Education in Russia: Mapping the Future, Understanding the Past

Home , Andrei Abrikosov, Andrei Fursenko, Dmitry Livanov, Zhores Alferov

Russia direct Monthly Memo | #7 | FEBRUARY 2014

A product of Russia Beyond The Headlines Education In Russia: Mapping The Future, Understanding The Past

Editor’s note Ekaterina Zabrovskaya Editor-in-Chief

Economic competitiveness in the 21st century is impossible without an educational system that produces graduates with the skills necessary to be successful in the global marketplace. Having realized this, many countries are now going through large-scale education reforms to meet these expec- tations. Russia is no exception. Today, reforming the educational system at all levels is among the country’s most pressing issues. In this RD Monthly memo, we ex- plore the Russian government’s plans for school reform and the challenges it faces in reviving the country’s schools and universities following two decades of a loss of funding and prestige. As always at Russia Direct, we look forward to your questions and com- ments on our reports and your sug- gestions of topics for future memos. I invite you to email me directly at [email protected]. Thank you for being our subscriber! RUSSIAN EDUCATION | #7 | FEBRUARY 2014 education in russia: mapping the future, understanding the past

Yan Vaslavskiy Director of the School of Government and International Affairs and Associate Professor of the Political Theory Department at MGIMO-University in Moscow.

Irina Kuzmina Head of Quality Assurance and Academic Development Department of the MGIMO-University in Moscow.

Executive Summary The Russian educational system suffered significant setbacks after the collapse of the USSR. This experience undercut many of the scholarly and academic achievements of the Soviet system. Today, reviving the country’s education system is among the most pressing issues facing society. The current system has significant opportunities for growth and development, but ensuring that its full potential is achieved will require shrewd government policymaking and judicious reforms. Advocates of improving Russia’s education system have largely divided into two camps. One supports the idea © ria novosti of building on the foundation of the Soviet educational model. The other advocates embracing international innovations and foreign best practices.

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Comparing Soviet and Russia The Russian government’s decision to allocate billions Education of dollars to support Russian citizens wishing to study By Yan Vaslavskiy at leading foreign universities (in exchange for a prom- ise to return to Russia for several years afterwards) can The Russian educational system suffered significant only be welcomed. Regardless of international rank- setbacks during the economic turmoil of the 1990s ings, it is clear that, in many areas, the world’s leading following the collapse of the USSR. This experience universities are ahead of Russia’s. undercut many of the scholarly and academic achieve- It is important to note that advocates of improving ments of the Soviet system. Today, reviving the coun- Russia’s education system have largely divided into try’s education system is among the most pressing is- two camps. One supports the idea of building on the sues facing society. foundation of the Soviet educational model. The other Overall, the current system has significant opportu- advocates embracing international innovations and nities for growth and development. But ensuring that foreign best practices. its full potential is achieved will require shrewd government policymaking and judicious reforms, with due re- Soviet successes, and a decline in the 1990s gard for the role of education in the national economy. The policies of the Bolsheviks still provoke heated de- It is possible to identify a range of measures that could bate among historians and the general public. Yet it ultimately lead to a better standard of education in Russia. should be recalled that they were the first to introduce First, the government must focus its efforts on reducing free education in the country in 1918-1919. the level of corruption in middle school and high school, These institutions would subsequently grow into the so that the most talented applicants secure the best plac- most comprehensive system of education anywhere in es in universities. Second, in order to provide a high level the world. The 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union of teaching in higher education, considerably more atten- stipulated every citizen’s right to free education at all tion needs to go towards primary and secondary school- levels — from beginner to advanced (article 45). The ing. Third, public corporations and companies with state Soviet system of education had a very high “low bar”: participation should be encouraged to get more involved all citizens received at a minimum free secondary or in higher education. Such efforts could include schemes specialized education. to share experience and exchange staff, and the establish- Those who continued their studies enrolled in col- ment of specialized departments. lege or university, where education was also free. By

