homophony is a potential source of confusion (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 136). Many pairs, trios, and even four words which sound alike but differ in meaning as in pair, pare. Such words are called homophones (Stageberg, 1971: 104). In morphology, the same is true with bound forms. But suffix homphony is rarer than root homophony (Stockwell and Minkova, 2001: 139). The ISs have the following homophones: 1) The three homophones /-z / are three different morphemes {-S1}, {-S2} and {-S3}: (115) a) Noun plural IS, e.g.: Those frogs /z/ b) Noun possessive IS, e.g.: John's book /z/ c) Verbal IS, e.g.: It feels good /z/ (Stageberg, 1971: 104)

91 2) The verbal IS {-ing1} has two homophones (Stageberg, 1971: 131): ◘The first one is the nominal derivational Sff {-ing2}. The {-ing} Sff can be added to a verb to make a verbal noun {-ing2}: (116) Learning morphology is a challenge. {-ing2}(Robinson, 2003: 35) ◘The second homophones of {-ing1} is the adjectival morpheme {-ing3}. The present participle can be used as adjectives (Stageberg, 1971: 131), e.g.: (117) A rolling stone gathers no mass. {-ing3} (Robinson, 2003: 35) In isolation verbal nouns and present participle are indistinguishable, but in actual utterances they can be distinguished by the role they play in the sentence and the kind of word they pattern with (Strang, 1968: 174): The verbal {-ing1} can occur after or before the noun it modifies, e.g.: (118) a. I saw a burning house. b. I saw a house burning. (Stageberg, 1971: 131) The adjectival {-ing3} can be preceded by a qualifier like very, rather or by more or most of comparative or superlative, as in: (119) a. It is a very comforting thought. b. This is a more exciting movie. (Stageberg, 1971: 131)

3) The past participle verbal {-d2} Sff should not be confused with the adjectival {-d3} Sff. The verbal IS {d2} has a homophone in the adjectival derivational {- d3} (Stageberg, 1971: 131), as in: (120) a. Helen was excited about her new job. {-d2} b. Helen was a devoted mother. {-d3} (Stageberg, 1971: 115) The adjectival {-d3} is characterized by its capacity for modifications by qualifiers like very, rather, quite, by more and most, e.g.: (121) A rather faded tapestry hung over the fire place. The verbal {-d2} does not accept such modifiers, e.g.: (122) *The very departed guests had forgotten their dog. (Stageberg, 1971: 115) Participle of conclusive kind of verb retain in attributive position: appointed time (= time which has been appointed). Attributively-used participle of inconclusive verbs is more like adjectives: an admired collegue (Adams, 1973: 21). There is an internal difference to mark the distinction as the word pairs: drunk {-d2} and drunken {-d3} (Strang, 1968: 174).

92 3.8 Some General Spelling Rules of Regular Inflections There are some changes in the spelling of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs which indicate the interface of spelling and inflectional morphology (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 269). In this section three spelling rules are introduced. In all of them the pronunciation of stems and Sffs need to be taken into consideration. 3.8.1 Final (Y) Replacement 3.8.1.1 Changing final (y) to (i) This rule applies with stems ending in y as a single -letter vowel. The alternation is shown in (123) (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 272): (123) Treatment of y context Examples i y is kept before -ing or -'s deny deny-ing baby baby-'s ii y replaced by ie before -s deny denie-s baby babie-s iii y replaced by i elsewhere deny denie-d pretty pretti-er On the basis of the illustration shown above, it can be said that when a stem ends in a consonant plus y, then y is replaced by i before adding {-es} of 3rd Psp tense {–ed} Sff of past, {-es} of plural noun, {–er} and {-est} Sffs of comparative and superlative adjectives except {–ing} or possessive {-'s} (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 252; Swan, 2005: 449). 3.8.1.2 No change after a Vowel The letter -y is kept after a vowel letter, e.g.: (124) -s Pl valley~valleys -'s Poss boy~boy's -ed P spray~ sprayed -s 3rd Psp destroy~ destroys -ing Prp buy~buying -er Com coy~ coyer (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 252) Exceptions: • The final y of one- syllable adjectives is not changed. The {-er} and {-est} Sffs are added in ordinary way with adjectives dry, shy etc. (Sinclair et al., 2005: 442). They have dryer/dryest as optional variants of regular drier/driest and shier/shiest (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 272). • In verbs as pay~ paid, say ~said there is a spelling change from y to i • 'Y' is kept before adding {–ing} as in study~ studying.

93 • 'Y' is kept before possessive {-'s}, e.g., the spy's name. (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 252) 3.8.1.3 Changing (-ie) to (-y) Before the {-ing} Sff, ie is changed to y: die~dying (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 376). 3.8.2 Doubling of Consonants 3.8.2.1 Monosyllabic Stems If the stem has one syllable and ends in a single consonant the final consonant is doubled when the preceding short vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter before adding Sffs (Swan, 2005: 553) as in: • Adjectives and adverbs before {-er} and {-est}, e.g.: (125) fat ~ fatter ~ fattest But: fast ~faster ~fastest not* fastter • Verbs before {-ed} and {–ing}, e.g.: (126) stop~ stopped ~stopping But: stoop~ stooped~stooping This does not apply to verb stems if the final consonant letter is w, x, or y because final -w and -y are parts of a vowel sound showing, showed boxing, boxed and playing, played and x ends in a sequence of two consonant sounds (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 270). 3.8.2.2 Polysyllabic Stems ●Only stressed syllables The final consonant is doubled when the Sff follows a stressed syllable, but there is no doubling when the vowel is unstressed before adding {-ing} and {-ed} as in up'set~up'setting (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 250). Exception: • Final (l) in unstressed syllable In English l is doubled even though the last syllable is unstressed as in 'equal~'equalling~equalled (Leech and Svartvik, 1994: 375). • Lacking final stress of final consonant Final consonant are sometimes doubled even when they do not carry the main stress on the last syllable as in worship~ worshipped/worshiped (Huddleston and Pullum, 2005: 271).

94 A few polysyllabic stems ending in-s, the doubling is optional even though the final syllable before the Sff is unstressed 'focus~ 'focus(s)ed~ 'focus(s)ing (Swan, 2005: 554). With two-syllable adjectives the final consonant is not doubled as in common~ commoner~ commonest (Sinclair et al., 2005: 441). • Final (C) Final consonant changes to ck before adding {-ed} and {-ing} to indicate / k/: panic~ panicking, traffic~ trafficked (Swan, 2005: 554). 3.8.3 Final (-e) Deletion If the stem ends in mute -e, the -e is dropped before adding a Sff beginning with a vowel and normally does so before {-ing} Sff (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 251). Dropping occurs in: • adjectives and adverbs before adding {-er} and {-est} as in: wide~wider~widest; late~later~latest (Sinclair et al., 2004: 773). • verbs before adding {-ing} and {-ed} as in dance~dancing~ danced (Sinclair et al., 2005: 448). Exception The final e is kept before a vowel in the case of few verbs ending in -ee,-ye, -oe, and often -ge, before {-ing}, but dropped before {-ed} in words such as agree, dye, tiptoe, singe, for example, agree ~ agreeing, agreed (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 251; Sinclair et al., 2005: 448) .

95 CHAPTER FOUR Inflectional Suffixes in Kurdish

4.1 Introduction This chapter is an attempt to shed some light on inflectional suffixes in Central Kurdish (CK). It deals with Kurdish noun inflections, verb inflections, and adjective inflections. It encompasses the morphological, phonological and grammatical aspects of Kurdish inflectional suffixes. 4.2 Noun Inflections In Kurdish, nouns are inflected for definitness, indefiniteness, number, and possession (McCarus, 1958: 47). Marif (1977: 37) uses the term marker for inflectional morphemes to be distinguished from derivational morphemes, while in this study the term suffix is used. 4.2.1 The Definite Suffix {-aka} 4.2.1.1. Morphological Form and Meaning In Kurdish there are two Sffs that indicate definiteness. They are attached to noun phrases (Marif, 1979: 188). They are {-aka} and {-a} (Hawramani, 1973: 150; Mukiryani, 1989: 77). Xwin (1961: 119) and Fakhri (1978: 50) refer to {-ka} as a definite Sff. The Sff {-aka} is the major one indicating definiteness because it is attached to the majority of nouns (Marif, 1979: 188). The Sff {-aka} is attached to the noun stem and serves to define a noun (MacKenzie, 1961: 50; Hawramani, 1973: 115). It shows that the noun is a specific one (McCarus, 1958: 48). It is active with common nouns (Marif, 1979: 188; Sherko, 2002: 70), e.g.: (127) kuř + -aka = kuřaka ' the boy' (Sherko, 2002: 70) When the Sff {-aka} is attached to the noun, it indicates the singularity of the inflected noun which can be distinguished among other classes or genders, e.g.: (128) kuř+ -aka= kuřaka 'one boy in this class' (Qadir, 2003: 29) When the noun is plural, it indicates the definiteness of the group of the classes. Morphologically, the definite Sff precedes all other ISs in the order

96 of suffixation (McCarus, 1958: 47) especially the Sffs which are attached to noun phrases (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 51) as shown below: (129) Noun + definite Sff + Plural Sff = a definite plural noun guÎ+ -aka+ ān = guÎakān 'the flowers' In Rassul's viewpoint (1995: 83), the Sff {-aka} consists of two morphemes and an inphonic as shown below: (130) Noun + a + K (inphonic) + a 4.2.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-aka} The definite Sff {-aka} has a number of allomorphs which are determined by the preceding sound of the noun stem and the plural Sff of {-ān}. The allomorphs of the Sff {-aka} are shown in the following diagram:

Morpheme {-aka}

Allomorphs

/aka/ /-yaka/ /-ka/ /-ak/ /ә / znaka sāîyaka turakaka pîyawakān kuřa the woman the dance the bag the men the boy Diagram (3) The allomorphs of the definite Sff {-aka}. (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25) The allomorphs are phonologically conditioned (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 16) (See also Fattah, 1990: 82). The phonological distribution is as follows: 1) The Sff {-aka} is attached to a noun stem ending in a consonant, it is realized as /aka/ (MacKenzie, 1961: 50; Marif, 1979: 189), e.g.: (131) dār + -aka = dāraka ' the tree' (Mukiryani, 1989: 77) 2) The Sff {-aka} has an allomorph which is /-ka / when attached to a singular noun stem ending in a vowel (MacKenzie, 1961: 51), e.g.: (132) çrā +- aka = çrāka 'the light' (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 55) These vowels can be / ā, o, and ê /. In this case either the initial /-a/ of {-aka} is elided or the semi-vowel /-y / appears between the noun and the Sff (Marif, 1979: 190; Nawkhosh and Khoshnaw, 2008: 153) because the

97 occurrence of the two vowel sounds is not possible (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 50), e.g.: (133) çrā + -aka = crāka/ çrāyaka 'the light' (Marif, 1979: 190) ● When a noun stem ends in / î /, a) the semi-vowel /-y / appears between the noun and the Sff (Ameen, 1986b: 176) , e.g.: (134) mirāwî + -aka = mirāwîyaka 'the duck' b) coalesce of /î / can also happen , e.g.: (135) zawî +- aka = zawyaka ' the land' (Marif, 1976: 55) c) or / î / is changed into / ê / ,e.g.: (136) qāpî+ -aka = qāpêka ' the gate' (MacKenzie, 1961: 51) ● When a noun ends in / û /, the semi-vowel /-w/ appears between the noun and the Sff and /û/ is pronounced shorter (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 48), e.g.: (137) tarāzû + - aka = tarāzuwaka ' the balance' (Marif, 1979: 191) Sometimes /û / is changed into /o / or shortened to / u /as in: (138) xānû + -aka = xānoka/ xānuaka 'the house' (MacKenzie, 1961: 51) ● When a noun ends in / -a /, thus, the final /-a / of the noun is elided, e.g.: (139) sarçāwa + -aka = sarçāwaka 'the source' (Marif, 1979: 191) This Sff has the alternate forms in the plural (McCarus, 1958: 47): ● When the plural Sff {-ān} is added to an inflected noun with the definite Sff {-aka}, it has the allomorph /ak/ (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 20), e.g.: (140) pîyāw + aka + -ān =pîyāwakān 'the men' (Hussein, 1985: 110) ● When the Sff is added to a noun inflected with a definite {-aka}, the two vowels / -a / and /-ā / occur next to each other which results in the omission of the final sound / -a / of {-aka} (Jukil, 2004: 9). Nouns which end with a vowel have /-k/, /-yak /, and /wak / as allomorphs (Qadir, 2003: 32), e.g.: (141) a. / o / bro + -aka +- ān = brokān / broyakān 'the eye-brows' b. / û / bařû + -aka +- ān = bařuwakān 'the oaks' (Marif, 1979: 195) The definite Sff is morphologically conditioned. The morpheme {-aka} can be followed by the plural Sff {-ān} which means that the Sff {-ān} determines the allomorphs of / -aka /as in:

98 (142) dargā dargāka /-aka/ 'the door' dargākān/-ak/ 'the doors' dargāyaka dargāyakān /-ak/ Sometimes the morphological conditioning takes another form, for example, the morpheme /aka/ paves the way to the plural Sff / -ān / and prevents all the other allomorphs of plurality as in: (143) a. bāx bāxāt 'orchards' b. bāx bāxaka ' the orchards' *bāxakāt bāxakān 'the orchards' (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 20) On the basis of what has been said, the inflected noun phrase with the definite Sff {-aka} has the same meaning in the singular or in the plural and the only difference is in number. 4.2.1.3The Grammatical Aspect of {-aka} ◘The definite {-aka} is used with noun phrases whether the noun functions as a subject or an object, as in: (144) xwêndkar-aka kitêb-aka-y kř-î student-Def book-Def-Poss buy-P The student bought the book. (Qadir, 2003: 31) ◘The Sff {-aka} is attached to the noun if it is followed by the proper noun, personal pronouns or having the possessive Sff –î/y as in: (145) a. kuř-aka-y řizgār b. kuř-aka-y to son-Def-Poss Rizgar son-Def- Poss you Rizgar's son Your son (Qadir, 2003: 31) ◘The definite Sff {-aka} is not attached to the noun if the noun is inflected by the genitive (izafa-Izf) {-î} and followed by an adjective as in: (146) a. çāw-î šîn b. *çāw-aka-y šîn eye- Izf blue eye-Def- Izf blue blue eye the blue eye (Qadir, 2003: 31) ◘If the noun is followed by adjectives by having the izafa {-a} then the definite Sff {-aka} is attached to the end of the last adjective (Mukiryani, 1989: 77), as in: (147) guÎ-a mora biçûk-aka cwān-a flower- Izf purple- Def small-Def beautiful-be (Pr) The small purple flower is beautiful. (Qadir, 2003: 31)

99 ◘ The definite Sff {-aka} is used with numbers, e.g.: (148) çwār-aka hā-t-in four- Def come-P-Cl The four came. (Marif, 1998: 67) ◘In this case if the noun is inflected with the definite {-aka}, the izafa {-î} is deleted and {-a} is attached to the adjective e.g.: (149) kiç-aka cwan-a girl- Def beautiful-be ( Pr) The girl is beautiful. (Marif, 1979: 195) ◘If {-aka} is attached to an adjective, {-a} is attached to the noun, e.g.: (150) kiç-a cwān-aka girl –Izf beautiful -Def the beautiful girl (Marif, 1979: 195) ◘The Sff {-aka} does not come with the demonstrative pronouns, e.g.: (151) a.*?am guÎ-aka b. *? aw kitêb-aka This flower-Def that book -Def *This the flower *That the book (Qadir, 2003: 30) ◘The Sff {-aka} is not used with proper nouns (Marif, 1979: 188), e.g.: (152) * rošna-aka Roshna –Def * The Roshna (Qadir, 2003: 30) ◘The definite Sff is attached to other parts of speech which are used as nouns and adjectives e.g.: (153) mirdin mirdin-aka death-Def 'the death' The above example is an infinitive which plays the role of the noun in Kurdish. Thus, the definite Sff is attached to a particular stem, and its choice of the stem is regular. For example, the following formation is impossible: (154) *da-ç-im + aka *I the go (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 55) On the basis of what has been presented, it becomes clear that the Sff {-aka} is not a true inflectional Sff. It is a semi-clitic because it is attached at phrase levels. They are unlike true clitics because they do not attach to accidental hosts (See Clitics vs Affixes on page 11).

