INFORMATION, INTELLIGENCE AND NEGOTIATION IN THE WEST EUROPEAN DIPLOMATIC WORLD, 1558-1588 Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Denice Lyn Fett, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2009 Dissertation Committee: Professor Geoffrey Parker, Co-Advisor Professor David Cressy, Co-Advisor Professor Alan Gallay Professor Richard K. Herrmann Copyright By Denice Lyn Fett 2009 ABSTRACT This dissertation explores the Reformation world that helped to create and solidify many of our modern diplomatic institutions, including concepts concerning resident embassies, ambassadors’ duties, and internationally recognized diplomatic privileges. In the early sixteenth century, Western European governments took hesitant steps toward implementing Italian models of diplomatic discourse developed in the previous century. The advent of the Reformation halted this progression and ultimately caused the early Reformation monarchs to abandon this experiment. Their successors revived the practice the middle of the sixteenth century because of financial constraints; the medieval preference for war instead of diplomacy could no longer be indulged because the key states of Western Europe—England, France and Spain—all verged on bankruptcy and faced internal turmoil caused in large part by the Reformation. The resurgence of diplomacy in Europe after the ratification of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 demonstrated the vital importance of information to the nascent diplomatic system. The need to control all stages of the information cycle—its acquisition, dissemination and utilization—crossed national, religious, political, social and cultural lines. Without accurate and reliable information, governments could not succeed at international negotiations and protect national interests. The logistical limitations of the new practice virtually guaranteed that each nation developed strikingly ii similar methods of accomplishing their goals, regardless of their political structures or religious position. Ambassadors and governments collected information from their sources, dispatched it through networks of couriers, and utilized it to the best extent possible in their negotiations. This dissertation explores the logistics and processes used to accomplish these goals from a multi-national perspective. It argues that these governments engaged in vital and increasingly prominent forms of diplomatic discourse, and that they endured despite the polarizing impact of the Reformation. iii DEDICATION To Adam With whom every day is an adventure iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Out of necessity, anyone writing a history of Reformation Europe encounters the diverse and scattered sources found in multiple archives across the continent. This work would not have been possible without the generous support of many individuals and institutions. Several research trips were required to assemble the materials for this project. Grants from the Mershon Center for International Security Studies, the Department of History, and the Office of International Affairs at The Ohio State University, combined with a Presidential Fellowship and two fellowships from the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, provided the support required to undertake the research and writing for this work. At each stage I have benefited from the assistance of the knowledgeable staffs of several institutions. The archivists of the British Library, National Archives, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Archivo Histórico Nacional, and Archivo General de Simancas offered their wisdom and support in locating and deciphering the scattered sources required for this project. Paula Larson and Kimberly Howard opened their home to me during my times in London with their characteristic graciousness and amazing generosity. Fellow scholars have shared their learning and advice at different stages in the research and writing process. Many members of the faculty of The Ohio State University Department of History have given their time, expertise, and recommendations, including v Matt Goldish, Carole Fink, John F. Guilmartin, Daniel Hobbins, Stephen Kern, and Dale Van Kley. I have also benefited from the assistance of fellow graduate students. Kristin Collins-Breyfogle has read every chapter and offered valuable suggestions. Mark DeGroh has shaped this project from our initial discussions over lunches and trans-Atlantic phone calls long ago, and he has read drafts of each chapter multiple times. This dissertation would not have taken the form it did without his contributions. Larry Skillin introduced me to the wide world of early American scholarship. Their friendship, patience, support, and unflagging enthusiasm have helped to guide this work. I owe much to the community of early modern scholars. Susan Doran, Paul E. J. Hammer, and David B. J. Trim have offered their suggestions and advice as I ventured into the archives and began to develop this project. They have also offered their supportive comments on drafts during all stages of the writing process. From my first contact with him while conducting research in Paris, De Lamar Jensen has so generously shared his wisdom, advice, and research materials. Without his support, I could not have covered the breadth of French sources included in this work. My undergraduate advisor, James Smither, first set me on the path to becoming an early modern historian, and has offered his steady guidance, honest advice, and succinct criticisms throughout the entirety of my undergraduate and graduate education. From our initial meeting on the first day of my collegiate career, he has supported my goals and helped me develop the skills I needed to accomplish them. He has read every word of this draft and offered indispensable ideas and comments, and his encouragement has proved invaluable in many instances. Dolli Lutes and the McNair Scholars Program at Grand vi Valley State University provided the financial and logistical support, and friendship, needed to ensure I reached graduate school. The members of my dissertation committee have aided in the development of this project with their characteristic patience and faithfulness. Alan Gallay has offered his support, comments, and has served as a continual reminder to remember the world outside Europe. My co-advisors have been constant presences since the start of my graduate education. David Cressy has shared his time and expertise in the world of early modern England, and provided new lenses through which I could view the myriad interactions that constituted politics, diplomacy, and the evolution of new cultures in the sixteenth century. Geoffrey Parker has provided a steady hand to guide me through all steps of the process. He has given his immense knowledge, resources, and time freely, and has supported me without fail. Without him, this work could not have developed as it did. At every stage I have benefited from their suggestions, and I hope they are pleased with the result. As with any work, of course, all the flaws are my own. Finally, I would like to thank my family, for it is to them that I owe my greatest debts. They have supported me throughout the entire process. My parents, brother, and mother-in-law have been unfailing bastions of encouragement from the start. Above all else, I owe a debt to my husband Adam. He has lived this as much as me, and could not have been a better partner for the journey. vii VITA September 29, 1982………………………Born, Muskegon, Michigan June 2000…………………………………Grand Haven High School Grand Haven, Michigan April 2004..………………………….……B.A. History and Secondary Education, Grand Valley State University Allendale, Michigan 2004-Present……………………………...Graduate Student Assistant Department of History The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Summer 2005……………………………..M.A. Early Modern European History The Ohio State University FIELD OF STUDY Major Field: History Specialization: Early Modern Europe viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….......….ii Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….......iv Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………....v Vita……………………………………………………………………………………...viii List of Abbreviations Used…………………………………………..……………...….....x List of Figures……...…………………………………………………………………….xii A Note on Dates, Names and Places……………………………………………………xiii Chapters: Introduction: Far-Reaching Plans and Fiscal Realities…………...……………………….1 1. The World of the Ambassador………….…………………………….………………27 2. The World of the Courier………...……………......………………………………….98 3. The World of Paper…………….……………………………………….…………...157 4. Messages……………………….……………………………………………………199 5. Messengers……………………………………………….………………………….236 6. Will He Go? Philip II, the Duke of Alba, and the Army of Flanders, 1566-7…...….269 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...309 Appendix A: Sixteenth-Century Postal Routes of England, France,…………………...317 Italy and Spain Appendix B: Letter-book of Francis Walsingham………………………….…………..321 Appendix C: Extraordinary Expense Account of Don Guerau de Spes………………..323 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………325 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED AGS DGT Archivo General de Simancas, Dirección General del Tesoro AGS Estado Archivo General de Simancas, Estado series AHN Archivo Histórico Nacional, Madrid, Spain BL ADD MSS British Library, Additional Manuscripts BL Cotton British Library, Cotton Collection BL Lansdowne British Library, Lansdowne Manuscripts BM Bibliothèque Mazarine, Paris, France BNF FF