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the mid-1980s, about one half of high-school gradu- prospects were rosier. Many took advantage of these ates went on to higher education. In addition, in order opportunities, and a significant portion of emigrants to provide education for all, the world’s first system of never returned. long-distance learning was established for all educa- Detailed statistics on the emigration of Russian stu- tional levels. dents are unavailable. According to UNESCO, in 2008 In general, the education system in the USSR, espe- there were 43,000 Russian citizens studying abroad, cially engineering and technical disciplines, occupied a mostly in Germany, the U.S., France, Britain, Finland, leading position in the world, one that was acknowl- and the Czech Republic. According to the OECD, 31,400 edged even by the country’s political opponents. Russian students were located in OECD member coun- The collapse of the Soviet Union had disastrous so- tries in 2004. There were 34,740 Russian students in cial consequences for the former Soviet republics. OECD countries in 2006, 37,000 in 2009 and 46,000 Against a backdrop of economic crisis, a deep social in 2011. malaise set in, including the disintegration of tradi- In the midst of the collapse of the USSR, Russian re- tional institutions and the breakup of families. Upward searchers gained a new insight into the relative status social mobility, a direct consequence of the education and potential of their fields and areas of research. Un- system, came to a virtual standstill. Indeed, education fortunately, for many the findings were disappointing: in Russia, and the question of its development, are to- the collapse of the USSR undermined the development day among the most pressing issues facing Russian of Russian science and education, which for several society. years were left devoid of leadership and support from Cuts in public spending on education, coupled with a their own government and society. lack of private investment in the sector, brought many The gap between the Russian and foreign educa- consequences, including the loss of qualified teachers, tion systems began to widen. This was especially true a collapse in student funding and a deterioration of in- in mainstream educational programs, as well as in the frastructure. promotion and marketing of educational products and At the same time, the raising of the “Iron Curtain” and in the flexibility of the programs themselves. There was the significant increase in migration opened up unprec- also a widening gap in terms of the opportunity to cre- edented opportunities for college entrants and teach- ate individual educational trajectories for students with ers to train and work abroad, where the conditions and skills that are in great demand in the modern world (but not in the closed and “standardized” USSR). One heartening sign came in 2013, when one of the Brain drain: Number of Russian students leading international university rankings (published by abroad in the OECD countries the education analytical agency QS) listed 18 Russian universities, compared to only 14 in 2012. 46,000 Russia’s leading university, according to the agency, is Moscow State University (MSU). Also noted in the rankings are St. Petersburg State University (SPSU), Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Novosi- birsk State University, MGIMO-University, the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, St. Petersburg 37,000 State Polytechnic University, the Peoples’ Friendship University, the Higher School of Economics, the Urals Federal University, and others. On the other hand, the 34,740 Times Higher Education ranking of the top 200 universities featured only MSU. The Shanghai academic ranking listed two: MSU and SPSU. Nata l ia M i k hay lenk However, there is still a great amount of work to be done to bring the Russian education system in line with 31,400 global realities.

o Two camps: Soviet vs. international 2004 2006 2009 2011 Today, the Russian public is actively debating the formats of final school exams and university entrance Source: OECD tests and ways to improve the system. Two large camps

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getty images/fotobank have emerged, with almost diametrically opposing not treading water. The debate on the future of educa- views about how the Russian education system should tion in Russia is a constant theme in newspapers and on develop. popular TV shows, online blogs, and other information One of these camps favors preserving the basic pa- sites. rameters of the Soviet educational system and mini- In this debate, Russia’s education minister is perma- mizing reforms. The other advocates the wholesale nently caught the crossfire. borrowing of best practices from foreign institutions. Any tangible move by the government to reform the This applies in particular to higher education, the system in one way or another typically encounters awarding of degrees, learning formats, and so on. fierce criticism from at least one of the camps, leav- One has the subjective sense that the “centrists” ing the political career of the incumbent hanging in the (those who advocate advancing the best parts of the balance. Stark examples of this phenomenon include Soviet system and cherry-picking from foreign models) the current minister, Dmitry Livanov, and his predeces- are in the minority. sor, Andrei Fursenko. The “conservatives” assert that any large-scale and It was Fursenko who achieved the adoption, in 2007, “blind” attempt to reform the Russian education sys- of a law on the widespread introduction of the USE tem will not only fail to produce a modern, competitive (which took place in 2009), as well as the approval of system, but lead to its collapse. The views in the “con- the Russian government for a bill on the partial transi- servative” camp vary in terms of their degree of ortho- tion to a two-tier system of training students, including doxy, with the most ardent calling for the abolition of Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees. The latter was an- the Unified State Examination (or, USE; a system intro- other step towards Russia’s accession to the Bologna duced only a few years ago) and a return to the classic Declaration, the principle aim of which is to establish system of final school and college entrance exams. a common educational framework among European In contrast, the “reformers” are seeking speedy re- countries. forms, and the abolition of long-standing institutions Fursenko advocated a reduction in the number of and practices. They insist on keeping and improving the “budget places” for students in universities, holding Unified State Examination as the main tool with which which students study for free. In the course of the edu- to gauge students’ knowledge and place them in high- cational reforms, Fursenko repeatedly made unpopu- er education. Moreover, they surmise that any delay in lar, but important (in his opinion) decisions. In 2005, this endeavor will only exacerbate the situation in the he announced that socially disadvantaged students Russian education system because the competition is should be in receipt of scholarships, while in 2006