111 4.2.2 The Definite Suffix {- a} 4.2.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The Sff {-a} indicates definiteness and singularity (MacKenzie, 1961: 51; Marif, 1979: 197). The Sff {-a} is used infrequently compared to {-aka} (Mukiryani, 1989: 80). It indicates the meaning of the thing which has been mentioned before. It is used in narrative with known characters or things (Fattah, 1990: 8; Yusupova, 2005: 46), e.g.: (155) dāpîra 'the old woman' (in question) (MacKenzie, 1961: 51) In the order of suffixation, the two definite Sffs do not come together because nouns are not inflected for definiteness twice, e.g.: (156) žin + -a + -aka = *žinaaka 'the woman (Fattah, 1980: 182) 4.2.2.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a} The Sff {-a} has the following forms: 1) If a noun stem ends in a consonant sound, the Sff {-a} is added to it without any change, e.g.: (157) mār + -a = māra 'the snake' (Marif, 1979: 197) 2) If a noun ends in a vowel sound such as / ā, o, ê, î, and a /, the Sff {-a} is not attached to the noun, e.g.: (158) dê + -a = dê 'the village' (Marif, 1979: 199) The Sff {-a} is sometimes added to the words and a semi-vowel / -y-/ separates between the noun and the Sff, e.g.: (159) qaÎā + -a = qaÎāya 'the castle' (Marif, 1979: 199) 3) If the noun ends in / û /, the semi-vowel /-w- / appears between the noun and the Sff {-a} and the vowel /û / is pronounced shorter, e.g.: (160) tû + -a = tûwa ' the berry' (Marif, 1979: 199) On the contrary of the Sff {-aka} the inflected noun phrase with a definite Sff {-a} does not have the plural form (Marif, 1979: 200). 4.2.2.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a} This Sff is also attached to the noun in a noun phrase as in: (161) dāykî kuř-a ' the boy's mother' (Qadir, 2003: 33) The main function of the Sff {-a} is to appear in conjunction with the demonistrative adjectives: ?am…a and ?aw…a (Kurdoyef, 1984: 65). A

111 nominal phrase qualified by the demonistrative adjective takes {-a} (MacKenzie, 1961: 51; Hawramani, 1973: 115), e. g.: (162) ?am pāšā-ya 'this king' (MacKenzie, 1961: 51) According to Fattah and Qadir (2006: 35), the Sff {-a} might possibly be an allomorph of the definite Sff {-aka}. Thus, kuřa in the sentence (163) ? aw kuř-a nā-yêt That boy-Sff (Pref) Neg-come That boy does not come. consists of two morphems (kuř + a) in which {-a} is bound and shows definiteness and can not be substituted by /-aka / as in *?aw kuřaka (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 35). In the light of what has been said, it becomes clear that {-a} is not a true IS but a semi –clitic because it leans on phrases rather than single words. To consider {-aka} and {-a} as ISs, the distinction between inflection and derivation will be obliterated. 4.2.3 The Indefinite Suffix {-êk} or {-ê} 4.2.3.1. Morphological Form and Meaning Nouns are inflected to indicate lack of definiteness (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 52). The Sff {-êk} or {-ê} is attached to nouns to indicate indefiniteness and singularity (Hawramani, 1973: 115). This indefinite (Indef) Sff is taken from number one (yak) (Marif, 1979: 203). The Sff shows that the referent is singular and not a specific one, e.g.: (164) qaÎam + êk = qaÎamêk ' a pen' (Amedi, 1987: 183) The form {-ê} is a shortened form of {-êk} (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 54) in which the last sound of the Sff {-êk} is elided as in gundê 'a village' (Ahmad, 1990: 83). The omission of this voiceless velar plosive is due to the rapid colloquial speech or to have a less mascular effort under the influence of / ê / (Jukil, 2004: 17). The length of the vowel is preserved in the shorter form (MacKenzie, 1961: 53). When the indefinite inflected noun is followed by the pronominal clitics, the last sound /-k / is kept, e.g.: (165) pancara-yêk-m šk-ānd window-Indef- I break-P /causative I broke a window. (Ahmad, 1990: 83)

112 The phenomenon of cumulation can be observed. For example, bāχ-êk in which the Sff {-êk} indicates two ICs which are fused into one Sff: indefiniteness (unknown garden) and number (one garden). Kurdish is described as having the characteristics of both agglutinating and incorporating language (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 48-50; Amin, 2007: 79) in which such a case of portmanteau morph is very rare (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25). The inflected noun with indefinite Sff {-êk} take the plural {ān}, e.g.: (166) kas+ ān + êk = kasānêk / kasanê 'a person' (Marif, 1979: 215) Thus, the plural Sff {-ān} comes between the noun and the indefinite Sff. If the ISs are grouped into classes according to their inflectional properties as (definiteness and indefiniteness), then two Sffs belonging to the same class are not attached together (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 55), e.g.: (167) māÎ (aka+ êk) = *māÎakêk * 'the a family' 4.2.3.2The Phonological Aspect of {-êk} The indefinite Sff {-êk} has two allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 19): 1) When a noun ends in a consonant sound, the Sff {- êk} is added, e.g.: (168) kitêb+ êk = kitêbêk 'a book' (Ahmad, 1990: 82) 2) When a noun ends in any vowel sound / ā, ê, î, and a /, the semi-vowel /-y-/ appears between the noun and the indefinite Sff {- êk}, e.g.: (169) / î / řêwî + y + êk = řêwîyê (k) 'a fox' (Marif, 1979: 205) The diagram of the allomorphs of the indefinite Sff is as follows: Morpheme Indefiniteness

Allomorphs /-êk / /-yak / Diagram (4) The Allomophs of the indefinite Sff {-êk} (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25) In Kurdish, the use of the allomorph /-yak/ is common and its pronunciation is easier, e.g.: (170) / a / papûla+ êk = papûlayak 'a butterfly' (Marif, 1979: 207) The Sff {-êk} has another form /-ak / (Mukiryani, 1989: 81), e.g.:

113 (171) wazîr + êk = wazîrak 'a minister' (Marif, 1979: 212) 4.2.3.3The Grammatical Aspect of {êk} The indefinite Sff {- êk} has the following usages: ●When the noun comes with the adjective in a noun phrase, the indefinite Sff is attached to the noun in most cases, e.g.: (172) dîwār-êk-î bariz wall -Indef-Izf high a high wall (Marif, 1979: 212) ●It is attached to the common noun, e.g.: (173) kitêb-êk-î řêzmān da-kř-im book- Indef- Izf grammar Pr-buy- Cl (I ) I buy a grammar book. . (Qadir, 2003: 34) ●It can be followed by the izf {-î} when followed by a noun or an adjective: (174) kitêb-êk-î bāš da-kř-im book-Indef- Izf good Pr-buy- Cl (I) I buy a good book. ●It is attached to the whole noun phrase: (175) kitêb-êk-î nûsar-êk da-kř-im book –Indef- Izf writer-Indef Pr-buy- Cl (I) I buy a writer's book. (Qadir, 2003: 34) ●It is attached to the adjective in case of deleting the noun, e.g.: (176) a. kiç-êk-î cwān hāt b. cwān-êk hāt a beautiful girl came. a beautiful one came. (Qadir, 2003: 35) ●It is attached to a proper noun for description followed by a relative clause: (177) řêbîn-êk ka diÎsoz-a dro nā-k-āt. Rebeen- Indef whom loyal- be (Pr) lie Neg- do- Cl (Agr) Rebeen whom he is loyal does not lie. (Qadir, 2003: 35) ●The inflected nouns cannot be substituted in a phrase or a sentence because each has its own grammatical value, e.g.: (178) a. min krās-aka-m kř-î b. min krās-êk-im kř-î I dress-Def- Cl (Agr) bought I dress-Indef-Cl (Agr) buy-P I bought the dress. I bought one dress. (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 52)

114 ●Contraction occurs in conjunction with the numeral yak (one), e.g.: (179) yakêkyān yakyān 'one of them' (MacKenzie, 1961: 54) The upshot of the above discussion, one can conclude that the indefinite Sff {-êk} is a true inflectional Sff which is inherent in nouns. It is regularly attached to nouns and it is irreplaceable by any simple word. 4.2.4 The Regular Plural suffix {-ān} 4.2.4.1 Morphological Form and meaning Nouns indicate two numbers, singular and plural in Kurdish (Marif, 1979: 140). Formally, the stem is singular and the plural is formed by adding Sffs (McCarus, 1958: 48). In Kurdish, the morpheme {-ān} is the major Sff for the formation of plural nouns (Xwin 1961: 17; Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 55; Marif, 2004: 312 Omar, 2005: 33). Generally, the Sff {-ān} is attached to the common singular nouns (Abdulla, 2007: 99), e.g.: (180) kiç+ -ān = kiçān 'girls' (Abdulla, 2007: 99) The plural Sff {-ān} can be added to a noun which is inflected with a definite or indefinite Sffs (Marif, 1979: 141-2; Othman, 2002: 47), e.g.: (181) lûtka+ -aka + -ān = lûtkakān 'the tops' (Marif, 1979: 156) 4.2.4.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-ān} The Sff {-ān} has allomorphs in which their phonological distribution is as follows (Amedi, 1987: 185; Ahmad, 1990: 84): 1) The Sff {-ān} is added to a singular noun ending in a consonant sound (Marif, 1979: 147), e.g.: (182) žin + -ān = žnān 'women' (Marif, 1979: 148) The vowel /i/ is syncopated in normal style when it is unstressed and followed by a consonant and a vowel as in (182) (McCarus, 1958: 41-2) 2) The Sff {-ān} is attached to a noun stem ending in a vowel as /ā, o, ê, î / in which the semi-vowel /-y/ appears between the noun stem and the Sff (Hussein, 1985: 110). It has the form /- yān / (McCarus, 1958: 48), e.g.: (183) brā + -ān = brāyān 'brothers' (Marif, 1976: 55) If the noun ends with a vowel sound / û /, then the semi-vowel /-w / appears between the noun stem and the Sff (Yusupova, 2005: 47), e.g.: (184) bařû + -ān = bařûwān 'oak tree' (Othman, 2002: 42) The shortening of spelling can occur as in bařwān (Marif, 1979: 149).

115 If the noun ends with / -a /, then in this case this vowel is coalesced (Marif, 1976: 55; Othman, 2002: 42), as in: (185) parda + -ān = pardān 'crutains' (Mukiryani, 1989: 83) Consequently, it can be said that the allomorphs of the morpheme {-ān} are / ān /, / -yān / and /-wān / which are phonologically conditioned. 4.2.4.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-ān} The Sff {-ān} has the following usages: ●The plural form {-ān} is used in a noun phrase, e.g.: (186) a. dargā-k-ān-î žûr-ak-ān b. dargā-k-ān-î žûr-aka door-Def-Pl –Izf room-Def -Pl door-Def-Pl-Izf room-Def the doors of the rooms the doors of the room (Qadir, 2003: 37) ●The plural Sff is attached to the head which precedes the izafa Sff, e.g.: (187) xwêndkār-ān-î zîrak student-Pl-Izf clever The clever students (Ibrahim, 1978: 22) ●When more than one noun come together connected by a co-ordinator (û / w) 'and', the plural Sff {-ān} is attached to the second noun in Kurdish (Ibrahim, 1978: 22; Marif, 1979: 163) e.g.: (188) krêkār w cutîyār-ān worker and farmer-Pl Workers and farmers (Ibrahim, 1978: 22) ●The plural Sff is not used with the inflected indefinite nouns to show plurality (Marif, 1979: 155). It indicates the meaning of the choice among other things rather than plurality (Ahmad, 1990: 87), e.g.: (189) kiç + êk + -ān = kiçêkān girl + Indef + Pl = 'one girl' (Ahmad, 1990: 87) ●A noun qualified with a cardinal number can be used without the Sff {-ān} (MacKanzie, 1961: 55; Marif, 1998: 66) as in (190 a, and b), e.g.: (190) a. çwār šaw 'four nights' b. çwār šawān 'four nights' In the light of what has been presented, it is clear that the plural {-ān} is not a true inflectional Sff. It is a semi-clitic attaching to a phrase level.

116 The line between the true clitics as pronominal clitics and the semi- clitics as the definite Sff {-aka, -a} and the plural Sff {-ān} is not clear-cut. They are unlike true clitics in that they are not displaced. They are like clitics in that they categorize for phrases (Fattah, 1999: 44). 4.2.5 The Vocative Suffixes {-a}, {-ê} and {-îna} 4.2.5.1 The Vocative Singular Suffix {-a} and {-ê} 4.2.5.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning In Kurdish, there are no inflective morphemes of grammatical gender and case (MacKenzie, 1961: 56). Gender contrast is no longer in use in normal utterances but in contexts there are some distinguished Sffs especially in a vocative case (Marif, 1979: 167). This is the remnant of case system in Kurdish (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 36). The category of number has its role in determining the vocative Sff which indicates gender (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 44). Nouns denoting animate beings may take Sffs in the vocative (MacKenzie, 1961: 60). The vocative Sff is attached to a singular noun to show direct address (McCarus, 1958: 48-9). The Sff {-a} is attached to the end of a masculine noun (Ameen, 1986b: 176) and {-ê} is attached to the end of a feminine noun which indicates a single referent (Marif, 1979: 179; Amedi, 1987: 175), e.g.: (191) a. bāwk +-a = bāwka 'Hey, father!' b. kiç +-ê = kiçê 'Hey, girl !' (Qadir, 2003: 56) Amedi (1987: 171) and Qadir (2003: 56) mention {-o} as a vocative Sff attached to the end of a masculine noun as in xāÎo and kāko 'Hey, brother!' The vocative masculine Sff {-a} can indistinguishably be attached to masculine and feminine nouns as in dāyka (or dāya) 'mother', nana 'grandmother' (Qadir, 2003: 56), e.g.: (192) dāy-a gyān ' mother dear!' (MacKenzie, 1961: 60) The vocative Sff might possibly have its effect on some Arabic names resulting in some phonological changes (Amedi, 1987: 169), e.g.: (193) a. xadîcat→ xacê (girls' names) b. Ahmad→ aha (boys' names) (Qadir, 2003: 57)

117 4.2.5.1.2The Phonological Aspect of {-a} and {-ê} The vocative Sff {-a} is pronounced /a / after a stem ending in a consonant and pronounced / wa / when the adjacent sound is a vowel, e.g.: (194) a. kar + -a= kara ' you donkey!' b. hêro + -a = hêro-wa 'Hero!' (McCarus, 1958: 48-9) Here in (194b) the semi-vowel / -w-/ appears between the stem and the final Sff to separate the two vowel sounds. In Marif's (1979: 180) viewpoint the feminine noun which ends in a vowel sound is not inflected with {-ê} Sff, for example, xasû ' mother-in-law'. 4.2.5.2The Vocative Plural Suffix {- îna} The vocative case in the plural form has the Sff {-îna / yna} attached to the end of the noun regardless of its gender (Hawramani, 1981: 184; Aziz, 2005: 205), e.g.: (195) kûř-îna / ki-çîna war-in boys/ girls come- Cl (you) Hey, boys/ girls come! (Marif, 1979: 180) 4.2.5.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a}, {-ê} and {- îna} The vocative Sffs have a limited use i.e. they are used with few nouns and their infrequent use results in their decay (Qadir, 2003: 57). They are used when no other INFs are attached to the noun or they are not followed by other parts of speech (Qadir, 2003: 56). Illustrations are as follows: ●When the inflected noun is followed by another noun or an adjective, the vocative Sff is elided and substituted by a conjunction morpheme {-a}, e.g.: (196) kiçê → kiça çkol 'a litle girl' (Qadir, 2003: 57) ●When the suffixed noun with {-o, -ê, and -îna} are inflected with the definite Sff {-aka} or the possessive {-im}, the vocative Sffs are not used (Yysupova, 2005: 49), e.g.: (197) xuškê→ xuškakam 'Hey, my sister!' (Qadir, 2003: 57) ●When the noun is inflected with the vocative Sff {-a or-o}, and followed by the attribute, they function as the izafa morphemes {-î} or {-a}, e.g.: (198) kaka→ kaka brā, kakî brā 'Hey, brother!' (Qadir, 2003: 57) The upshot of what has been said above; one can conclude that the vocative sometimes depends on tone in Kurdish.

118 4.2.6 The Genitive (Izafa) Suffix {- î} 4.2.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning In Kurdish possession can be expressed in different ways in which each has its own properties (Fattah, 1980: 168). There are two izafa Sffs {-î} and {-a} (Marif, 2004: 123). They are attached to the head in a noun phrase to relate the attribute and the head (Marif, 1979: 218). When a noun is qualified by an attribute or by another noun, they are normally joined by the izafa Sff (MacKenzie, 1961: 62; Marif, 2004: 67). The first word is always the head as in çîy-āk-ān-î Kurdistan 'the mountains of Kurdistan' (Fattah, 1980: 171). This Sff is attached to masculine, feminine singular and plural nouns (MacKenzie, 1961: 61), e.g.: (199) kûr-î min my son kiç-î min my daughter (Rassul, 2005: 150) 4.2.6.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-î} The izafa Sff has a number of forms (Mahmud, 2002: 17): 1) If the head ends in a consonant sound, the izafa has the form / î /, e.g.: (200) pîyāw+ -î = pîyāwî in pîyāwî kwêr ' blind man' (Mahmud, 2002: 17) 2) If the head ends in a vowel such as / ā, o, û, ê, a /, the izafa {î} has the form / y / (MacKenzie, 1961: 62), e.g.: (201) xānû + -î = xānûy in xānûy to ' your house' (Marif, 1979: 228) 3) The {-î} of the head is elided when adding {-î} (Marif, 1979: 230) e.g.: (202) gorānî + -î = gorānî in gorānî xêrā 'pop songs' (Mahmud, 2002: 21) In the light of what has been presented, one can conclude that the izafa {-î} has two allomorphs/ î / and /-y /which are conditioned phonologically. 4.2.6.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-î} The izafa {-î} is used to start speech (Fattah, 1980: 171). It is attached to pronouns, proper and common nouns having the role of the head, e.g.: (203) a. guÎ-êk-î mor b. ?êway-ak-î diÎsoz flower-Indef –Izf purple you-Def-Izf loyal a purple flower *your the loyal (Qadir, 2003: 43) The attributes can be nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The Sff is attached to the last part of the noun phrase (Qadir, 2003: 45), e.g.:

119 (204) a. kābrā-yak-î řîš spî a grey-bearded fellow b. xānû-y ?êma 'our house' (MacKenzie, 1961: 62) A noun qualified by more than one attribute is connected by the izafa, e.g.: (205) kiç-êk-î cwān-î çwārda sāÎ girl-Indef-Izf beautiful-Izf fourteen year a beautiful, fourteen –year –old girl (MacKenzie, 1961: 62) It becomes clear that the izafa Sff is a true IS attached to the head in which the relation between two words is created. 4.2.7 The Izafa Suffix {-a} 4.2.7.1 Morphological Forms and Meaning The Sff {-a} is also the izafa Sff, but it is different from {-î} in use and in transferring the meaning. It is less active than {-î} (Marif, 1979: 232). A qualified noun may form an open compound with the qualifier (MacKenzie, 1961: 64; Abdulla, 2007: 157) in which one part is the head and the other is the attribute.,e.g.: (206) kuř-a pāšā son-Izf king = 'king 's son' (Fattah, 1980: 172) The meaning of possession in this form is indirect. It can be clear when compared to izafa {-î}, e.g.: (207) kuř-a pāšā = kuř-î pāšā 'king's son' (Fattah, 1980: 172) Such phrases have idiomatic concepts such as disagreement in addition to possession. These compound words can be inflected with other Sffs because they are regarded as one unit (Fattah, 1980: 172), e.g.: (208) a. kuř-a pāš-āka ' The king's son' (the whole word is defined) b. kuř-î pāš-āka 'The king's son' (the second word is defined) 4.2.7.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a} The following changes occur when adding the izafa Sff {-a}: 1) If the head ends in a consonant sound, the izafa has the form / a /, e.g.: (209) kilik + -a = kilika ' tail ' in 'kilik-a řêwy ' the tail of the fox' 2) If the head ends in a vowel sound, the izafa / a / is elided especially when preceded by /ê, a, ā, o / vowels (Fattah, 1980: 169), e.g.: (210) bāÎā + -a = bāÎā in bāÎā bariz 'tall fellow' (Marif, 1979: 232)

111 4.2.7.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a} When the INF is made with the izafa {-a}, the attribute can be a noun or an adjective (Marif, 1979: 232) but not a pronoun (Qadir, 2003: 45). The izafa {-a} is used to express a special property of a head, e.g.: (211) kuř-a zîrak-aka boy-Izf clever –Def 'the clever boy' (Qadir, 2003: 45) According to Fattah (1980: 169-70), the izafa {-î} is in progress and more common than {-a}. MacCarus (1958: 85) views that the second word is more important than the first as in: (212) mêrd-î pîr 'husband –Izf old ' ' old husband' pîr-a mêrd ' old-Izf husband' ' old man' (Fattah, 1980: 170) When the Sff {-î} is changed into {-a}, the attribute comes first, e.g.: (213) bā-yî + řaš = řašabā wind-Izf + black = 'storm' (Abdulla, 2007: 158) 4.2.8 Izafa and Other Inflected Nouns Sometimes the inflected nouns with {-aka}, {-êk}, and {-ān} can take the izafa Sff (Marif, 1979: 234; Mahmud, 2002: 21-2). ●Izafa {-î} If the attribute is a noun or a pronoun having the meaning of possession, the izafa {-î} is attached to the head (Marif, 1979: 234), e.g.: (214) kuř-aka + - î = kuřakay in kuř-aka-y to 'your son' kuř-êk + -î = kuřêkî in kuřêkî to 'a son of yours' If the attribute is common noun, the izafa Sff {-î} is attached to the head. The Sffs {-aka}, {-êk} and {-ān} are attached to the attribute, e.g.: (215) kuř-î pîyāw-aka 'the son of the man' kûř-î pîyāw-ān 'the sons of men' (Marif, 1979: 235) ●Izafa {-a} If the noun is inflected with the izafa {-a}, the definite {-aka}, the indefinite {-êk} and the plural {-ān} are attached to the attribute only, e.g.: (216) a. barx-a biçkol-aka-m b. ?astêr-a barz-ak-ān sheep -Izf little -Def -Poss(my) star-Izf high-Def-Pl My little sheep (my lamb) The high stars (Marif, 1979: 238-9)

111 4.2.9 ThePossessive Suffixes 4.2.9.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The pronominal clitics are attached to nouns (Marif, 1987: 110). Thus, nouns are inflected with [(-i) m, -mān, - (i) t, -tān, (i) y, -yān] to show possession (Fattah, 1980: 166) which are closed items (Amin, 1982: 87). They have the function of possession when the independent personal pronouns are changed. For example, brāy min ~ brām (Amin, 1998a: 8).The use of pronominal clitics for possession is not semantic because the Sffs do not show clearly to whom things belong. Possession of this type is used frequently because the forms are shorter than the izafa Sffs (Fattah, 1980: 173). The following table is illustrative:

Pronouns Clitics Group Group Group A B C min (I ) (i)m (i ) m (i)m to(you) (i)t (i)t (i)t ?aw(he) î/y ø at/êt ?êwa(you) tān (i)n n ?êma (we) mān (i)n yn ?awān(they) yān n n

Table (6) The Pronominal Clitics in Kurdish (Fattah, 1999: 47)

4.2.9.2 The Phonological Aspect of the Possessive Suffixes The possessive Sffs are phononlogically conditioned. The Sff {-m} is pronounced /m/ and /im/ when followed by vowels and consonants respectively. The same is true with the 2nd person singular /-t /, / (-i) t / and the 3rd person singular /î/, /-y /. The 3rd person singular is realized as /tî/ when followed by the present form of the verb bûn {-a} as in: (217) brā-t-a brā-ya-tî He is your brother. He is his brother. (Amin, 1986a: 10)

112 4.2.9.3 The Grammatical Aspect of the Possessive Suffixes The possessive Sffs can be used with: ●concrete nouns (Fattah, 1980: 183), e.g.: (218) dast + -im = dastim 'my hand' dast + - mān = dastmān 'our hand' dast + - it = dastit 'your hand' dast + -tān = dastān 'your hands' dast + -î = dastî 'his / her hand' dast+ -yān = dastyān 'their hands' ( Ahmad, 1990: 85) Such nouns are inflected with the possessive Sffs without taking the definite Sff, e.g.: (219) *dast+-aka+-m+-im bř-î hand-Def-Poss (my) –Sub(I) cut-P * I cut the my hand. (I cut my hand) (Fattah, 1980: 182) ●some nouns which are not directly inflected with possessive Sffs until they take the definite or indefinite INFs (Fattah, 1980, 182), e.g.: (220) qaÎam + - aka + -im = qaÎamakam pen + Def + Poss = 'my pen' (Ahmad, 1990: 85) ●some nouns which have both forms i.e. the uninflected one and the inflected one with {-aka} (Fattah, 1980: 183), e.g.: (221) a. kuř + - im= kuřim b. kuř + - aka +-im = kuřakam son + Poss (my) son + Def + Poss (my) 'my son' *'the my son' (Ahmad, 1990: 85) ● adjectives which can be inflected with a possessive Sff if they function as a noun in a noun phrase, e.g.: (222) kitêb-a çāk-ak-ān-im book-Izf good-Def-Pl -Poss(my). my good books (Fattah, 1980: 165) Consequently, nouns can be classified into three groups according to their agreement with possessive Sffs (Fattah, 1980: 184): 1) First group: This group includes those nouns which are directly inflected with the possessive Sffs. They are the parts of the body as' lāq' leg' , dast 'hand', sîng' chest' etc. those nouns that indicate family relationship, or

113 relatives , for example , bāwik' father' dāyîk 'mother', hāwřê ' friend' etc., and other names such as māÎ ' house', yār' beloved' etc. This type is called inalienable possession (Mirawdali, 2007: 122). 2) Second group: This group includes those nouns which do not directly take the possessive Sffs. They should be defined before taking the possessive Sffs, for example, dār' 'tree' , krās 'dress' etc. The majority of nouns in Kurdish are from this group. This type is called alienable possession [For further information see Fattah (1980: 188) and Mirawdali (2007: 122)]. 3) Third group: The nouns of this group are used in both cases. For example, maÎ house, bāwik ' father' etc. Such nouns are few in Kurdish. 4.2.9.4 The Position of the Possessive Suffixes in Phrases The position of Sffs in phrases is not fixed i.e. they are displaced. They attach to other parts of speech. The possessive Sffs like the definite and the plural Sffs are attached to the end of the last part of the phrase, e.g.: (223) qaÎam w kitêb-aka-m-im forš-t pen and book-Def-Poss(my)- Sub(I) sell-P I sold my pen and book (Fattah, 1980: 190) In the light of the above example, one can conclude that the possessive Sffs are not true ISs, but they are semi-clitics. They are phrasal INFs. 4.2.9.5 Possessive and other Inflected Nouns In Kurdish Sffs are used more than prefixes and infixes. Thus, Sffs are arranged in sequences to form complex words according to a specific rule (Fattah, 1980: 180). Nouns are inflected with more than one Sff (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 55). This can be shown as follows (Fattah, 1980: 181): (224) word + definite Sff+ plural Sff + possessive Sff + subject Therefore, the sequence of the possessive Sff is after all other Sffs, e.g.: (225) mināÎ-ak-ān-im-im bîn-î child -Def- Pl- Poss(my)- Sub ( I ) see -P I saw my children. (Fattah, 1980: 182) On the basis of what has been presented, the noun stem includes the combination of Sffs which are on the same horizontal level. Accordingly, definitness precedes plural and plural precedes the possessive Sffs.

114 4.3 Verb Inflections Kurdish verbs are inflected only for a two-way tense contrast: present and past (MacKenzie, 1961: 84; Amin, 1979: 42). Tense is realized as a syntactic concept and time is a semantic concept. The tense morpheme is fused in the stem (Amin, 1979: 45). The stem of verbs is the bound root in Kurdish (Amin, 1976: 1). The formations of the verbs are based on one of these stems (Amin, 1986b: 259), e.g.: (226) Past stem Present stem mird- mir- ' die' nārd- nêr ' send' (Amin, 1979: 42) These two tenses are modified by modal Affixes in which the distinction between tense and mood are made (MacKenzie, 1961: 84). Kurdish grammarians nowadays follow the rule of deriving other verb forms from the present stem which can be regarded as base in spite of many exceptions and irregularities. What specifies the phonological realizations of the morpheme can be handled by the phonological rules (Amin, 1979: 43). Verbs in Kurdish can be classified syntactically and semantically into transitive and intransitive verbs. They show these grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, mood, transitivity and voice (Amin, 1976: 12; Mukiryani; 1989: 145). Kurdidh grammar used the term tense in a very broad way in which the various forms, nûstim' I slept' danûstim' [I sleep, I am sleeping, I will sleep] nûstibûm' I had slept ' binû, 'Sleep! etc. are regarded as distinct tenses. In Kurdish the contrast between xwārdim ' I ate' and daxom 'I am eating' is of past vs present, while xwārdim 'I ate' and damxwārd 'I was eating' are different in aspect (Amin, 1979: 46). On the present stem is based the present tense and the imperative mood. On the past stem are based the past tense, the progressive, the past participle on which based the present and the past perfect. Thus, the past form and the past participle combine with forms of the substantive verbs to form further compound tenses (MacKenzie, 1961: 84). Person and number are indicated by means of a linguistic form called pronominal clitics (Fattah, 1999: 45) (See page 13 in Chapter Two 2.4).

115 4.3.1 The Present Suffix {-a} 4.3.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning In Kurdish a pronominal clitic following a noun or the adjective predicate in the present tense is a counterpart of the English verb ' to be ' in its copulative use (Hawramani, 1973: 137; Amin, 1979: 97) The verb bûn ' to be' (copula) has a suffixed form which has a present meaning (McCarus, 1958: 52; Ameen, 1986b: 180). The copula (Cop) disappears as ø (zero) morph when the subject is not the 3rd person singular but it has the form {-a} in the 3rd person singular (Amin, 1979: 97) as in: (227) present / copula → -a [subject is in 3rd sg] -ø [subject is not 3rd sg] (Amin, 1979: 97) The above diagram can be exemplified as follows: (228) zîrak-(ø) im zîrak-(ø) î zîrak-a ø I am clever. You are clever. (Sg) He is clever. zîrak (ø)-în zîrak-(ø) -in zîrak-(ø)-in They are clever. You are clever. (Pl) We are clever (Baban, 2006a: 64) This weak Sff {-a} is not realized because verbs always have tense morphemes or pronominal clitics attached to them (Rassul, 1995: 114). Some semantic areas covered by the predicates which occur with the copula such as (Amin, 1979: 101): 1) Identity: the identification of one identity with another, e.g. ; (229) Rozā kiç-a (Cop) Roza is a girl. (Hawramani, 1973: 155) Identity involves comparison, in which the sentence is marked intonationally, e.g.: (230) zānyār pîyāw-a (Cop) Zanyar is (like) a man. (Amin, 1979: 101) It is understandable for the hearer that Zanyar is a child but his behaviour is like a grown up man. 2) Role: A context which attribute a particular function to the subject, e.g.: (231) hāwkar āsingar-a (Cop) Hawker blacksmith-be(Pr) Hawkar is a blacksmith. (Amin, 1979: 101)

116 4.3.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-a} A set of phonological rules can specify the realization of copula (Amin, 1979: 97): /a, yêtî and ya/. This means that in the 3rd person singular the Sff is / a / after all consonants except the morpheme / y / where the Sff is / -êtî /, the Sff is realized as / -ya / after all vowels except / û / where the Sff is /-wa / (McCarus, 1958: 55), e.g.: (232) a. ?aw cûtyār-a He is a farmer. c. to kê-yt who are you? b. droya It is a lie . 4.3.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a} This Sff has the function of the predicate indicating a real state e.g.: (233) a. bahār xoš-a b. mihābād šār-a spring nice-be (Pr) Mihabad city-be (Pr) Spring is cold. Mihabad is a city. (Ameen, 1986b: 180) 4.3.2 The Past Suffixes {-ā, -î,-û, -t, -d} 4.3.2.1 Morphological Form and Meaning In Kurdish infinitival verbal nouns are invariably ended in / -n / after vowels or /-in /after consonants which are preceded by one of these sounds / -ā, -î, -û, -t, -d / (Mackenzie, 1961: 85; Marif, 2000: 32). The traditional grammar considers the infinitival verbal nouns as a base to derive the past (Amin, 1984a: 78). The past stem is taken from the infinitive after dropping the final consonant /-n /and the preceding / i / to derive a past stem (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 302; Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 108), e.g.: (234) hênā-n ' to bring' → hênā ' brought' (Marif, 2000: 32) Past stems are divided into two types: vowel stems and consonant stems (McCarus, 1958: 52) (See next subsection). In the view of what has been said, the process of having the past tense is a traditional one. The modern linguists prefer to add to the root the past Sffs / -ā, -î, -û, -t, -d / to form the past tense. They will be recognized as follows: 4.3.2.1.1 Past Suffixes ending in Vowels: ●The Suffix /-ā / This Sff is added to the root to form the past tense: (235) Infintive → root + -ā = past form (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 21) The above formation is exemplified as follows:

117 (236) Int: wast 'stand' + -ā = wast-ā 'stood' (Marif, 2000: 129) ●The suffix /-î / The Sff / î / is added to the root to form the past tense, e.g.: (237) T: nûs ' write + -î = nûs-î 'wrote' (Amin, 1992a: 88) ●The suffix /-û / The Sff / û / is added to the root to form the past tense, e.g.: (238) Int: ç ' go' + -û = ç-û 'went' (Amin, 1984a: 80) The great majority of verb stems end in / î / or/ ā /but a few end in /û/ (McCarus, 1958: 52; Rassul, 1995: 113). 4.3.2.1.2 Past Suffixes ending in Consonants: Past stems ending in consonsonants are /-d / or / -t/ (Marif, 2000: 134): ●The Suffix /-t / The Sff /-t / is added to the root to form the past (Omar, 2005: 58), e.g.: (239) Int: xaw 'sleep' + -t = xaw-t 'slept' (Marif, 2000: 134) There are some exceptions, e.g.: (240) a) pāÎew ' filter' + -t = pāÎāwt 'filtered' (McCarus, 1958: 56) In the above example there is a vocalic alternation to form the past. b) pārêz- ' protect' + -t = pārās-t ' protected c) hāwêž- ' throw' + -t = hāwîš-t ' threw' (McCarus, 1958: 56) In the above examples (240 b and c), there is a vocalic alternation: /ê /~/ ā / and / ê / ~ / î / (Amin, 1984a: 81) and a voiced sibilant / z or ž / alternates with a voiceless sibilant / s or š/ (Marif, 1976: 55). This means that the sibilant alternations are accompanied by vocalic alternations (McCarus, 1958: 57). The morphophonemic process can be: kuž + past tense morpheme / t / →kušt (Amin, 1992a: 90). On the basis of the above examples, there is a regressive assimilation in which the / t / affects the preceding sound/ ž/ to alter it to its counterpart/ š /. ●The Suffix /-d / The Sff / -d / is added to the root to form the past tense, e.g.: (241) T: nêr ' send' + -d = nār-d 'sent' (Amin, 1984a: 80) The past formation is accompanied with a vocalic alternation / ê /~/ā / as in (241) (Amin, 1984a: 80). There are stems which do not undergo such a rule as xo ' eat'~ xwārd, k- ' do' ~ kird (McCarus, 1958: 56).

118 Phonologically, all the past tense Sffs /-ā, -î, -û, -t, -d/ are allomorphs indicating past tense (Rassul, 1995: 148). They are lexically conditioned (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 21). 4.3.2.2 The Grammatical Aspect of the Past Suffixes Grammatically, the past stem takes the pronominal clitics: transitive verbs take group A and intransitive verbs take group B and C (McCarus, 1958: 58; Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 305). The following paradigms exemplify the active indicative of the past tense for the transitive and intransitive verbs: (242) T: a. kir-d-im 'I did' Int: b. nûs-t-im 'I slept' kir -d-i(t) 'You did' nûs- t-î(t) 'You slept' kir -d-î 'He did' nûs- t 'He slept' kir-d-mān 'We did' nûs- t-în 'We slept' kir-d-mān 'Wou did' nûs- t-in 'You slept' kir -d-yān 'They did' nûs- t-in 'They slept' (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 305) After this brief discussion of the morphological description of the past form, it becomes clear that verbs that end with / -ā, -î, -û, -t, -d / indicate past tense in Kurdish. 4.3.3 The Past Participle Suffix {-û} 4.3.3.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The suffix {-û} indicates the past participle (MacKenzie, 1961: 88; Amedi, 1987: 390; Marif, 2004: 293). The formation of the past participle is based on the past stem. It is formed from a stem which is active or passive in voice (Yusupova, 2005: 122) which can be shown as follows: (243) Past stem Past participle kûšt- kûštû 'have killed' kûžrā- kûžrāw ' have been killed' (Yusupova, 2005: 122) The rule for the active can be as follows: (244) Root + past Sff + past participle Sff as in: Kûš-t-û 'have killed' The rule for the passive can be as follows: (245) Root + passive Sff + past Sff + past participle Sff as in: xwāz-r-ā-w 'have been borrowed' (Rassul, 1995: 148)

119 4.3.3.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-û} The Sff / û / is phonologically conditioned. It is pronounced /û / when preceded by consonants such as /t / or /d / and / -w / when preceded by vowels (Kurdoyef, 1984: 214; Marif, 2000: 112), as in: (246) a. kaw~ kawt-~ kawt-û ' have fallen' b. fiř~ fřî-~ fřî-w ' have flied' (Kurdoyef, 1984: 214) When the past stem ends in /û /, there is a case of elision and only one / û /remains, for example, darç-û 'have passed' (Marif, 2000: 113). 4.3.3.3 The Grammmatical Aspect of {-û} The past participle form is used to form the present and past perfect. The present perfect consists of the past and the past participle Sff {-û} which are followed by the pronominal clitics for agreement. The transitive verb shows the form of the substantive verb {-a} as an auxiliary following the pronominal clitics and in the intransitive {-a} apprears ine the 3rd person singular only (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 315; Ameen, 1986b: 180; Amin, 1986b: 261). The paradigm of the present perfect indicative can be shown as follows: (247) a. T verb b. Int verb min xwārd-û-m-a ' I have eaten' hāt-û-m 'I have come' to xwārd-û-t-a ' You have eaten' hāt-û-yt 'You have come' ?aw xwārd-û-y-a (ty) ' He has eaten' hāt-û-a 'He has come' ?êma xwārd-û-mān-a 'We have eaten' hāt-û-yn 'We have come' ?êwa xwārd-û-tān-a ' you have eaten' hāt-û-n 'You have come' ?awān xwārd-û-yān-a ' They have eaten' hāt-û-n 'They have come' (Amin, 1995: 68) The empty morph (ty) appears after {-a} in the 3rd person singular of the transitive verb xwārd-û-y-a (ty) (Amin, 1984b: 52). The Sff {-š} can also be added before the clitics as in hatû-š-im (MacKanzie, 1961: 97). The past perfect indicative can be formed by (Marif, 2004: 294): (248) Root + past Sff + root of the 'verb to be' bûn (-b-) + Cl The above formation can be exemplified as follows: (249) T: kirdibûm 'I had done' Int: nûstibûm 'I had slept' (Marif, 1987: 140)