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he noted that Russian schools had one-and-a-half as pation. Universities’ infrastructure has seen great im- many teachers as were actually necessary, and that provements over the past 10-20 years, and they have the number of budget places in universities would de- steadily improved their performance in the most au- crease due to the general decline in population and the thoritative international rankings. overproduction of specialists not in demand in the la- Russian science and education still suffers from a lack bor market. of fresh talent rising through the ranks, but the situa- After Putin’s return to the Kremlin in 2012 and Dmitry tion looks much more optimistic than it did in the crisis Medvedev’s appointment as prime minister, Fursenko years. Wages in higher education are rising — perhaps was replaced as minister of education and science by not as fast as one might like, but not too slowly, either. Dmitry Livanov, who had served previously as rector of The improving conditions have whetted the appetite the National University of Science and Technology “MI- of at least some young people for post-graduate study SIS”. Almost immediately, Livanov made a resounding and, consequently, a career in academia or teaching. statement on the need to halve the number of budget However, Russia will reap the spoiled fruit of the 1990s places in Russian universities and gradually phase out slump for decades to come. But the effects of such a free higher education altogether, using other mecha- large-scale crisis should be mitigated by the above- nisms to finance the training of new specialists, includ- mentioned points. ing student loans. Livanov believes that the overabun- dance of college students is depriving education of its The Unified State Examination prestige, particularly technical schools. Chief among the steps that the Russian authorities can In the autumn of 2012, Livanov and the Ministry of take to regulate higher education is the introduction Education and Science were subject to widespread of a college admissions system based on the Unified criticism for publishing a list of Russian universities State Examination (USE). Whereas previously each uni- that showed “signs of ineffectiveness.” It included more versity was effectively free to determine its own intake, than 130, including several renowned institutes in Mos- including the disciplines that students were required to cow (the Russian State University for the Humanities, pass (orally or in writing), now the system resembles the Moscow Architectural Institute, the Maxim Gorky many of its foreign counterparts. Literature Institute, and others). The compilers of the After passing their final examinations, secondary list were accused of incompetence and reproached for school graduates apply directly to universities of their selecting a flawed method of evaluation, one that took choice and then take part in a general selection process into account the number of square meters per student based on their USE results. but overlooked graduate employment figures. Only federal universities of Russia (see below) and According to a survey by the All-Russian Center for a number of other specialized and leading institutes the Study of Public Opinion in March 2013, the worst are permitted to set their own entrance examinations performer in the Russian government was none other (alongside the USE). These may take a variety of forms than the Minister of Education and Science (with a rat- including written tests, exams and creative competi- ing of 2.6 points out of a possible 5). tions.

Silver linings Advantages of the Unified State Examination Despite all the notorious problems of Russian educa- The introduction of the USE prompted a massive public tion, including at the university level, the situation is debate that continues to this day ever since its incep- far from hopeless. Russia’s top institutions actively col- tion in 2007. The discussion reached a fever pitch in laborate with foreign partners and try to adopt best 2008 when the USE spread to all regions of Russia and global practices where possible. Academic and student the overwhelming majority of high school graduates exchanges are becoming more common. So, too, are began to sit the exam. international research projects with Russian partici- The USE is backed by the government, as well as some