121 As adjectives the past participle can be attributes taking the izafa Sff xānu-a sutāwaka řûxā ' The burned house destroyed' (Rassul, 1995: 148). This adjectival form is not inflected for degrees of comparison (McCarus, 1958: 59) and symbolized as {- û3} (Fattah, 1999: 44). 4.3.4 The Perfect Subjunctive Suffix {-bi-} 4.3.4.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The Sff {-bi-} is added to the past stem to form the perfect subjunctive (Subj) (Amin, 1979: 49; Amin, 1998b: 242), e.g.: (250) T: Root+ past Sff: xwār-d- 'eat' past Perfect subjunctive: xwār-d-ibi - eat –past- may 'might eat' (Amin, 1979: 49) Phonologically, the stressed -i- is added to a stem ending in a consonant before the modal auxiliary {-bi} (MacKenzie, 1961: 99). 4.3.4.2The Grammatical Aspect of {-bi-} Whether the verb is transitive or intransitive the formation of the perfect subjunctive can be diagramed as follows (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 326-7): (251) Root + past Sff + bi + pronominal Cl The following example is illustrative: (252) T Verb Int Verb a . kirdibim 'I might have done' b. kawtibim 'I might have fallen' kird-ib-it 'You might have done' kawt-ib-it 'You might have fallen' kird-ib-êt 'She might have done' kawt-ib-êt ' She might have fallen' kird-ib-mān 'We might have done' kawt-ib-in ' We might have fallen' kird-ib-tān 'You might have done' kawt-ib-in 'You might have fallen' kird-ib-yān 'They might have done' kawt-ib-in 'They might have fallen' (Marif, 2000: 228) 4.3.5 The Near Past Subjunctive Suffix {-bā} 4.3.5.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The near past subjunctive tense is formed from the past stem and a particular form of the auxiliary verb bûn. The modal prefix {-b (i)} is optionally attached to the form (MacKenzie, 1961: 100; Lîžnay Koř, 1976:

121 321) of the intransitive verb and sometimes it is not used with transitive verbs (Marif, 2000: 231). The formation is diagramed as follows: (253) (bi) + root+ past Sff + bā + pronominal Cl The above formation can be exemplified as follows: (254) a. kirdibām 'had I done' b. kawtibām 'had I fallen' kirdibāt 'had you done' kawtibāy(t) 'had you fallen' kirdibāy 'had she done' kawtibā 'had she fallen' kirdibāmān 'had we done' kawtibāyîn 'had we fallen' kirdibātān 'had you done' kawtibān 'had you fallen' kirdibāyān 'had they done' kawtibān 'had they fallen' (Marif, 2000: 231) The transitive can also be formed as: bi + pronominal Cl + root + past Sff+ bā; for example, bi-m-kird-ibā ' had I done ' (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 324). 4.3.6The Past Continuous Subjunctive Suffix {-āya} 4.3.6.1 Morphological Form and Meaning This Sff indicates the subjunctive mood in the past and past perfect. The morpheme {bi-} is prefixed to the past with the Sff {-āya} to form the past conditional (MacKenzie, 1961: 88; Marif, 1987: 141). 4.3.6.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {- āya} The order of the pronominal clitics is different for transitive and intransitive verbs. For transitive they are inserted before the stem, whereas for the intransitive they are inserted before {-āya} as shown below: (255) T: bi- + Cl + root + past Sff + (bā) + -āya Int: bi + root + past Sff + (bā) + Cl + -āya (Amin, 1998b: 241) The above formation can be clarified in the following examples: (256) T Verb Int Verb a. bi-m- xward-āya 'had I eaten' b. bi-hāt-māya 'had I come' bi-t- xward-āya 'had you eaten' bi-hāt-itāya 'had you come' bi -xward-āya 'had he eaten' bi-hāt-āya 'had he come' bi-mān- xward-āya 'had we eaten' bi-hāt-in- āya 'had we come' bi-tān- xward-āya 'had you eaten' bi-hāt-n –āya 'had you come' bi-yān- xward-āya 'had they eaten' bi-hāt-n -āya 'had they come' (Amin, 1998b: 241)

122 Phonologically, the elision of / ā / occurs in {-bā} or {-āya} in the transitive verbs because of the incompatability of the occurrence of two vowels (Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 325; Marif, 2000: 227). The past perfect subjunctive is formed as follows with modification: (257) T: bi- + Cl + root + past Sff + -bû- āya Int: bi- + root + past Sff + Cl + -bû- āya (Marif, 2000: 232) This can be examplifed as follows: (258) a. T Verb b. Int Verb bi-m-xwārd -ibw-āya 'I would have eaten' hat-ibû-m-āya 'I would have come' bi-t-xwārd –ibw-āya'you would have eaten' hat-ibû-t-āya'You would have come' bi -xwārd –ibw-āya 'She would have eaten' hat-ibû-w -āya 'She would have come' bi-mān--xwārd –ibw-āya'We would have eaten' hat-ibûy-n-āya'We would have come' bi-tān-xwārd –ibw-āya 'you would have eaten' hat-ibû-n-āya You would have come' bi-yan-xwārd –ibw-āya 'They would have eaten' hat-ibû-nāya'They would have come' (McCarus, 1958: 64) The transitive can also be formed as: Root +past Sff + bû +Cl+ āya as in gir-t-ibû-m-āya ' I would have caught'(Lîžnay Koř, 1976: 331). The normal sequence of the three sunjunctive Sffs when they come together is that the Sff {-āya} never precedes {- bā}, e.g.: (259) bikawtibmāya 'had I fallen' (Marif, 2000: 232) The subjunctive forms are used in requests, hopes, wishes, desires, conditional, necessities, probabilities, opinions etc. in connection with some articles and words such as wish, if, etc. (Marif, 2000: 232), e.g: (260) a. xozga bi- ç û -m- -āya b. řanga ç-û-b-in wish Subj(Pref) -go- Cl (I) - Subj may go-P-Subj- Cl (they) I wish I had gone. They might have gone (Ameen, 1986a: 21) On the basis of what has been said, one can conclude that the three forms {-bi}, {-bā} and {-āya} are subjubtive Sffs. 4.3.7 The Causative Suffix {-ānd} 4.3.7.1 Morphological Form and Meaning Morphologically, there is an explicit causative construction derived from the non-causative by means of Sffs (Amin, 1979: 124). In Kurdish, only intransitive verbs can be causativized through a productive rule

123 involving the addition of the morpheme (Amin, 1979: 125-7). The addition of the causative Sff {-ānd} to the intransitive present stem yields the past stem of the causative (MacKenzie, 1961: 119; Muhammad, 1976: 33; Amin, 1985a: 198; and Fattah, 1989: 42) as shown below: (261) past stem – past Sff + ānd = Causative past stem řûxā – ā + ānd = řûxānd ' cause to destroy' mird – d + ānd= mirānd 'cause to death' xawit – t + ānd = xawānd 'cause to sleep' bazî -î + ānd = baz ānd 'cause to defeat' nû -û + ānd= nwānd 'cause to sleep' (Qadir, 2003: 79) This can be exemplified in: (262) ? aw mināÎ-ak-ān-î nw-ānd He child -Def- Pl- Poss sleep- Sff T / P He made the (his) children sleep. (Amin, 1985a: 198) According to MacKenzie (1961: 119) and Amin (1985a: 198), the verb is also inflected with the transitive Sff {-ên} when the tense is present, e.g.: (263) škên + ên = škên 'cause to break' Phonologically, if the intransitive verb ends in / ê / or / o /, these two vowels undergo morphphonological processes after the addition of the transitive Sff {-ānd} and {-ên}. The vowel sound / ê / of / ên / is assimilated as in (264) and there is a vocalic alternation of / o / ~ / w / as in, e.g.: (264) a. škên + ānd = škānd 'cause to break' b. řo + ên = řwên 'cause to carry out' (Amin, 1985a: 199) 4.3.7.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-ānd} The passive intransitive verbs are cliticized with group B and C but the inflected transitive verbs are cliticized with the 1st group A to show agreement (Amin, 1992b: 20), e.g.: (265) min šk-ānd-im 'I broke it', to šk-ānd-it 'You broke it' ?aw šk-ānd-î 'He broke it', ?êma šk-ānd-mān, 'We broke it' ?êwa šk-ānd-tān 'You broke it', ?awān šk-ānd-yān 'They broke it' (Amin, 1985a: 198)

124 In the light of what has been presented, one can conclude that the causative indicators are {-ānd} and {-ên} for the past and the present respectively. They are true ISs which are attached to the word level. 4.3.8 The Passive Suffix {- r} 4.3.8.1 Morphological Forms and Meaning The Sff {- r} indicates the passive voice of the verb (Hawramani, 1981: 212; Marif, 2004: 304; Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25). Passive forms are derived from the present stem to which the passive Sff {-r} is attached and the thematic vowel {-ā} for the past and {-ê} for the present stem (Amin, 1979: 116; Nawkhosh and Khoshnaw, 2008: 103). This can be shown in the following diagram: ā past Present stem + r + + Agr clitics ê present Diagram (5)The Formation of the Passive Inflection. (Amin, 1992b: 19)

According to Naqishbandi (1973: 115), the letter (-d-) should be put between both {-r} s as in kirdrā. He distinguishes between the Sffs {-drā} and {-rā} as passive Sffs. The intransitive verbs are semantically passive (Amin, 1985a: 196). Only transitive verbs take passive INFs (Amin, 1979: 113), e.g.: (266) kûštin 'to kill', kûž- → Passive stem + r = kûž-r- Present passive: kûž-r-ê da-kûž-r-ê-m Pr- kill-Pass- Pr-Cl ' I am killed' Past passive: kûž-r-ā kûž-r-ā-m kill- Pass-P- Cl ' I was killed' (McCarus, 1958: 65) The distribution of {-ā} and {- ê} is grammatically conditioned: / ā / is used with the active and passive of the past stem, while / ê / is used with the present passive stem (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 21), e.g.: (267) a. pāra-ka diz-r/ā b. pāra-ka da-diz-r/ê money-Def steal- Pass/ P money- Def Pr-steal-Pass/Pr The money was stolen. The money is stolen.

125 The type of portmanteau morph can be observed in which the morph {-r} has two grammatical functions indicating passive and transitive i.e.two functions are fused into one (cumulation) (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25). Morpheme transitive passive

Morph r Diagram (6) Cumulation of the Passive Inflection {-r}. (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 25) There are some exceptions, in which the passive form may be based on a past stem (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 162-3) e.g.: (268) 'to say' gut + r- + ā = gutrā ' it was said' (Amin, 1979: 116) The formations of the passive stems of some verbs are irregular (MacKenzie, 1961: 118). When the passive Sffs are added to the stem ending in /-a /or /-ê / they will be changed into / i / (Amin, 1979: 116), e.g.: (269) nān 'to put' , nā+ r+ ā= nirā 'was put' nā+ r+ ê = nirê 'will be put' (Amin, 1979: 116) In the light of what has been presented, it becomes clear that {-r} is the passive Sff in Kurdish. 4.3.8.2The Grammatical Aspect of {-r} The passive stem undergoes regular conjugation as an intransitive verb (Amin, 1979: 116). The present active are cliticized with group A, but in the passive they are cliticized with group B and C (Amin, 1992b: 22). The following examples show the present and the past passive indicative, e.g.: (270) a. Present passive b. Past passive 'I am pestered to death' 'I was pestered to death' da-xu-r-ê-m 'I am eaten' xur-ā-m 'I was eaten' da-xu-r-ê-yt 'You are eaten' xur-ā-yt 'You were eaten' da-xu-r-ê-t 'He is eaten' xur-ā-ø 'He was eaten' da-xu-r-ê-yn 'We are eaten' xur-ā-yn You were eaten' da-xu-r-ê-n 'You are eaten' xur-ā-n 'You were eaten' da-xu-r-ê-n 'They are eaten' xur-ā-n 'They were eaten' (McCarus, 1958: 66)

126 There is a vocalic alternation between the present stem and the passive stem as in the above example xo/ xw ' to eat' xurā- (McCarus, 1958: 66). In the case of daxu+r+ê + êt = daxurêyt (daxurê), there is reduction of the sound / ê / (Amin, 1992b: 22). Grammatically, the passive construction is agentless, e.g. (271) a. ākār ?utumbîl-aka-î froš-t. b. utumbîl-aka-î froš-r-ā -ø Akar car- Def -Izf sell-P car-Def-Izf sell-Pass-P -agent Akar sold the car. The car was sold. (Amin, 1979: 118) 4.3.9The Verbal Postpositions as Suffixes 4.3.9.1 Morphological Forms and Meaning of the Suffix {-a} In Kurdish there are three prepositions [ bo 'for , to ' ba 'to' and la ' at'] which attach to verbs as Sffs especially those verbs indicating dative case as çûn bo " to go to ', dān ba' to give to' etc.(Amin, 1986c: 182; Amin, 1989: 167-8; Marif, 2004: 106). 4.3.9.2 The Grammatical Aspect of {-a} The Sff {-a} is attached to verbs and followed by adverbs. This Sff has bo ' means ' to ' as its counterpart (Ibrahim, 1978: 28; Alani, 1981: 148) functioning as an indirect object of the verb (Ameen, 1986b: 176), e.g.: (272) a. šîlān hāt bo Hawlêr b. šîlān hāt-a Hawlêr šîlān come-P to Hawlêr šîlān come-P -Sff Hawlêr Shilan came to Hawlêr. Shilan came to Hawlêr. (Baban, 2006b: 71) The Sff {-a} is also attached to verbs whose preposition is ba 'to', e. g.: (273) a. min baxšî-m ba ?aw b. min baxš-î-m-a ?aw I grant-P-Cl to him I grant-P- Cl- Sff him I granted him. I granted him. (Amin, 1984b: 52) The Sff is also attached to verbs which are normally followed by these adverbs: nāw 'in', nizîk 'near', tanîšt ' beside', sar 'on', etc., e.g.: (274) xist-im-a nāw doÎāb-aka Put- Cl (I) –Sff in cupboard-Def I put it in the cupboard. (Amin, 1984b: 52)

127 Phonologically, the Sff is realized as / ta / in the present perfect (Amin, 1995: 67), e.g.: (275) a. nār-d-û-m-a bo řānya b. nār-d-û-m-a-ta řānya send-P-PP -Cl (I) - to Ranya send-P-PP- Cl (I)- Sff- Ranya I have sent to Ranya. I have sent to Ranya. The preposition ba or la show morphemic alternants when followed by a noun or pronoun: ba is changed into /pê / and / la / is changed into / lê/, e.g.: (276) a. ba to da-Îê-m b. pê-t da-Îê-m to you Pr-say-Cl (I) to-you Pr-say-Cl (I) I say to you. I say to you. (Amin, 1986c: 183) 4.4 Adjective Inflections Adjectives share some of the categories of nouns such as definiteness and number which are similar in form and function (Hawramani, 1981: 187; Bakir, 1995: 78) and posses a particular category characterized by the adjectives themselves which is comparison (McCarus, 1958: 49). 4.4.1 The Definite Suffix {-aka} and the Indefinite Suffix {-êk} The definite {-aka} and the indefinite {-êk} are attached to the end of the adjective stem (McCarus, 1958: 50), e.g.: (277) a. çāk + aka = çakaka 'the good one' b. çāk + êk = çakêk 'a good one' (Hawramani, 1981: 187) 4.4.1.1 The Phonological Aspect of {-aka} The phonological distribution of {-aka} follows the same rule as that with the noun (Ahmad, 1990: 91): (278) /-aka/ cwān + -aka = cwānaka 'the beautiful one' /-ka / bê baha + aka = bêbhaka ' the invaluable one' Grammatically, the noun can be removed when it is known, e.g.: (279) a. kiç-a cwān-aka hāt b. cwān-aka hāt girl-Izf beautiful- Def come-P beautiful-Def come-P The beautiful girl came. A beautiful one came. (Ahmad, 1990: 91) 4.4.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-êk} The same phonological rules of nouns are applied to the indefinite Sff {-êk} when attached to the end of an adjective stem, e.g.:

128 (280) cwān + -êk = cwānêk 'a beautiful one' (Ahmad, 1990: 91) Grammatically, the Sff {-êk} is attached to an adjective stem when the noun does not exist in the sentence, e.g.: (281) a.cwān-êk hāt b. kiç-êk-î cwān hāt beautiful-Indef come-P girl-Indef –Izf beautiful come-P A beautiful one came. A beautiful girl came. (Ahmad, 1990: 92) 4.4.2 The Plural Suffix {-ān} The plural Sff /-ān / is also attached to an adjective stem (McCarus, 1958: 50), e.g.: (282) cwān + -ān = cwānān 'beautiful ones' (Ahmad, 1990: 92) 4.4.2.1 The Phonological Aspect of {-ān} The same phonological rules are applied to the plural {-ān} when attached to an adjective stem as shown in (282) (Ahmad, 1990: 92). 4.4.3 The Comparitive and Superlative Suffixes {-tir} and {-trîn} In Kurdish, adjectives have three degrees: the positive, the comparative and the superlative (Kurdoyef, 1984: 104; Marif, 1992: 98). The positive is the base form of adjectives (Kurdo, 1980: 6), for example, garim (hot), bêbarham (unproductive), etc. Higher degrees of comparison are expressed through INFs by adding {-tir} for comparative and {-trîn} for superlative (Hawramani, 1973: 119; Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 48). 4.4.3.1 The Comparative Suffix {-tir} The comparative is morphologically formed by adding the Sff / -tir / to the adjective stem (Mukiryani, 1989: 86). It shows a greater degree of the quality than other items (Ibrahim, 1978: 33), e.g.: (283) bāš + -tir = bāštir 'better' (Marif, 2004: 99) 4.4.3.1.1 The Grammatical Aspect of {-tir} The comparative {-tir} has the following usages: ●The postposition la is often used between the things involved in the comparison which can be nouns, pronouns, infinitives, and numbers, e.g.: (284) a. trê la sêw xoš-tir-a d. pênc la çwār zîya-tir-a grapes than apples nice-Com-be(Pr) five than four more-Com-be(Pr) Grapes are nicer than apples. Five is more than four. (Marif, 1992: 99-100)

129 ● The structures compared can also be a phrase, e.g.: (285) pîyāw-î āzā laPîyāw-î tirsinok baš-tir-a man-Izf brave man-Izf coward good-Com-be (Pr) A brave man is better than a coward man. (Marif, 1992: 101) ● Sometimes the postposition la is not found but the articles such as [yā, yān,Yana, yāxud (or)] are found in addition to the two compared items, e.g.: (286) tawār cwān-tir-a yān tāblo tawār beautiful –Com- be (Pr) or tāblo Tawar is more beautiful or Tablo. (Marif, 1992: 105) ●The inflected comparative adjective has the role of the attribute after the head by the izafa Sffs {-î} or {-a} (MacKenzie, 1961: 67), e.g.: (287) guÎdān-a gawra-tir-aka vase-Izf big -Com-Def the bigger vase. (Qadir, 2003: 39) 4.4.3.2 The Superlative Suffix {-trîn} MacKenzie (1961: 68) states that the morpheme {-în} is added to the comparative to form the superlative adjective. This means that either {-în} is added to the inflected comparative form or {-trîn} is added to the positive form of the adjective (Kurdo, 1980: 6; Marif, 1992: 107), e.g.: (288) grān + -trîn = grāntrîn ' most expensive' (Marif, 1988: 99) Reflexive pronouns, quantitative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and negative pronouns are not inflected, e.g.: (289) ?am ?amtir ? amtirîn 'this' *'thiser' *'thisest' (Bakir, 1995: 71) 4.4.3.2.1The Grammatical Aspect of {-trîn} The inflected superlative adjective has the following usages: ●The inflected superlative adjective as an attribute comes before the head (Qadir, 2003: 38), e.g.: (290) xošt-rîn řož happy-Sup day 'the happiest day' (Bakir, 1995: 73) ●If the ISs are grouped into classes according to their inflectional properties, then two Sffs belonging to the same class are not attached together, e.g.: (291) *?am gula cwān-tir-a trin-a * This flower beautiful-Com-be (Pr) Sup-be (Pr) * This flower is nicerest. (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 55)

131 The upshot of what has been said, one can conclude that either comparative or superlative form come in a phrase. 4.4.3.3 The Phonological Aspect of {-tir} and {-trin} Some phonological changes occur when the Sffs {-tir} and {-trîn} are added to an adjective stem (Marif, 1992: 105; Marif, 2004: 94) such as: 4.4.3.3.1 Elision When an adjective stem ends in a voiceless consonant sound as / t / and preceded by another consonant; therefore, / t / of the stem is elided, e.g.: (292) kurt + -tir (-trîn) = kurtir ~ kurtrîn 'shorter', 'shortest' (Marif, 1976: 54) When an adjective stem ends in / t / and preceded by a vowel, elision of / t / does not occur (Marif, 1992: 106), e.g.: (293) šêt + - tir (- trîn) = šêttir ~ šêttrîn 'crazier', 'craziest' 4.4.3.3.2 Assimilation When an adjective stem ends in a voiced consonant sound such as / d /, assimilation occurs in which / d / is changed under the influence of / t /. Then the elision of / t / occurs (Marif, 1992: 108; Marif, 2004: 95), e.g.: (294) bÎind + tir (-trîn) = bÎindtir ~ bÎindtrîn 'higher','highest' (Marif, 1976: 54) When an adjective stem ends in a voiced sibilant sound such as /z /or /ž /, in this case assimilation occurs and the sound is pronounced as a voiceless sibilant / s / or / š / (Marif, 1992: 108), e.g.: (295) a. bariz + tir (-trîn) = baristir ~ baristrîn 'higher', 'highest' b. tîž + tir ( -trîn) = tîštir~ tîštrîn 'sharper' , 'sharpest' In the light of the above examples, it becomes clear that regressive assimilation occurs because /z/ and / ž/ are changed under the influence of the following sound / t / to make clusters similar in voicing. When an adjective stem ends in a sound other than /t /, /d/, / z / or / ž /, no phonological changes occur when inflected (Marif, 2004: 94), e.g.: (296) tař + tir (-trîn) = tařtir~ tařtrîn 'wetter', 'wettest' (Marif, 1992: 108) In the light of what has been said, one can conclude that the {-tir} and {-trîn} Sffs are true inflectional Sffs because they lean on single words.

131 4.5 Adverb Inflections Adverbs which are morphologically indistinguishable from adjectives are inflected for comparative {-tir} and superlative {-trîn}, e.g.: (297) dargā-ka tûnd-tir pêwad-a. door-Def tight-Com close-Cl (Agr) close the door more tightly. But *dargā-ka tûnd-trîn pêwad-a. door-Def tight-Sup close-Cl (Agr) Close the door most tightly. (Ahmad, 1990: 103) 4.6 Micellaneous 4.6.1 The Suffix {-š} 4.6.1.1 Morphological Form and Meaning The Sff {-š} is an IS (Hawramani, 1981: 222) added to nearly most of the parts of speech in Kurdish. It has more than one meaing, but one of the meaning is too (Ibrahim, 1980: 38; Farhadi, 2000: 81). It is attached to: 1) nouns: All types of nouns: common nouns, e.g.: bāxçakānîš 'the orchards, too.' 2) adjectives: all types of adjectives: colour, e.g.: spîš 'white, too.' comparative, e.g.: cwāntrîš 'nicer,too.' 3) pronouns: all types of pronouns: independent personal pronouns, e.g.: ?êwaš 'you, too.' 4) infinitive: mirdinîš 'to die, too.' 5) adverbs: time, e.g.: ?êstāš 'now, too.' 6) numbers: cardinal numbers, e.g.: sêš 'three, too.' 7) prepositions: bošî nārd 'sent to him, too.' 8) cojunctions: ?agarîš 'If, too.' (Farhadi, 2000: 82) 4.6.1.2 The Phonological Aspect of {-š} The morpheme {-š} has two allomorphs which is phonologically conditioned. It is pronounced / š / when preceded by a vowel and / îš / when preceded by a consonant (Kadhim, 1983: 16; Shwani, 2003: 81), as in: (298) to ~ toš ' you, too.' kitêbakān ~ kitêbakānîš 'the books, too.' (Farhadi, 2000: 81)

132 4.6.1.3 The Grammatical Aspect of {-š} The Sff {-š} is attached to the: ●subject of the sentence, e.g.: (299) dāpîrašim hāt grandmother –too- Poss (my) came My grandmother came, too. ●attribute, e.g.: (300) šawî řābrdûš night last-Sff last night ,too ●object: direct and indirect, e.g.: (301) min kitêb-aka-m bo qutābîy-ak-ān-îš kř-î. I book-Def-Cl (Agr) to pupil-Def-Pl-too buy-P I bought the book for the pupils, too. ●complement, e.g.: (302) xānû-aka kon-îš-a house- Def old-too-be (Pr) The house is old, too. (Farhadi, 2000: 85) ●verb: The Sff {-š} changes its place according to the tense and the transitivity of the verb. It is attached to the root or to the 1st clitic, as in: (303) a) Past: xwārdîšm b) Past perfect: hātûšim 'I ate, too.' 'I have eaten, too.' c) Past subjunctive: T: bi + š + Cl + root + bû + āya bišitzānîbûāya 'You would have known, too' Int: bi + š + root + Cl + āya bišnûstmāya 'I would have slept,too' (Farhadi, 2000: 85-6) The major role of this Sff is connection (Fakhri and Mukiryani, 1982: 200; Farhadi, 2000: 83). It combines two sentences (Ibrahim, 1980: 36). On the bases of what has been presented, it becomes clear that the Sff {-š} is attached to nearly most of the parts of speech and are attached to the inflected nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. This proves that the Sff {-š} is not a true IS, but it is a semi-clitic.

133 4.7 Suffixed Homophones The ISs have homophones in Kurdish (Ali, 1989: 67). 1) The IS {-a} has a number of homophnes (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 69): ◘ {-a1}: the definite Sff, e.g.: kuřa hāt 'The boy came.' ◘ {-a2}: the izafa Sff, e.g.: kiça cwānaka 'The beautiful girl' ◘ {-a3}: the masculine vocative Sff, e.g.: bāwka 'Hey, father!' rd ◘ {-a4}: the verbal 3 person singular present tense, e.g.: hênāwma 'I have brought.' ◘ {-a5}: the verbal postposition Sff, e.g.: (304) ?aw daçêta bāzār 'He goes to the market.' (Ali, 1989: 72) 2) The IS {-î} has homophones: ◘ {-î1}: the possessive Sff, e.g.: dastî 'his hand' ◘ { î2}: the izafa Sff, e.g.: guÎêkî sur 'a red flower' (Ali, 1989: 72) ◘ {-î3}: the past Sff, e.g.: ?aw nûsî 'He wrote' 3) The IS {-ê} has homophones: ◘ {-ê1}: the indefinite Sff, e.g.: gundê 'a village' ◘ {-ê2}: the feminine vocative Sff, e.g.: kiçê 'Hey, girl!' ◘ {-ê3}: the present passive Sff, e.g.: daxurê 'was eaten' 4) The IS {-û} has homophones: ◘ {û1}: the past Sff, e.g.: drû 'sewed' ◘ {-û2}: the past participle Sff, e.g.: kawtû 'fallen' (Fattah and Qadir, 2006: 69) From all what has been presented so far, it becomes clear that ISs in Kurdish have homophones in which each has a different function. This indicates orthographic and phonological syncretism.

134 CHAPTER FIVE Contrastive Analysis

5.1 Introduction The present chapter deals with a contrastive study of inflectional suffixes in Standard English and Central Kurdish with the aim of finding out some points of similarity and difference between the two contrasted languages. This might possibly be an attempt to help the learners of both languages to tackle the problems confronted by them. 5.2 Analytical Contrast of ISs in SE and CK In this section an identification of the points of similarity and difference are introduced between SE and its counterpart CK concerning noun inflections, verb inflections, adjective inflections and adverb inflections with special emphasis on their formal properties, meanings and distributions. These will be discussed below: 5.2.1 Noun Inflections in Contrast 5.2.1.1 The Plural Suffix ◘ Similarities There is a resemblance in both languages in the formation of plurality which is accomplished through the addition of Sff {-s} to a noun stem in SE and {-ān} in CK (See 3.3.1 and 4.2.4). Therefore, SE and CK learners are not expected to face difficulty. Both forms are the major ones leading plurality towards regularity and simplicity which make learning easier. The plural Sff in both languages has a number of allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned (See 3.3.1.2 and 4.2.4.2). ◘ Differences One of the differences which can be observed between the two contrasted languages is related to the spelling form. In SE the plural Sff has two spelling forms used in different contexts: {-e} and {-es} (See 3.3.1.1.1), whereas the plural Sff has only one spelling form {-ān} in CK (See 4.2.4.1). Compare: SE cat ~ cats

135 fox~ foxes CK kuř ~ kuřān boy~ boys The plural Sff is a close item which has the characteristic of non- suffixability in SE whereas in CK the plural Sff does not close the structure of the word. It can be followed by other Sffs such as the izafa Sff {-î} (See 4.2.4.3). Compare: SE book~ books CK xwêndkārān-î zîrak student-Pl-Izf clever Clever students The plural Sff can also be added to other nouns inflected by the definite Sff in CK (See 4.2.4.1) as in: CK kuř-ak-ān the boys The plural Sff {-s} in SE is a true IS which works on the word level, while the plural Sff {-ān} in CK is not a true IS attaching to a phrase level which can be regarded as a semi-clitic (See 4.2.4.3).Compare: SE bigger dogs CK dargā-k-ānî žûr-ak-ān The doors of the rooms The plural Sff is attached to all the nouns when more than one noun occurs in succession connected by a coordinator (u or w) ' and', whereas in CK the plural Sff is attached to the last noun (See 4.2.4.3). Compare: SE workers and farmers CK krêkār u cutîyār-ān A noun is inflected with the plural Sff if qualified by a cardinal number to agree with the numerals, whereas in CK, a qualified noun does not take the plural Sff {-ān}. The enumerated nouns always remain singular (4.2.4.3). Compare: SE three nights CK sê šaw

136 When a plural form of a noun is used in a sentence, a plural verb is used which indicates subject - verb agreement in SE (See 3.3.1.3), whereas in CK the subject –verb agreement is shown through the pronominal clitics. Compare: SE The boys sleep. CK kuř-ak-ān nûst-in boy-Def-Pl sleep-Cl (Agr) There is a case of voicing of the final consonants when the Sff {-s} is added to a noun stem in SE (See 3.3.1.1.2), while there are no counterparts for such plural forms in CK: SE i) / f / → / v / shelf / elf / shelves / elvz / ii) / Ө / → / ð / path /pa:Ө/ paths /pa:ð/ iii) / s / → / z / house /haus / houses / hauziz / CK None. ◘ Problems The partial similarity between the plural forms as Sffs in SE and CK helps in making the process of learning easier. The differences observed create problems for Kurdish learners because they may use the plural {-s} in a phrase rather than the noun stem and may use the plural Sff preceded by the definite article to form the plural in SE. Kurdish learners of English may encounter a production problem when using numerals with nouns. They may not inflect nouns with the {-s} Sff due to the interference from their native language, while the SE learners may inflect nouns with {-ān} for the same reason. The case of voicing is expected to be difficult for Kurdish learners because they have no counterparts in CK and they have to master them through memorization. The learners of both languages may face the problem of overgenerlization. 5.2.1.2 The Possessive Suffix ◘Similarities Both SE and CK have a regular pattern in forming possession which is accomplished by adding Sffs and hence causes no trouble. The structure to

137 form possession is expressed by the addition of the Sff {-'s} to the end of the noun for the singular stem and the apostrophe ( ' ) only to the end of the regular plural nouns and {-'s} to the irregular plural noun in SE (See 3.3.2.1.1 and 3.3.2.1.2 ) and {-(i)m, -mān, (i)t , tān , (î)y , yān} in CK (See 4.2.9.1), as in: SE Jane's book CK qāçim my leg In SE the Sff {-S2} can attach to the last word in the phrase even if it is not a noun i.e. it is attached to other parts of speech which is best considered as a clitic (See 3.3.2.3.4). Similarly, the position of a possessive Sff is not fixed in CK. The possessive Sff, like the definite Sff and the plural Sff, attach to the end of the last part of the phrase which can be regarded as a semi-clitic (See 4.2.9.4) as in: SE the man you met yesterday's bicycle CK qaÎam u kitêbakān-im my pens and books If something belongs to more than one person or names linked by 'and' the possessive Sff is put after the last name in SE (See 3.3.2.3.1). The same is true in CK connected by (u or w) 'and' (See 4.2.9.4), as in: SE Helen and Tim's apartment CK daftar u kitêbakān-im my copybooks and books The possessive is used to refer to parts of a person in both languages (See 3.3.2.3.1 and 4.2.9.3), as in: SE the patient's leg CK qāç-it Your leg ◘Differences The structure to form possession in CK is formed by adding the pronominal clitics of the group A to the end of the noun stem regardless of regular and irregular plural forms i.e. they are postnominals: {(i) m, (i) t, î / y, tān, mān, yān} (See 4.2.9.1), whereas, these Sffs have the possessive pronouns as their counterparts in SE i.e. they are prenominals. Compare:

138 CK çaw~ çawim SE eye ~ my eyes çaw~ çawānim my eyes There are two types of possession in SE: possessive {-'s} and the zero possessive. The first is used with the singular nouns, irregular plurals, and nouns ending in {-s} (See 3.3.2.1.1) and the second is used with nouns regular plurals and nouns ending in {-s} (See 3.3.2.1.3), whereas possession can be classified into three groups in accordance to their agreement with the possessive Sffs (See 4.2.9.3). Compare: SE colleague~ colleague's colleagues~ colleagues' Dickens~ Dickens's Dickens~ Dickens' CK dāyk-it your mother qaÎam-aka-y his pen kuř-im, kuř-aka-m my sons When the noun is plural, the possessive Sff follows the plural Sff in CK as in (4.2.9.5): CK kuř-aka –ān-im my sons The structure of the possessive {-s} is that it shows a relation of one noun to another in which one noun is a head and the other is modifier in SE (See 3.3.2.1), whereas in CK there is only the possessive Sff attached to the head (See 4.2.9.3). Compare: SE Mary's dress CK dastim my hand Phonologically, the possessive Sff has three allomorphs which are determined conditionally in SE (See 3.3.2.2), whereas, in CK the first three forms are phonologically conditioned indicating the 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd person of the singular nouns (See 4.2.9.2). Compare:

139 SE {- s} → / -s / Kate's , / -z / Jane's, / -iz / Rose's CK {-m} → / -m /, / im / hāwřê-m, bāwk-im {-t} → / -t /, / it / hāwřê-t, bāwk-it {-î} → / -y /, / î / hāwřê-y, bāwk-î Adjectives can be inflected with the possessive Sffs if they function as nouns in CK (See 4.2.9.3), whereas adjectives do not take possessive INFs in SE. Compare: SE *my goods' books CK kitêba çāk-ak-ān-im my good books In CK nouns are inflected with more than one grammatical Sff to form complex words according to specific rules. This means that grammatical Sffs are not close items in CK (4.2.9.5). On the contrary, there is only one IS to close the structure of the word in SE (See 3.3.2.1). Compare: SE noun + one inflectional Sff Mary's dress CK noun + definite Sff + plural Sff + possessive Sff mindāÎ+ aka + ān + î his children In SE the definite articles are dropped when the possessive Sff is used (See 3.3.2.3.1), On the contrary, the definite Sff precedes the possessive Sffs in CK (See 4.2.9.5). Compare: SE John's car CK kuř-aka-y his son The choice of the possessive {-s} is more related to gender classes in which the possessive {-s} is favored by animate nouns and used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns in SE (See 3.3.2.1.4). Conversely, possessive Sffs show person, number, but they do not show gender in CK (See 4.2.9.1). Compare: SE the doctor's surgery Personal nouns a week's holiday Temporal nouns