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college heads and lecturers. They argue above all that the many bribe-taking channels. With the introduction of exam helps reduce corruption in the university entrance the USE, the pool of applicants from outside the urban system and evaluates students’ knowledge and skills more centers greatly increased, meaning that more talented objectively than traditional formats. Since the exam uses a students from the Russian regions are now able to en- wider points scale (100 instead of 5), it is possible to iden- ter prestigious institutions without “patronage” (before tify the best students. Supporters of the USE also believe it was simply unaffordable, unlike for many families of that it encourages pupils to undertake independent study. school leavers in the capital and elsewhere). In addition, the USE allows secondary school graduates to enter universities located far from where they Drawbacks of the Unified State Examination live, since they are not required to attend in person but Broadly speaking, those negatively inclined towards can submit results by mail. In fact, the exam is able to the USE include students, parents, lecturers, and some detect talented applicants in the regions who previous- teachers. A central issue is that students tend to score ly would have been unable to sit entrance exams in ma- lower on the USE than they do in internal school tests jor cities. Documents can also be submitted to several and in traditional exams. The transition under the USE universities at once, without having to take entrance from a full examination to a test-based system is also exams in multiple institutes. criticized for disregarding the development of proof The instrumental advantage of the USE, according and the ability to formulate a correct answer — to the to its proponents, is that it allows comparisons to be detriment of logical thinking, as well as creative and ra- drawn between the quality of education in different tional principles. schools and regions. Computerized checks of the re- The USE’s methodology of control and measuring sults save time and money, since verifiers don’t have is a novelty for the Russian education system, which to be hired. has had difficulty adapting. There have been instanc- In general, the tougher requirements of the USE, es when computerized grading systems erroneously argue its advocates, are leading to a higher standard marked correct answers on the USE as incorrect. of education, better qualified teachers, and improved Opponents of the USE also believe that test materials educational literature. alone are a poor gauge of students’ ability and prepara- From an international perspective, the exam is simi- tion. There is a case in point that school specializations lar to the final examinations system in other developed are not taken into account: schools with a humanitarian countries (such as the U.S. and Israel), which could or scientific bias take the same mandatory final exam. eventually lead to the recognition of Russian school Questions were also raised about the exam materials certificates abroad. for some subjects (for example, social studies), which One of the most prominent adherents of the exam is apparently contained incorrectly assigned tasks and the rector of the Higher School of Economics, Yaroslav disputable answers. Kuzminov. Representatives of the Ministry of Education In non-linguistic subjects, despite the multiethnic and Science also make frequent statements in support makeup of Russia, the USE was only available in Rus- of it. sian, which cast many ethnic groups adrift. In addition, Although the exam cannot entirely stamp out cor- the USE has led to a new type of tutoring designed pri- ruption,1 one of the visible outcomes of the reform was marily for final grade students and focused squarely on a significant decline in corrupt activity in the school USE specifications. graduation and college admissions procedures. Reduc- Some of the most vocal USE opponents are public ing the corruption element to zero, as in many other figures and famous people in Russia, such as the writer countries, is extremely difficult. But the USE did cut off Andrei Maximov and satirist Mikhail Zadornov.

1 In the spring of 2010, in Rostov Region, 70 teachers were detained for allegedly sitting the USE on behalf of students in exchange for RUB 40,000 (about $1,130). Similar criminal cases were investigated in SaratovRegion, Dagestan, Perm Krai, and other regions. In May 2013, students who had taken the exam in Russia’s Far East posted the exam online with answers. Because of the time difference, school pupils in European Russia were able to use the information. The scandal attracted the attention of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev. In Belgorod Region, the exam results of all students were declared void.

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ties” went there just to “get a diploma” and not to learn, since in Russian society the stereotype prevailed that only a university degree could secure a stable income and a person’s future. The increasing number of universities and students in the 1990s devalued the whole currency of higher education, and the resulting swarm of “economists” and “lawyers” far exceeded the requirements of the national economy. At the same time, along with the growing number of “poor quality” college graduates in the 1990s, the secondary education system that trained blue-collar workers was virtually destroyed.