141 CK birām my brother 1st person singular brāmān my bothers 1st person plural dāyk-it your mother 2nd person singular dāyki-tān your mothers 2nd person plural çāwî his eys 3rd person singular çāwyān his eyes 3rd person plural ◘Problems Kurdish learners of English may encounter a production problem because of the difference of the possessive forms in SE and CK. The difficulty arises in using the definite or indefinite articles before the possessive Sffs because these articles are used before the noun in SE. The Kurdish learners may reverse their positions. English learners of Kurdish may also misuse the articles for the same reason. Another problem faces SE learners of Kurdish is that some nouns do not take a possessive Sff until they are inflected with the definite Sff. The possessive Sffs indicate gender in SE which is problematic for Kurdish learners. English learners may misuse the possessive Sffs because they indicate person and they are attached to the head instead of the modifier. 5.2.1.3 The Izafa Suffixes 5.2.1.3.1The Izafa {-î} ◘Similarities In CK possession can also be expressed by the izafa Sff {-î} to relate both the head and the attribute (See 4.2.6.1). Similarly, possession is accomplished by the possessive {-s} to relate both nouns in SE (3.3.2.1). Compare: SE the car's engine CK krās-î kiçaka the girl's dress Phonologically, the izafa Sff {î}, like the Sff {-s}, has allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned: / î / and / y / (See 4.2.6.2) as in: CK pîyāw-î kwêr bro-y ?aw blind man his eyebrow

141 ◘Differences In CK the izafa Sff {-î} is attached to the first word which is always the head (See 4.2.6.1). On the contrary, the possessive {-S2} is attached to the first word which is a modifier to indicate the relation between two nouns in SE (See 3.3.2.1). Compare: SE the child's toy CK çîyā-k-ān-î Kurdistān The mountains of Kurdistan In CK the izafa {-î} is attached to the head which can be a pronoun, proper and common noun and the attribute can be a noun, pronoun, adjective and adverb (4.2.6.3 and 4.2.8). Conversely, the relation is expressed by two nouns in SE (3.3.2.3.1). Compare: SE the car's design CK ?êwayak-î diÎsoz *Your loyal kuřān-î to Your sons If the attribute is a common noun, the izafa {-î} is attached to the head, and the definite Sff, the indefinite Sff and the plural Sff are attached to the attribute in CK (See 4.2.8), whereas, such a reverse is not applicable in SE. The position of the definite and indefinite articles in SE is before the first noun to which the plural Sff is attached. Compare: SE a girl's story CK kuř-î pîyāwêk son of a man (a man's son) ◘Problems Both SE and CK learners may face no problem in mastering the possession of such forms because they are expressed by the relation between two words. But the difficulty lies in the fact that the izafa Sff is attached to other parts of speech and also followed by different parts of speech which may confuse the English learners of Kurdish. Another difficulty which leads to confusion is that the izafa Sff is attached to inanimate nouns in CK. Kurdish learners may misuse the Sff

142 {-s} and the position of the definite and indefinite Sff due to the interference of their language. 5.2.1.3.2The Izafa {-a} ◘Similarities The Sffs of both languages are attached to the first noun to express possession. Phonologically, the izafa Sff {-a} is determined phonologically as the possessive Sff in SE but there is also the case of elision when the head ends in a vowel as in, kilika 'tail' and bāÎā 'height' (See 4.2.7.2). ◘Differences The Sff {-a} is another form of possession in CK in which a modified noun forms a compound which takes other INFs (See 4.2.7.1). In SE possession is expressed by the Sff {-s} but such a formation of a compound noun is not possible. Compare: SE Peter's eyes CK kuřa pāšā king's son (the king's son) The attribute can be a noun or an adjective but not a pronoun when INF is made with the izafa {-a} in CK (See 4.2.7.3). Conversely, the relation is expressed by the two nouns in SE (3.3.2.1). Compare: SE the girl's story CK kuřa zîrakaka the clever boy The definite Sff {-aka}, the indefinite Sff {-êk} and the plural {-ān} are attached to the attribute only if the noun is inflected by the izafa Sff {-a} in CK (See 4.2.8), whereas, such a reverse is not possible in SE. Compare: SE the girl's apartment CK kiça kurdêk a Kurdish girl ◘Problems The difference observed is a source of trouble for SE learners of Kurdish because the relation is not always between the two nouns. The SE learners may misuse the definite, indefinite and the plural Sffs due to their

143 interference of their native language. Kurdish learners of English may inflect the whole noun phrase as one compound unit for the same reason. 5.2.1.4 The Vocative Suffixes ◘Similarities The vocative in SE is expressed by the name as John, names with professional titles as Dr., sir, and familiar uses of vocatives as dear, or using expression as Excuse me!, and using occupational vocatives as waiter (Leech and Svatvik, 1994: 176). The same expressions are applicable in CK. ◘Differences In CK, there are some Sffs attached to a noun stem to indicate a vocative case: {-a}, {-ê}, {-o} and {-îna}. The category of number has the role in determining the vocative Sffs (See 4.2.5). Conversely, nouns are not inflected to indicate vocative but expressions such as Hey! is used informally in addition to the above expressions. Compare: SE Hey! Girl father CK kiçê bāwka ◘Problem The area of difficulty which causes a problem is that Kurdish learners of English may use Sffs with masculine and feminine singular and plural nouns when they start learning English. English learners of Kurdish face a production problem in using these Sffs with nouns regardless of gender and number. But what makes learning easier is that the use of the vocative Sff is limited to a few words. 5.2.1.5 The Definite Suffixes {-aka} and {-a} ◘Similarities Both SE and CK have patterns in forming definiteness. ◘Differences Formally, definiteness is formed by Sffs attached to the end of the noun phrases in CK such as {-aka} and {-a} (See 4.2.1.1 and 4.2.2.1), whereas in SE, its counterpart is expressed as a grammatical free morpheme (or by a function word) 'the' used before the noun as a separate item. Compare:

144 SE the girl CK kiç-aka When the noun stem is plural, the plural Sff {-ān} is attached to the definite inflected noun in CK (4.2.1.1). In SE, it has the same syntactic position preceding the noun it modifies. Compare: SE the girls CK kiç-ak-ān The Sff {-aka} has the characteristic of clitics because clitics can be attached to a stem already containing clitics or Sffs in CK (See 4.2.1.1). Phonologically, the Sff {-aka} has a number of allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned. They are examples of progressive assimilation whereas (See 4.2.1.2); the definite article in SE is an example of the regressive assimilation affected by the following sound of the following noun stem. Compare: SE the the book / ðə buk/ the apple / ði æpl / CK {aka} /-aka / kuřaka the boy /-yaka / šāîyaka the dance /-ka / sarçawaka the source / -ak / pîywakān the men Sometimes the morpheme {-aka} is morphologically conditioned (See 4.2.1.2) as in: CK bāxakān the orchards The Sff {-aka} is attached to the noun when the noun is followed by proper nouns, personal or reflexive pronouns in CK (See 4.2.1.3), whereas the definite article is not used in such a case in SE. Compare: SE * the your son CK kuřakay to The definite Sff is attached to adjectives and attached to the end of the last adjective in CK (See 4.2.1.3), whereas adjectives are not inflected and also the definite article is not used with adjectives in SE. Compare: SE *the beautiful CK cwānaka the beautiful one

145 The Sff {-a} is also a definite Sff in CK in which the use of the plural Sff {-ān} is not possible. It is phonologically conditioned (See 4.2.2.2). It appears in conjunction with the demonstrative adjective, whereas such a case is not found in SE. Compare: SE *this the boy this boy CK ?aw kuřa ◘Problem The Kurdish learners of English do not expect to find the definite Sff as a free morpheme or a separate item. They encounter a production problem in using the definite article because of the difference between the definite Sff and the definite article in form and syntactic distribution. They may reverse the order of the definite article and the noun. They may attach the Sff to adjectives due to the interference of their native language. English learners of Kurdish face a difficulty in production in using the definite Sff correctly for the same reason and because the Sff {-aka} is attached to nouns and adjectives. 5.2.1.6 The Indefinite Suffix {-êk} ◘Similarities Both SE and CK have forms to express indefiniteness and singularity. ◘Differences Indefiniteness is formed by a morpheme {-êk} suffixed to nouns in CK (See 4.2.3.1), whereas it is expressed by a free grammatical morpheme {a or an} preceding the nouns as a separable item in SE. Compare: SE a book an apple CK kitêbêk/ kitêbê The indefinite Sff is attached to adjectives in CK(See 4.2.3.3), whereas, adjectives are not inflected with indefinite Sff and it is not used before adjectives in SE. Compare: SE * a beautiful CK cwānêk

146 ◘Problems Kurdish learners of English may face a production problem in using the indefinite article because of the difference between the Kurdish indefinite Sff and its counterpart in SE in form and syntactic distribution. They may reverse the order of the definite Sff and the noun under the influence of their native language. English learners of Kurdish face a problem in using the indefinite Sff correctly because it is attached to adjectives as well and may misuse the order of the definite article and the noun for the same reason. But what makes learning easier is that the indefinite Sff leans on single words. 5. 2. 2 Verb Inflections in Contrast 5.2.2.1 The Suffix {-S3} ◘ Similarities The Sff {-s} is the only verbal inflectional agreement in SE (See 3.4.3.1). Agreement in CK is indicated by pronominal clitics. One of the similarities between affixes and clitics is that both are bound morphemes. Phonologically, the Sff {-s} and the pronominal clitics are conditioned phonologically (See 3.4.3.2 and 4.2.9.1) as in: SE sleeps / sli:ps/ , reads/ ri:dz/ , sneezes / sni:ziz/ In CK: The 3rd person singular present tense clitic has two allomorphs/ êt / and/ āt/ or /ê / and /ā/ which are phonologically conditioned. If the present stem ends in / o / or / a /, the verbal clitic takes the form / -āt /. There is a case of vocalic alternation in which / o / is changed into /-w/ and a case of assimilation in which / a / is assimilated (Amin, 1989: 167), e.g.: řoîštin 'to go' → řo → da + řo + āt → da-ř-wāt He/she goes. kirdin 'to do'→ ka → da+ ka + āt → da-k-āt He/she does. (Amin, 1976: 13) The 3rd person singular present has the verbal clitic / êt / depending on the preceding sound whether it is a vowel or a consonant, e.g.: a. pirs-în 'to ask' → pirs →da + pirs+ êt→ da-pirs-êt 'He asks' b. nûstin ' to sleep'→ nû→ da+nû+êt→ danûêt 'He sleeps' (Amin, 1985b: 20)

147 If the present stem is ended in / ê /, the / ê/ of /êt / is assimilated and the sound has the allomorph / t /, e.g.: da-sût-ê + êt = da-sûtê-t 'It burns' (Amin, 2002: 295) If the process of deletion of the final / t / is applied, the allomorph of the / êt / is represented by zero morph / ø /. This can be shown as follows, e.g.: da-sût-ê + êt = da-sûtê-t - t = da-sût-ê 'It burns' The final / t / can optionally be dropped if it is not followed by a vowel. Accordingly, both / êt / and/ āt/ have other allomorphs which are /ê / and /ā/: / āt – ā / and / êt – ê / (Amin, 2002: 293), e.g.: da-nûw-ê 'He sleeps 3rd person singular present tense/ Int da-xw-ā 'He eats' 3rd person singular present tense/ T (Amin, 1985b: 20) It is concluded that the 3rd person singular present verbal clitic has at least six allomorphs: /āt /, /êt /, / ā /, /ê /, / t /, / ø / (Amin, 2002: 296). ◘Differences Verbs are inflected for person, number and tense to show agreement with the subject. The formation is accomplished by the Sff {-s} or {-es} added to the end of the regular and irregular verb stems meaning the 3rd person singular present tense which is an example of cumulation (See 3.4.3.1). On the contrary, verbs are cliticized to show subject-verb agreement in CK. Thus, person and number categories are indicated by the pronominal clitics which are different for transitive and intransitive verb stems (See 4.2.9.1). Compare: SE He/ She / It runs. CK T: ?aw nān daxwā(t) Int: ?aw danûê(t) He eats bread. She sleeps. ◘Problems The Kurdish learners encounter a problem in using the verbal Sff {-s} because they do not expect to find a verbal Sff indicating agreement. In CK agreement is shown by the pronominal clitics. The English learners face a problem because agreement is shown by the pronominal clitics in CK.

148 5.2.2.2 The Suffix {-ing} ◘ Similarities The only point of similarity which can be observed is that Affs indicate the present participle in both languages. Both are straightforward additions to the regular and irregular verb stems except some defective verbs in SE (See 3.4.4.1) as in: SE push ~ pushing CK hên ~ da-hên-im bring ~ prf (prg) –bring –sub(I) I am bringing ◘Differences The verbal INF which shows present participle is formed by the verb stem plus the Sff {-ing} in SE (See 3.4.4.1), whereas the formation of the present participle is accomplished by adding the prefix {-da} to the verb stem. This prefix indicates the simple present, the progressiveness and the future in CK (See 4.3). Compare: SE read~ reading CK ç ~ daçim go ~I go~ I am going ~ I will go The progressive tense is constructed by using any of the copula be plus the present participle form of the verb stem in SE (see 3.4.4.3), whereas, the syntactic distribution of progressiveness is constructed by the prefix da plus the verb stem plus the pronominal clitics in CK. Compare: SE They are sleeping. CK ?awān danûn. The IS {-ing}, like other ISs in SE, closes the structure of a word, whereas, the prefix da can be followed by the Sff {-š} (Farhadi, 2000: 85) and then the pronominal clitics with transitive verbs which function as the subject of the clause in CK (Amin, 1998: 15) as in: CK da-š-m- nûs-î Prg-Sff-Cl (I) – write-Sff (P) I was writing, too.

149 The {-ing} Sff is also used as non-finite verb form in a subordinate clause, a personifying adjective in a noun phrase, and a derived head noun in SE (See 3.4.4.3), whereas the prefix da is not used but other derivational Sffs are used. Compare: SE the writing was good CK *danûsaka bāš bû nûsrāwaka bāš bû ◘Problems This difference causes problems for Kurdish learners of English because the formation of present participle in SE is different from CK. They may not use the copula which accompanies the formation in SE or misuse the copula for number and person. The Kurdish pattern of the present participle creates a problem for learners of SE especially in using the pronominal clitics for the transitive and intransitive verbs.

5.2.2.3The Suffix {-ed} or {-d1} ◘Similarities The Sff {-d} or {-ed} is added to the verb stem for the regular formation of the past tense in SE (See 3.4.5.1). Similarly, the Sffs / -ā, -î, -û, -t, -d / are added to the root to form the past tense (See 4.3.2.1). SE play ~played CK nûs~ nûsî kaw~kawt The past form {-d1} is simple in SE because it shows no variation in number and person (See 3.4.5.1). Similarly, the past forms in CK do not show variation in person and number in CK (See 4.3.2.2), as in: SE I kicked the ball. CK min krās-aka-m kř-î I dress –Def-Cl buy-P I bought the dress. ◘Differences The regular past {-d1} and past participle {-d2} are constructed in the same formation showing two distinct functions in SE (See 3.4.5.1). There is

151 syncretism between these two forms (See 3.4.5.3), whereas, the addition of the Sffs / -ā, -î, -û, -t, -d / to the verb stem is to form the past only. The past and past participle are not identical in form except in {-û} in CK (4.3.3.1). Compare: SE She laughed at us. She has laughed at us. CK wast ~ wastā ~wastāw stand~ stood~ stood Both regular {-d1} and {d2} have the same set of phonologically conditioned allomorphs / t~d~id / in SE (See 3.4.5.2), whereas the past Sffs in CK are themselves allomorphs: three vowels and two dental stops (See 4.3.2.1.1 and 4.3.2.1.2). Compare: SE looked /lukt/, stayed /steid /, ended /endid/ CK hênā, fřî, çû, xawt, xwênd brought, flied, went, slept, studied The past and the past participle in SE close the structure of a word, whereas in CK the past Sffs are followed by other IS such as the past participle {-û} and the Sff {-š} which indicates that they are not true ISs (See 4.3.3 and 4.6.1.3). Compare: SE I studied CK T: xwār-d-îš-im I ate, too. ◘Problems The formation of the past tense is problematic for SE learners of Kurdish because the addition of the past Sffs is not arbitrary. The English learners have to refer to the infinitival form of the verb to know which Sff is the appropriate one for the present stem or the root. The past form in SE is somehow easier for Kurdish learners because the formation only requires the addition of the regular Sff. They have to know the rules of English spelling. Another problematic point is that they may also overgeneralize the regular form to the irregular ones.

151 5.2.2.4 The Suffix {-ed} or {-d2} 5.2.2.4.1 The Regular Suffix {-ed} ◘Similarities The formation of the regular past participle is similar to the regular past formation in SE as explained above (See 3.4.5.1). The past participle in CK is formed by adding a Sff {-û} to the past stem (See 4.3.3.1) as in: SE carry~carried CK kawt~kawtû fall ~ have fallen Phonologically, the past participle Sff is phonologically conditioned in SE (See 3.4.5.2). Similarly, the Sff {û} has two allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned: /-û / and / -w/ (See 4.3.3.2) as in: SE stopped / stopt/, formed / fo:md/, fainted/ feintid/ CK hatû have come fřîw have flied The past participle is used as an adjective in SE (See 3.4.5.4). Similarly, it is also used as an adjective which is symbolized as {-û3} and as usually occurs postnomimally in CK. In both languages the participle form is not inflected for comparative and superlative (See 3.5.2.2 and 4.3.3.3), as in: SE A watched kettle never boils. CK xānw-a sut-ā-w-aka řux-ā. house-Izf burn-P –PP-Def destroy-P The burned house destroyed. ◘Differences The past participle is formed by adding a Sff to the base form of the verb used in active and passive in SE (See 3.4.5.1), whereas the formation of the past participle is accomplished by adding a Sff {-û} to the past stem which can be active and passive in voice (See 4.3.3.1). Compare: SE kick ~ kick-ed have kicked have been kicked CK kûš-t-û have killed active voice kûž-r-ā-w have been killed passive voice The Sff {-d2} expresses a past participle aspect in connection with the auxiliary have preceding the Sff {-d2} to form verbal phrases in SE: present

152 perfect and past perfect regardless of the type of the verb (3.4.5.4). The past participle is also used to form the present and past perfect, but the form is followed by the pronominal clitics of group A for agreement. The transitive verb has the substantive verb {-a} as an auxiliary following the clitics. The intransitive verb is followed by the clitics of group B and C (see 4.3.3.3). Compare: SE I have kicked the ball. He has kicked the ball. They had kicked the ball. CK T: xwārdû-m-a I have eaten. xwārdû-mān-a We have eaten. Int: hātûyt You have come. hātûyn You have come. CK T: kirdibûm I had done. Int: kawtibûm I had fallen. The past participle does not close the structure of the word and can be followed by another IS as the Sff {-(î) š} before the pronominal clitics in CK i.e. three successive ISs: the past Sff, the past participle Sff and the {-š} Sff (See 4.3.3.3 and 4.6.1.3) as in: CK ha-t-û-š-im I have come, too. The past participle forms the passive with the auxiliary be in SE (See 3.4.5.4), whereas the passive is expressed by the IS {-r} in CK ( See 4.3.8). Compare: SE The ball was kicked. CK ?aw kûžrāwa He has been killed. ◘Problems The same problems of forming the regular past face Kurdish learners of English in forming the past participle because they are similar in form. The Kurdish learners also overgeneralize the form for all the verbs. The pattern is somehow easier for English learners as soon as the formation of the past is mastered because the participle Sff {-û} is added to

153 the past form. But the area of difficulty lies in the different forms of active and passive and in the position of the passive {-r} Sff in CK because in SE the passive has no specific Sff: the {-ed} form is used. Another area of difficulty faces the Kurdish learners is the formation of the present and past perfect and the position of the auxiliaries. The position of the auxiliary creates a problem for English learners. They may reverse the position due to the interference of their language. 5.2.2.4.2 The Irregular Suffix {-en} ◘ Similarities The irregular past participle has the same usage as the regular one. It is used with have to form verbal phrases in SE (See 3.4.6.2). The same is true in CK (explained in 5.2.2.4.1) as in: SE She has broken the glass. CK min krās-êk-im kř-î-w-a I dress-Indef-Cl buy-P-PP- auxiliary I have bought the dress. ◘ Differences The formation of past participle is irregular in that either the past INF or the past participle INF is irregular. The Sff {-en} is added to the stem and the past form in SE (See 3.4.6.2); whereas, the formation of the past participle is taken from the past form in CK as explained above (See 5.2.2.4.1). Compare: SE show~ showed~shown know~knew~known write~wrote written break~broke~broken do~ did~done CK křî~křîw 'have bought' When used as an adjective the {-en} form is restricted to prenominal position in SE, whereas the past participle is restricted to postnominal position in CK. Compare: SE the broken door CK dargā škāwaka

154 ◘Problems The irregular formation of the past participle creates problems for the Kurdish Learners because the past participle is formed either form the stem, or the past form. Consequently, this leads to confusion and the Kurdish learners have to memorize them to be mastered. The same problems mentioned in (5.2.2.4.2) face the SE learners of Kurdish. 5.2.2.5The Suffix {-a} ◘Similarities The suffixed form {-a} in CK and the copula is which indicate the 3rd person singular present have the same semantic area such as identity, role etc. (See 4.3.1.1). Both have the function of a real state (See 4.3.1.3), as in: SE Winter is cold. CK zistān sārda. Phonologically, the Sff {-a} has allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned (See 4.3.1.2). The copula form in its contracted form -'s has allomorphs which are phonologically conditioned: /s/, /z/ and / iz/ as in : SE He's /hi: z/ CK pîyawa /a/ , droya /ya/ ◘Differences The Sff {-a} following a noun or an adjective predicate in CK is a counterpart of the English verb 'to be' in its copulative use. The copula has a suffixed form {-a} in the 3rd person singular and realized as a zero morph when it is not the 3rd person singular (See 4.3.1.1). It is the counterpart to the 3rd person singular present copula verb is which a free morpheme preceding the noun or an adjective in SE. Compare: SE Roza is a girl. CK řozā kiç-a. ◘Problems The Sff {-a} is problematic because its counterpart is not a Sff but a copula: a free grammatical morpheme in SE.The Kurdish learners of English may reverse the position due to the interference of their native language. The English learners do not expect to find a free morpheme as a Sff.

155 5.2.2.6 The Suffix {-bi} ◘Similarities The point of similarity that can be observed between the two languages is that the subjunctive forms are used in requests, hopes, wishes, desires, conditional etc. (See 4.3.6.2) as in: SE I wish I had done. CK xozga bi –m- kird –ib-āya. wish Prf (Subj)-Cl- did- Subj (P) – Sff (Subj) ◘Differences The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the Sff {-bi} to the past from in CK (See 4.3.4.1), whereas it is formed by modal auxiliaries which are free grammatical morphemes in SE. Compare: CK Root+ past Sff + bi + pronominal Cl SE modal auxiliary + have + PP form of the base form Transitive and intransitive verbs take different clitics in CK as in: CK T: kirdibêt He might have done. kirdibtān You might have done. Int: kawtibim I might have fallen. kawtibin We might have fallen. ◘Problems Kurdish learners of English encounter a production problem in forming the perfect subjunctive because the counterpart of the Sff {-bi-} consists of modal auxiliaries which lead to confusion. English learners do not expect to find free morphemes (auxiliaries) used as bound morphemes (suffixes). 5.2.2.7 The Suffix {-bā} ◘Similarities The same point of similarity explained in (5.2.2.6) can be observed between the two languages. ◘Differences The Sff {-bā} is added to the past stem to indicate the near past subjunctive in CK. It is formed by a past form plus a particular form of the

156 auxiliary verb bûn plus a pronominal clitics (See 4.3.5.1), whereas, it is expressed by auxiliaries in SE. Compare: CK T: kirdibām had I done kirdibāmān had we done Int: (bi) kawtibāy(t) had you fallen (bi) kawtibāyîn had you fallen ◘Problems Kurdish learners of English face a problem in forming the near past subjunctive because the counterpart of the Sff {-bā-} consists of free morphemes having their morphological order. The irregular formation of the past auxiliaries in SE is also an obstacle in the process of learning. English learners of Kurdish are not expected to find free grammatical morphemes as auxiliaries having bound morphemes as Sffs to be their counterparts. The attachment of the different group of the pronominal clitics to each type of verbs confuses the SE learners. The pronominal clitics are problematic because mainly they are not found in SE and partly because of their functions as subjects and objects of the verb stems. 5.2.2.8 The Suffix {-āya} ◘Similarities The same point of similarity explained in (5.2.2.6) is found between the two languages. ◘Differences The Sff {-āya} is added to indicate the subjunctive mood in the past and past perfect. The morpheme {bi-} is prefixed to the past form plus the Sff{-āya} to form past conditional (See 4.3.6.2), whereas, mood is expressed by auxiliaries as free grammatical morphemes and shows no distinction in transitivity in SE, as in: CK T: bi + pronominal Cl + past stem + bā + āya Int: bi + past stem + bā + pronominal Cl + āya T: bi-m-kird-ib-āya had I done Int: (bi)-kawt-ibā-m-āya had I fallen The past perfect subjunctive can be formed as follows: CK T: bi + pronominal Cl + past stem + bû + āya

157 Int: (bi) + past stem +bû + pronominal Cl + āya CK T: bi-m-xwārd-ibw-āya SE I would have eaten. CK Int: hāt-ibû-m- āya SE I would have come ◘Problems The formation of the subjunctive mood is completely different which causes difficulty for the learners of both languages. Kurdish learners of English have to master the order of the auxiliaries in SE but what makes learning easier is that the auxiliaries do not show transitivity. English learners face a problem because modal auxiliaries are expressed by Sffs in CK i.e. free morphemes are the counterparts for bound morphemes. The different order of affixation from transitive and intransitive creates a problem for English learners. 5.2.2.9 The Suffix {-ānd} ◘Similarities No similar points can be observed concerning causative construction between the two languages. ◘Differences Morphologically, a causative construction is derived from non- causative by means of Sffs in CK. The intransitive present stem is causativized by adding the Sff {-ānd} to yield the past form of the causative (See 4.3.7.1). On the contrary causativity is expressed lexically by free morphemes as kill 'cause to die' or by a derivational Sff {-en} as widen 'make wide' (Katamba, 1993: 213) in SE. Compare: SE He made the child defeat CK ?aw mindāÎ-aka-y baz-ānd He child-Def-Cl defeat -T / P The inflected transitive verbs are cliticized with the 1st group (A) to show agreement (See 4.3.7.2) as in: CK ?aw škāndî He caused to break. ?awān škāndyān They caused to break.

158 The verb is also inflected with the transitive Sff {-ên} to yield the present form of the causative in CK (See 4.3.7.2). Conversely, it is expressed lexically i.e. by free morphemes. Compare: CK škê + -ên = škên 'cause to break' In the present all the verbs are cliticized with group B and C as in: CK da-yān-šk-ên-im Pr-Cl (them) break- I I make them break. ◘Problems Kurdish learners of English encounter the production problem because a suffixed bound morpheme in CK is expressed by a free morpheme in SE. This creates confusion for them. The Kurdish learners have to memorize the irregular lexical verbs in SE which are counterparts to the present and past causative Sffs in CK. The syntactic order of the parts of speech in SE is also problematic for them. English learners face a problem because free morphemes are the counterparts for bound morphemes. 5.2.2.10 The Suffix {-r} ◘Similarities There is no point of similarity between both languages concerning the passivity. ◘Differences Passive forms are morphologically derived from an active transitive verb of the present stem to which the passive Sff {-r} is attached plus the thematic vowel {-ā} for the past tense and {-ê} for the present which are grammatically conditioned in CK (See 4.3.8.1), whereas passive formation is accomplished by the past participle form of the verb stem preceded by one form of the auxiliary be in SE. Compare: CK kuž+ r - = kûž-r-ê- = da-kûž-r-ê- m. Pr-kill-Pass-Pr-Cl I am killed. kûž-r-ā- = kûž-r- ā-m. kill-Pass-P-Cl

159 I was killed. SE be + past participle The bag is stolen. The bag was stolen. ◘Problems The passive form creates a problem for Kurdish learners. The Kurdish learners are obliged to memorize the irregular past participle forms. They might reverse the position of the verb be due to the interference of their native language. English learners of Kurdish are not expected to find a passive Sff in CK because there is no particular Sff for the passive voice in SE. They may misuse the position of the thematic vowel due to the interference of their language and the addition of the prefix in the present is also problematic. 5.2.2.11The Suffix {-a} ◘Similarities Formally, there is no point of similarity that can be observed between the two languages. ◘Differences Three prepositions [bo 'for', to' ba ' to' and la 'at'] attach to verbs as Sffs in CK. Their counterpart verbal Sff is {-a} (See 4.3.9). On the contrary, prepositions are free grammatical morphemes without being changed into bound morphemes. Compare: SE You came to Slemani. CK ?êwa hāt-in bo Slêmānî. êwa hāt-in-a Slêmānî. You came -Cl to Slemani you came -Cl-Sff Slemani. ◘Problems The Kurdish learners of English may not find difficulty because both SE and CK have prepositions as free morphemes. But they have to be recognized that prepositions as free morphemes are not changed to bound morphemes as Sffs in SE. English learners of Kurdish are not expected to find prepositions as Sffs attached to verbs.

161 5.2.3 Adjective Inflections in Contrast ◘Similarities Both languages have a three-term inflectional contrast: positive, comparative and superlative for adjectives and adverbs (See 3.5 and 4.4.3). In SE comparative and superlative adjectives are morphologically formed by adding Sffs {-er} and {-est} to the end of the adjective stems (3.5.1.1). Similarly, it is accomplished in the same way by adding the Sffs {-tir} and {-trîn} in CK. They are true ISs in both languages because they lean on words rather than phrases (4.4.3.1 and 4.4.3.2) as in: SE tall ~ taller ~ tallest CK drêž ~ drêžtir ~ drêžtrîn Both inflected comparative and superlative adjectives are not attached together in CK (See 4.4.3.2.1). The same is true in SE, as in: SE *This flower is nicerest. CK *?am guÎa cwantiratrîna The addition of ISs {-er} and {-est} results in phonological modifications which are phonemically conditioned such as the loss of syllabicity, realization of /r/ and the pronunciation of / ŋ/ after / g / (See 3.5.3). Similarly, some phonological changes occur when the Sff {-tir} and {-trîn} are added to an adjective stem such as assimilation and elision (See 4.4.3.3) as in: SE simple ~simple~ simplest CK tîž~ tîštir ~tîštrîn Sharp ~ sharper ~ sharpest Comparatives are often followed by than saying exactly what is compared by using a number of structures which can be noun phases or clauses in SE (See 3.5.4). Similarly, Comparative is also followed by the postposition la in CK (See 4.4.3.1.1) as in: SE an area bigger than Great Britain CK šānya cwantira la hatāw Shanya is more beautiful than Hataw. In both languages inflected comparative adjectives can be modified by intensifiers (See 3.5.4) as in:

161 SE much easier CK zor ?āsāntir Comparative INF is not possible when two descriptions are compared in both languages (See 3.5.4) as in: SE * Vanya is cleverer than brave. CK * Vanya ziraktira la āzā Inflected superlative adjectives can be used on their own if it is clear what is being compared in SE (See 3.5.5). The same is applied in CK as in: SE The sergeant was the tallest. CK sêwa gawratrîna Sewa is the oldest. ◘Differences In SE the morphological and phonological properties determine the formation of the comparative and superlative adjectives. The length of adjective plays a role in determining the use of {-er} and {-est} (See 3.5.2). On the contrary, the length of adjectives does not play a role in such formations in CK. All descriptive adjectives allow {-tir} and {-trîn} (See 4.4.3). Compare: SE fast~ faster~fastest monosyllabic simple~simpler~simplest disyllabic unhappy~unhappier~unhappiest trisyllabic CK cwan ~ cwantir ~ cwantrîn beautiful ~more beautiful ~ most beautiful nāšîrîn ~ nāšîrîntir ~ nāšîrîntrîn ugly~uglier~ ugliest The use of than is fixed in position which is after the inflected comparative form in SE (See 3.5.4), whereas the position of its counterpart la can occur between the two compared structures followed by the comparative form in CK (See 4.4.3.1.1). Compare: SE This book is cheaper than that book. CK to la min āzā-tir-î. You than me brave –Com-Cl (Agr) You are braver than me.

162 Inflected comparative adjectives are used as modifiers preceding the noun they modify in SE (See 3.5.4). Conversely, they are used as attributes following the head noun they modify in CK (See 4.4.3.1.1). Compare: SE The family is moved to a smaller house. CK kitêb-êk-î bāš-tir book-Indef-Izf good-Com a better book Inflected comparative adjectives are formally followed by subjective pronouns but informally by an object pronoun in SE (See 3.5.4), whereas subjective and objective pronouns are similar in form in CK (See 4.4.3.1.1). Compare: SE I am older than he is (him). CK min gwrantir-im la ?aw (law). I old –Sup –Cl than he Inflected superlative adjectives are preceded by the and used as modifiers in front of the noun in SE (See 3.5.5), whereas inflected superlative adjectives are not preceded by any article but used as modifiers in CK (4.4.3.2.1). Compare: SE the cleverest man CK xoštrîn řož happiest day ( the happiest day) Adjectives share some grammatical categories of nouns such as definiteness, indefiniteness and number in CK (See 4.4.1and 4.4.2), whereas these categories are not characterized by adjectives in SE. Compare: SE the good ones SE the beautiful ones CK çāk-aka CK cwān-ān SE a good one SE the high ones CK çāk-êk CK barz-ak-ān The same phonological rules are applied to the definite Sff {-aka}, indefinite Sff {-êk} and the plural Sff {-ān} when attached to the end of an adjective stem which are conditioned phonologically (See 4.4.1.1, 4.4.1.2 and 4.4.2.1) as in the examples shown above.

163 ◘Problems The learners of both languages face no problem in mastering adjective INFs and no problem is predicted in forming the comparatives and the superlatives between SE and CK because both have the same counterparts. But the area of difficulty for Kurdish learners of English is the length of adjectives in SE because the length of adjectives does not play a role in the formation but this point is not a trouble-spot for SE learners of Kurdish. Another problem faces the SE learners is the position of the comparative forms as modifiers following the noun. Kurdish learners may also reverse their positions due to interference form their native language. Adjectives create difficulty on the part of the SE learners because they are inflected for number, definiteness and indefiniteness. The superlative forms create no problem because they precede the noun they modify in SE and CK. But the difficulty lies in the use of the before the superlative form in SE. Kurdish learners may not use the definite article because it does not exist before the superlative form in CK. 5.2.4 Adverb Inflections in Contrast Adverbs that are morphologically identical with adjectives have the {-er} and {-est} for comparative and superlative respectively. They follow the same phonetic rules as adjectives in SE (See 3.6). Similarly, adverbs that are morphologically indistinguishable from adjectives are inflected for {-tir} and {-trîn} in CK (See 4.5) as in: SE early ~earlier ~earliest CK zû ~ zûtir ~zûtrîn The inflected comparative adverb is followed by than in SE (See 3.6) and it is followed by la but in a different position in CK (See 4.5) as in: SE He concentrated harder than ever. CK ?aw zûtir hāt la gašaw. he earlier came than gašaw. He came earlier than Gashaw. ◘Problems The same problems found in adjectives face the learners of both languages. The position of the inflected adverb causes a problem for SE

164 learners because the comparative form of adverb precedes the verb and la follows the verb in CK. The English learners of Kurdish may reverse their positions due to the interference of their language. 5.2.5 The Suffix {- š} ◘Similarities The point of similarity is that both the Sff {-š} and its counterpart too in SE are morphemes. ◘Differences Morphologically the Sff {-š} is attached to the end of nearly most of the parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, numbers, etc. On the contrary, the counterpart of this bound morpheme is a free morpheme too which has its syntactic position in the clause in SE (See 4.6.1). Compare: SE I buy for you, too. CK bo-š-it da-kiř-im to-too-Cl (you) Pr-buy-Cl (I) ◘Problems The Kurdish learners of English may encounter a production problem in using too. They may use it at the end of every word that is inflected with {-š} in CK. The English learners of Kurdish do not expect to find the counterpart of the free morpheme as bound morphemes attached to the end of nearly most of the parts of speech. They face a problem because this morpheme has another meaning in addition to too. 5.2.6 Suffixed Homophones in Contrast ◘Similarities The Sffs of both SE and CK have homophones. ◘Differences The ISs of both SE and CK have different homophones. In SE the ISs have the following homophones: The noun plural IS {-S1}, the possessive IS {-S2} and the verbal IS {-S3} are homophones in SE (See 3.7).