itar Reviving professional technical colleges: A return to

- tass vocational training Professional technical colleges (PTCs) were set up in the Soviet Union in 1954 (reorganized in the late 1950s and restored in 1966) on the basis of vocational schools: Establishing federal universities educational institutions of primary professional edu- Another important step taken by the Russian authori- cation to train skilled workers for industry, transport, ties in reforming the higher education system was the communications, agriculture, etc. establishment of federal universities — major training PTCs also trained workers for more than 450 blue- centers in different regions of the country, formed pri- collar jobs (welders, builders, mechanics, electricians, marily through the merger of various universities of a plumbers, mechanics, carpenters, gardeners, the list particular city or region. These universities sprung up goes on). The training period ranged from six months in many major cities: from Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ka- to four years. In 1975, the USSR had about 700 PTCs liningrad, and Rostov-on-Don to Kazan, Novosibirsk, (364,000 students), where around 254,000 gradu- Vladivostok, and Yakutsk. The intention is that the joint ated and 308,000 enrolled each year (according to the optimization of various resources of universities and in- Great Soviet Encyclopedia). In the 1980s, Moscow alone stitutes — from infrastructure to personnel — will make counted more than 100 PTCs. Students there were higher education more effective in terms of the qual- given discounted public transport, uniforms, food, and ity of the educational products offered and the level of other benefits on condition that they studied well or training given to students, who will be fewer in number entered a specialized university. (also a result of optimization). The broad base of PTCs established during the So- The federal universities themselves need to become viet era, which delivered a regular supply of “work- more competitive, not only in the domestic market, but ing hands” for the national economy, saw its funding globally, which should be reflected in a broad sweep slashed in the 1990s and lost its efficacy and potential. of indicators, ranging from the number of foreign stu- The infrastructure was outdated and many specialists dents to international research projects with Russian sought pastures new. Only in recent years have the au- involvement and positions in the world’s leading uni- thorities stated the need to revive the system of voca- versity rankings, etc. tional schools, while the economy today lacks people in the working professions. Those employed in a blue- Reducing the number of students in higher collar job, with decent time management skills, often education? earn a good deal more than a graduate office clerk. Reducing the number of students in higher education The damage inflicted on the PTC network in the 1990s in Russia is, perhaps, not a very popular, but most likely was accompanied by a serious blow to the system of necessary step, given the devaluation that higher edu- training for engineers with higher education. Once cation in Russia that occurred during the 1990s and again, Russia finds itself in a position where it needs 2000s. The opening of numerous private higher edu- fewer humanitarian and more science graduates. An cation establishments, where the quality of the educa- obvious corollary is the need for more preliminary tional process was virtually uncontrollable, significantly training for school pupils in these disciplines so they increased the number of students and debased the can continue them at university. quality of teaching. Many students of such “universi- Another crucial step that the authorities can take to

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improve the quality of higher education in Russia is the at leading foreign universities can only be welcomed. introduction of the so-called “effective contract.” This Regardless of ratings, it is clear that in many areas of reform is already underway and intended to raise the training the world’s leading universities are ahead of performance of faculty members by “canalizing” their Russia’s. work in several key directions. The results of their per- Talented Russian applicants who get through the se- formance (in particular, it is proposed to evaluate the lection process will receive degrees from the world’s quality of teaching by indicators such as course devel- top schools, and then (as part of the agreement with opment, research work, preparation of graduate and the government) work in Russia, or for Russia, for sev- doctorate students, participation in specialized events, eral years at least. conferences, congresses, etc.) will directly determine This practice exists in many countries around the their remuneration, whereby the “motivational” ele- world, and has proven to be a reliable supplier of skilled ment (perks, bonuses, etc.) will make up a significant personnel for the national economy and civil service. proportion of the total amount of wages in comparison For instance, China has run such a program since 1972. with the basic salary. As of 2013, 2.6 million Chinese nationals had received their higher education abroad, of which more than 70% Russian education in an international context returned home. The Chinese authorities work on the In at least one sense, Russia’s education system is akin principle of supporting overseas study, but encourag- to Asian educational systems in terms of its stricter ing students to return home by ensuring the freedom academic culture (relative to western culture). This ap- to enter and exit the country. In Kazakhstan, by decree plies to the departmental and faculty hierarchy, as well of President Nursultan Nazarbayev, the “Bolashak” as to the higher disciplinary requirements for students scholarship was set up in 1993 to provide state support (attendance, respect for teachers, etc.). for study abroad. In 1997, the conditions of the program The Russian educational system, in part due to the were toughened: the applicant’s parents had to sign a Soviet legacy, is rather rigid and less adaptable to pledge of real estate, while the student was obligated changing external realities. In terms of both the ability to work on home soil for at least five years after gradu- to create a broad range of flexible learning products ation. From 1993 to 2013, the “Bolashak” scholarship and the adaptability of the higher education structure was awarded to more than 10,000 students to attend (faculty staff and hierarchies) to the need for quick the world’s top 200 universities in 33 countries. decision-making and continuous improvement of edu- Azerbaijan has operated a similar program since cational programs, which is welcomed by business and 2007. Running to 2015, it covers the expenses of Azer- the market, the educational systems of the U.S., Britain, baijani students abroad, in particular visa applications, France, Singapore, China, and other countries have the accommodation, food, insurance, textbooks, etc. In ad- upper hand. dition, the state pays for students to visit home once In other aspects — such as the university and depart- a year. In 2007-2013, the program financed a total of mental structures — Russia’s system resembles its for- 1825 people, while funding in 2013 alone amounted to eign counterparts. It should be noted that since Soviet around $43 million. A condition of the program is that times, many Russian universities (Bauman, MGIMO- successful applicants undertake to return to Azerbaijan University, etc.) have retained their well-known brands, and work there for at least five years. which are highly valued by foreign partners to this day The closest example to Russia is Kazakhstan, where and create opportunities for Russian universities to a corresponding scheme has been in place for many collaborate and catch up after the slump of previous years. It is notable that in the long term this initiative by decades. the Russian authorities will not only improve the quality of governance, but also create conditions to grow the Studying abroad, working in Russia innovative potential of the national economy, improve The Russian government’s decision to allocate billions the quality of training for faculty staff in Russia, and, of dollars to support Russian citizens wishing to study as a consequence, gradually “pull up” Russian educa-