165 The present participle verbal IS {-ing1}, the derivational nominal Sff {-ing2} and the derivational adjectival Sff {-ing3} are homophones. The past participle verbal {-d2}, and the adjectival {-d3} are homophones The ISs have homophones in CK (See 4.7): The definite Sff {-a1}, the izafa Sff {-a2}, the masculine vocative Sff {- rd a3}, the 3 person singular present Sff {-a4} and the verbal postposition Sff {-a5} are homophones. The possessive Sff {-î1}, the izafa Sff {-î2} and the past Sff {-î3} are homophones. The indefinite Sff {-ê1} and the feminine vocative Sff {-ê2} are homophones. The past Sff {-û1} and the past participle Sff {-û2} are homophones. ◘Problems The suffixed homphones are problematic for the learners of both languages because they lead to confusion in both languages. But when suffixes are phonologically syncretised, they make learning easier. Phonological syncretism leads languages towards simplicity. 5.3 Conclusions In the light of the preceding analysis a number of conclusions can be drawn and summarized as follows: 1) Both languages are inflected for number. In SE the plural Sff is a true inflectional Sff but in CK is a semi-clitic. 2) Both languages have Sffs that indicate possession. In SE the possessive {-'s} is considered a clitic and in CK is a semi-clitic. 3) In CK nouns have inflections for definiteness, indefiniteness and vocative i.e. they are expressed by bound morphemes, but in SE they are expressed by free grammatical morphemes or other expressions. It is concluded that the definite Sff is not a true inflectional suffix, while the indefinite Sff is a true inflectional Sff. 4) Verbs are inflected for tense and aspect in SE, but they are inflected for tense, aspect and mood in CK.

166 5) The verb to be in SE is a free morpheme, but it is a bound morpheme in CK as the present Sff {-a}, and the Sff {-bā} in the near subjunctive mood. 6) Verbs are inflected for transitivity and passivity in CK, but in SE there are not particular Sffs for these inflectional properties. 7) Prepositions are always free morphemes in SE, but they can be bound morphemes attached to verbs in CK. 8) Both SE and CK have comparative and superlative inflections for adjectives and adverbs. 9) Adjectives are inflected for number, definiteness and indefiniteness, but these categories are not characterized by adjectives in SE. 10) Inflectional Sffs close the structure of the word, but they do not close the structure of the word in CK. 11) It has been proved through out the analysis that pronouns and prepositions take ISs. 5.4 Suggestions for Further Study This work deals with inflectional suffixes in Standard English and Central Kurdish. It is recommended that other studies can be carried out on morphology. Among these: a contrastive study of nominalization in Standard English and Central Kurdish, a contrastive study of derivational prefixes in SE and CK and Homophones of Grammatical Suffixes in English (or Homophony in Afffixes).

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183 ثاشطرة شيَوةطوَرِةكــــان لةزمانى شتاندةردى ئينطلــيسى و كوردى ليَكوَلَينةوةى بةراورد ثوختة

ئةم باسة يةولَدانيَكة بو ليَكولَيهةوة لة بارةى رِيَطةى ثيَكًاتهى وشة)ووشة سازى( بةةيوَى زيةاردنرنى

طريةدةداى دة ئةمة رِيَطةيةدى رِيَزمانية بوَثيَكًيَهانى وشة. طريةدةداى جياوازى لةة رِووى شةويَو و ئةردةةوة.

لة رِووى ئةردةوة طريةدةداى رةدنيَو بة رووجوَر: طريةدى وشةطوَرِ وطريةدى وشة رارِيَة.. لةة بةوارى مورِلوَلةوَ ى

شيَوةطوَرِرا طةرراى دنرى وا ثيَهاسة رةدنىَ دة طوَراِنة لة شيَوةى وشةدةدة, بة شيَوةيةدى سةرةدى بةةزياردنرنى

طريةدةداى رةبيَت بوَ سةر قةرى وشةدةبة شيَوةيةدى رِيَك وثيَك بوَثيَكًيَهانى وشةى نوىَ دة ئةةم زانيةارى يةة

رِيَزمانيانة ريارى رةدات وةدو: مارة و رِةطةز و دات و رِيَ.ة ...يتد. ئةم زانياريانة ثيَويشنت بوَ قةرى وشةةدة

لة ناو رِستةى رِيَزمانى را. سنوشتى طريةدة شيَوةطوَرِةداى بةوة جيارةدنيَهةوة دة بةشيَوةيةدى ياسايانة زيةار

رةدنيَو بوَسةرقةر و بةريةم ييَهو ومانا رةبةخشو بةةََم بةةبىَ ئةةوةى داريطةةرى يةةبىَ لةة طةوَرِيهى مانةا

بهةرِةتيةدةى قةرى وشةدةو يةروةيا ئةم طريةدانة بةشةدانى رِستة ناطوَرِى.

يةديَك لة ئاماجنةدانى ئةم باسة ئةوةية دةلة َيةنةة جياوازةدةانى ثاشةطنة شةيَوةطوَرِةدانى زمةانى

ستاندةررى ئيهطميزى و زارى دوررى ناوةرِاست نيشاى رةرات دة شيَوة و واتاو َيةةنى رةنةس سةازى و رِيَزمةانى

رةطنيَتةوة. بة شيَوةيةدى طشتى وا طنميانة رةدنيَتَ دة ثاشطنة شيَوةطورةِداى لة زمانى ئيهكميةزى ثيَكًاتةةى

وشةدة رارةخةى واتا رواثاشطن رةبو لة وشةدة و يةةروةيا واطنميانةة رةدةنىَ دةةناو طةةرراى رةدنيَةت بةوَ

ناسياوى ونةناسياوى لة زارى دوررى ناوةرِاست .

ئةم ليَكولَيهةوةية رابةش رةبيَت بةسةر ثيَهج بةش را:

بةشى يةدةم بنيتى ية لة رةروازةيةك دة طريوطنلتةداى و ئامانج و طنميانةو بوارو و رِيَنِةوى دارةدةاى

و بايةخى ليَكوَلَيهةوةدة رةخاتة رِوو .

بةشى رووةم تايبةتة بةةرِيَطا سةةرةديةدانى موَرلولةوَ ى شةيَوةطوَرِ)طةرراى دةنرى(د يةنةدىَ بريوَدةةى

موَرلوَلوَ ى وطريةدةداى . ئةم تةوةرةييةى طريةدةةةةدةاى لةمانة ثيَك ريَت: ثيَهاسةى طريةدةداىد جوَرةدةانى

184 طريةك بةثيآى شويَو وئةرك. تةوةرةيةدى تن تةرخاى دناوةدبوَ ئةو ثيَوةرانةى دة طريةك وثنتك لة يةةدىى

جيا رةداتةوة. تةوةرةدانى رواتن ئةمانة رةطنيَتةخوَ: جياوازى سيهتادشةى وسةينانتيكى وشةيَوةيى لةةنيَواى

طريةدة شيَوةطوَرِةداى وطريةدة وشةرارِيَ.ةداىد ثيَهاسةى موَرلوَلوَ ى شيَوةطوَرِ و موَرِلوَلوَ ى شيَوةطوَرِ وسةيهتادصد

منوونةدانى و طةرراى دنرنى نةةةاو ودار وئاوةلَهةةةاو.

بةشى سيَيةم بةشيَوةيةدى سةرةدى تةرخاى دناوة بوَ ثاشطنة شيَوةطوَرِةدانى زمانى ستاندةررى ئيهطميةزى

دة ئةم تةوةرانة رةطنيتة خوَ: طةرراى دنرنى ناود طةرراى دنرنى دارد طةرراى دنرنى ئاوةلَهاود طةرراى دنرنى

ئاوةلَكارد ثاشطنة ياورةنطةداى ويةروةيا يةندىَ ياساى رِيَهوسى لةطةرراى دنرنى ياسا يى. ويةرلةم بةشةةرا

شيَوةو واتا وَيةنى رةنس سازى و رِيَزمانى يةريةك لةثاشطنة شيَوةطوَرِةداى رةخاتةرِوو .

بةشى ضوارةم لةثاشطنة شيَوةطوَرِةدانى زارى دوررى ناوةرِاست رةدوَلَيَتةوة دةلةم تةوةرانةة ثيَةك ريَةت:

ط ة ر ر ا ى د ن ر ن ة ى ن ة ا و د ط ة ة ر ر ا ى د ن ر ن ة ى د ة ا ر د ط ة ة ر ر ا ى د ن ر ن ةى ئاوةلَهةاود طةةرراى دنرنةى ئاوةلَكاردثاشةطنة

ياورةنطةداى ويةروةيا يةرلةم بةشةرا شيَوةو واتا و َيةةنى رةنةس سةازى رِيَزمةانى يةريةةك لةثاشةطنة

شيَوةطوَرِةداى رةخاتةرِوو.

بةشى ثيَهجةم ليَكولَيهةوةيةدى بةراوررداري ثاشطنة شيَوةطوَرِةدانى يةرروو زمانى ستاندةررى ئيهطميزى

و زارى دوررى ناوةراست رةخاتة رِوو . ئةم بةشة ثيَك ريَت لة خالَة لةيةك ضوو وجياوازةداى لة طةرراى دنرنى

ناو ودار وئاوةلَهاو وئاوةلَكار لةنيَواى يةرروو زمانة بةراورر دناوةدةةةة. يةروةيا لةم بةشةرا ئةم طنلتانةش

رةخنيَهة رِوو دة رِووبةةة رِووى يةررووليَنخوازاني زمانةدة رةبهةوة.

لةةةداتايى ئةةةم ليَكوَلَيهةوةيةةة ثوختةةةى ئةجنامةةةداى رةخاتةةةرِوو. لةةة ئةجنامةةة طننطةةةدانى ئةةةم

ليَكولَيهةوةية ئةوةية دةثاشطنة شيَوةطوَرِةداى لة زمانى ئيهطميزى ثيَك ياتةى وشةدة رارةخةى بةََم لةزمانى

دورريدا ثيَكًاتةى وشةدة راناخةى يةروةيا ناوطةةرراى رةدنيَةت بةوَ ناسةياوي وبةانطكنرى لةة زارىكةوررى

ناوةرِاسةةت را . لةةةدوَتاى ئةةةم بةشةةةرا ضةةةند ثيَشةةهياريَك بةةوَ ليَكوليهةةةوةى زيةةاتن خناونةتةرِوو.ليشةةتى

سةرضاوةداى دوَتابى ليَكاليهةوةدة ثيَك رةييَهيَت دة بةروايدا ثوختةى ليَكوَلَيهةوةدةى ريَت بةةز مانى دةوررى

وعةرةبى.

185 اللواحق التصريفية يف اللغتني االنكليزية الفصحى و الكردية دراسة تقابلية ملخص

ِتهاَل يدا البحح طز ِ ق ٕ ا ل رت ك ّ ب ا مل ُ ر ف ُ ل ُ ج ٖ ل ل ك ل م ة ٕ ش ك ة ك ر ر ٙ ّ ض ة ْ خ ة و ا ة ا ل ا ا ة ا ف ٕ ا ل ل ُ ا ه ة . ا ل ّ ً ة ا

فاى ا ا ا ف ٕ ا ل ل ُ ا ه . ي ْ ط ز ِ ق ٕ حن ُ ِ ٕ ل رت ك ّ ب ا ل ك ل م ٕ خت ت ل ة ا ل ل ُ ا ه ة . خ ة و ه ّ ة ح ا مل ُ ة ل َ ا ل ُ . ّ ه ة ٕ ي ه ة ا

نُعاى خو اللُاه. خو هّح الُ.ّهةٕ اللُاهة. اتقةتقا ّٕ َ اللُاهة. التيةزِهّٕ فهةْ ةال علة اليةز

التي ز ِ ه ْ ِ ع ز ا ل ت ي ز ِ ش ا ن ٌ ت غ ّ ري يف ق ك ر ا ل ك ل م ة ٕ ش ا ا ة ا ف ٕ ا ل ل ُ ا ه ة . ا ل ّ ً ة ا ش ك ة ك ر خ ه ة ت ي ل رت ك ّ ة ب ا ل ك ل م ة ٕ

اجلدِدٔ َالذٓ ِكري اىل خعلُخات حنُِٕ خجر العدد َاجلهط َ الشخو َ اليّغٕ اخل اى يذٍ املعلُخات الهحُِٕ

الشاخّٕ جلذر الكلمٕ َِعتمد علٖ صةّا حنةُٓ لللملة ٕ اى خةو يّةشات اللُاهة. التيةزِهّٕ يةْ القّاصةّٕ َ

املضتهتلٕ َ ِكُى خعهٖ الكلمٕ شدَى تغّري املعهٖ اجلذرٓ جلذرَ تِغري ا ضام الكام خو اجشا٘ الكام اتصاصّٕ

اليت ِت تيزِهً يْ اتمسا٘ َ اتفعال َاليهات

اى خو اهد ايدا يذٍ الدراصٕ يْ البحح عو اجلُانب املختلهٕ للُاه. التيزِهّٕ خو الهاهّٕ الككلّٕ َ

الدتلّٕ َ اليُتّٕ َ الهحُِٕ للغٕ اتنكلّشِٕ الهيحٖ َ اللًلٕ الُصةىٖ للغةٕ الكزدِةٕ َ دراصةٕ دَر اللُاهة.

عهدخا ِلح. ظذر الكلمٕ فقد افرتض شاى اللُاه. التيزِهّٕ يف اللغٕ اتنكّشِٕ ِضد تزكّب الكلمةٕ آ انةٌ

ااز خلح. ل ل ك ل م ٕ َ د ا ف رت ض ا ِ ض ا ش ا ى ا ت مس ا ٘ ِ ة ت ت ي ة ز ِ ه ً ا ل ل ت ع ز ِ ة َ ا ل ت ة ه ك ري يف ا ل ل ً ل ة ٕ ا ل ُ ص ة ى ٖ ل ل غ ة ٕ

الكزدِٕ

َا تضت طبّعٕ املادٔ َ الدراصٕ تُ سِل البحح اىل مخضٕ فيُل

الهير اتَل متًّد للمُاُع ,َِعزض للمباهح اتتّٕ املككلٕ لغزض خعاجلتًا,َكذلك حيدد

اتيدا َالهزاّات َ ال الدراصٕ َ اتجزا٘ات املتبعٕ َكذلك ُِاح ايمّٕ يذٍ الد راصٕ

َ ِتضمو الهيةر الجةانْ الى ة ز ا ت ص ا ص ة ّ ٕ ل ع ل ة ا ل ي ة ز ا ل ت ي ة ز ِ ه ْ َ ش ع ة ه ا مل ه ة ا ي ّ يف يةذا العلة َ

,اللُاه. َِكمر املبحح املتعل. شاللُاه. عدٔ خضةاٙر تعزِة اللُ اه ة . , ا ن ة ُ ا ع ا ل ل ُ ا ه ة . خ ة و ه ّ ة ح ا مل ة ُ ة ل َ

الُ .ّهٕ, َخيت املبحح اتاز شاملعاِرياليت متّش ش ن اللُاه. َ كلتك )Clitics) َِعزض املباهةح املتتبعةٕ

اَجٌ اتاتا ش ن اللُاه. التيزِهّٕ َ اللُاه. اتقتقا ّٕ خو هّح الهاهّٕ الهحُِٕ َ الدتلّةٕ َ الكةكلّٕ,

تعزِ التيزِ , التيزِ َ الهحُ َ اصها التيزِ لامسا٘ َ اتفعال َ اليهات

186 َخيت الهير الجالح شككر رّٙضْ شاللُاه. التيةزِهّٕ يف اللغةٕ ات نكلّشِةٕ الهيةحٖ َ ِكةتمر يةذا

الهير اللُاه. التيةزِهّٕ يف اللغةٕ اتنكلّشِةٕ ,تيةزِ اتمسةا٘, تيةزِ اتفعةال, تيةزِ اليةهات ,

تيزِ اليز َ اللُاه. املتماثلٕ اتصُات ,شعه القُاعد العاخٕ للًلا٘ َ اللُاهة. التيةزِهّٕ القّاصةّٕ َ

ِعزض البحح اِضا اللُاه. التيزِهّٕ خو هّح الككر َ ا ملعهٖ َ الهاهّٕ اليُ تّٕ َ الهحُِٕ

َِتهاَل الهير الزاشل اللُاه. التيزِهّٕ يف اللًلٕ الُصىٖ للغٕ الكزدِٕ َ ِتضمو يذا الهير

تيةةزِ اتمسةةا٘, تيةةزِ اتفعةةال, تيةةزِ اليةةهات ,تيةةزِ اليةةز َالتيةةزِ املتهةةُع َ اللُاهةة.

املتماثلٕ اتصُات َ ِعةزض البحةح اِضةا اللُاهة. التيةزِهّ ٕ خةو هّةح الكةكر َ ا ملعهةٖ َ اله اهّٕاليةُ تّةٕ

َالهحُِٕ

َِعزض الهير اخلاخط دراصٕ تقاشلّٕ للُاه. التيزِهّٕ لكلتةا ال لغةت ن اتنكلّشِةٕ الهيةحٖ َ اللًلةٕ

الُصىٖ للغٕ الكزدِٕ َ ِتضمو يذا الهير اَجٌ التكاشٌ َ اتاتا لتيزِ اتمسا٘ َ ات فعال َ اليهات

َ اليز ش ن اللغت ن اليت مت خقا رنتًما َ ُِاح الهير ا ِضا املكاكر اليت تُاجٌ الدا رص ن يف كلتا اللغت ن

َتتضمو يذٍ الد راصٕ خلخيا لعدد خو الهتاٙج َاي الهتاٙج الةيت خل ية ًا يةذا البحةح يةْ اى اللُاهة.

التيزِهّٕ تضد تزكّب الكلمٕ يف اللغٕ اتنكلّشِٕ , شّهما ت ختضل اللُاه. هلةذٍ ا ملّةشٔ يف اللغةٕ الكزدِةٕ ,

َِت تيزِ اتمسا٘ للتعزِ َ ٘ الهدايف اهللٕ الُصىٖ للغٕ الكزدِٕ , َ د ات الهير شعدد خو املقرتهات

ا ملتعلقٕ شدراصات اازٗ يف يذا اجملال َختتت يذٍ الدراصٕ شقاٙمٕ امسا٘ امليادر ثة تتبعةٌ ااصةٕ البحةح

شاللغت ن الكزدِٕ َالعزشّٕ

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