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shutterstock/legion-media tional products to the standard of the leading foreign cially true with regard to the introduction of disciplines models. It is entirely logical that national resources to in the educational process that uncover and develop train graduates abroad should be directed at those ar- creativity in children and adolescents while still main- eas most in need. By decree of President Vladimir Pu- taining the best features of Russian education. Namely, tin, the Russian government will pay the world’s best those would be discipline and respect for teachers (and universities $130 million to train 3000 doctors, manag- older people in general) on the part of students. ers, and engineers, who in exchange will be required Third, in order to increase the participation of business to return home and work for Russian companies and in the educational process, public corporations and institutions for at least three years. companies with state participation should be encour- It goes without saying that such a big step cannot be aged to get more involved in higher education. These achieved overnight. efforts could include schemes to share experience and Long-term programs aimed at preparing qualified exchange staff, and the establishment of specialized specialists can be of huge benefit, particularly the me- departments. Business itself has an interest in secur- dium and long-term convergence of education in Rus- ing a steady stream of qualified personnel capable of sia with comparable foreign systems in terms of per- generating market-savvy ideas and offering consumers formance and competitiveness. There appear to be no high-quality products and services. There are plenty of substantial alternatives for the Russian government, or examples of collaboration between business and edu- indeed for Russia’s higher education system. Conse- cation already. It remains only to refine and systematize quently, government, business, and civil society should the process. focus as closely as possible on joint efforts to nurture and raise Russian higher education to a fundamentally Successes so far new level. Among the measures already successfully implement- ed are the establishment of large federal universities, Raising the standard of Russian education and the right granted to a number of other universities It is possible to identify a range of measures that could to create their own educational products and adopt ultimately lead to a better standard of education in solutions to improve their efficacy and positions in the Russia. national and international markets. It would seem that First, the government must focus its efforts on reduc- the human resources available to Russia’s leading uni- ing the level of corruption in middle and high school, versities will help them reap the benefits of such solu- so that the most talented applicants secure the best tions and compete over time with foreign institutions. places at university. It should be recalled that in terms of educational Second, in order to provide a high level of teaching products this competition already exists. Since Soviet in higher education, considerably more attention needs times, several Russian universities have been training to go on primary and secondary schooling. This is espe- foreign students in engineering, medicine, and other

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fields. Simultaneously, Russia’s top universities are tem and regime, the country in fact had a significant making every effort to bring high-quality educational middle class (although, of course, the Soviet middle products to the global market, including programs in class should not be directly compared to that of other English. societies). The Soviet middle class included the vast For example, one of the most famous universities in majority of educated people with at least second- Russia, MGIMO-University, has for many years run suc- ary or specialized education, and, at best, a college cessful international Master’s programs (including dual- degree. Many of these people worked and served in degree programs) in English in various fields. In 2013, areas that in modern Russia would be described as the country’s leading “diplomatic school” introduced “budgetary” — teachers and professors, scientific and on the world market Russia’s first baccalaureate pro- medical communities, the military. gram in International Relations, in which teaching is In other words, a significant portion of the middle conducted entirely in English. Soon, other baccalaure- class was made up of the Soviet intelligentsia, which ates (including in economics and law) will be launched was understood not as a narrow stratum of the cul- in English. tural elite and dissidents disgruntled with the regime, Overall, Russian education has great potential and but as a large group of educated and well-read people many areas for growth. with serious professions that required skills and quali- However, the decisive factor in successfully realizing fications. Whereas in the pre-Soviet Russian Empire, this potential is shrewd government policy and corpo- around 2-3% of working citizens made a living from rate governance, with due regard for the role of educa- mental labor, by the 1980s in the USSR the intelligent- tion in the national economy, coupled with the presence sia accounted for more than a quarter of the work- of functional civil institutions capable of carrying out force. supervisory duties to improve the quality of the system The high quality of teaching in Soviet schools is still as a whole and the training of specialists in particular. felt today. The development of science and education These institutions must also be able to promote Russian in the Soviet Union produced a whole host of unique educational products abroad. scientific and pedagogical schools. One result is that since the 1990s, Russian schoolchil- The legacy of the Soviet education system: An dren and students have continued to lead internation- underrated success story al competitions in physics, mathematics, chemistry, The education system of the Soviet Union is remem- and other subjects. At the International Physics Olym- bered by fewer and fewer Russians, never mind foreign- piad, for instance, in the unofficial team event, Rus- ers. Among the uninitiated are many critics who decry sia’s pupils consistently made the top ten throughout it as having been ineffective. However, the history and the 1990s and 2000s (fifth place in 2013; third in 2012; facts demonstrate otherwise. and first in 1997, 1999, 2001). In the individual stand- Despite all the known shortcomings of the Soviet sys- ings, Russian students regularly won gold, silver, and bronze medals. At the International Chemistry Olym- The number of foreign students in the Soviet Union and Russia piad in 2013, Russia took two gold medals, plus three golds in the Informatics Olympiad, and four golds and two silvers in Math. 126,500 119,000 Russian programmers compete on an equal footing with colleagues from the U.S., Israel, India, China, and other countries. Overall in 2013, the Russian team won 18 gold, 9 silver, and 2 bronze medals in various Olym- 88,300 82,000 piads across a range of subjects. The Soviet education system gave the world a galaxy 61,400 of Nobel laureates: Nikolay Semenov (1956) in Chem- istry; Igor Tamm (1958), Lev Landau (1962), Pyotr Ka- pitza (1978), Zhores Alferov (2000), Alexei Abrikosov Nata l ia M i k hay lenk (2003), Vitaly Ginzburg (2003), Konstantin Novoselov 26,200 (2010), and others in Physics; Leonid Kantorovich 13,500 (1975) in Economics. In total, 16 citizens of the USSR 5,900 and Russia have at various times been awarded a No- o bel Prize. Citizens of other countries that emigrated 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2001 2006 2011 from the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union have Source: The Russian Ministry of Education

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also been recognized. Of the 16 laureates (the same criticized for its inwardness. Due to the nature of the number as before), six represent the U.S. They include political regime, there were very limited opportuni- Selman Waksman (Physiology and Medicine, 1952), Si- ties for student and faculty exchanges, international mon Kuznets (Economics, 1971), Wassily Leontief (Eco- research projects, etc. It should be acknowledged that nomics, 1973), Isaac Singer (Literature, 1978), Joseph this approach worked better in the natural sciences Brodsky (Literature, 1987), Leonid Gurvich (Economics, than in the social ones. 2007). Such indicators would hardly be achievable in a However, that does not negate the fact that the So- country devoid of talented people and top educational viet Union was home to many great figures in the hu- institutions. manities and arts, who received recognition not only in Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that the Soviet the USSR, but abroad too, and regularly participated educational system was very closely linked to the real in various international forums and won prestigious sector of the economy through the system of job al- international awards. Suffice it to recall the names of location. College graduates were guaranteed employ- historians Yevgeny Tarle and Vasily Struve; writers ment in various enterprises on a vast nationwide scale. Boris Pasternak, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Ilya Ilf and Typically, students were placed in the final months of Yevgeny Petrov, Mikhail Sholokhov; and composers Ro- study: special committees allocated work placements dion Shchedrin, Dmitry Shostakovich, Igor Stravinsky, to grads at enterprises and organizations with vacan- Georgi Sviridov. cies for specialists with the right background. Although It should be noted that any objective assessment of the system of allocation was compulsory — graduates the Soviet educational system should take into account had to work “by assignment” for three years (and only what is often described as “mentality” — or more spe- then could they choose to move), managers were not cifically in this case, “educational culture.” The system entitled to dismiss these young specialists without per- differed from others, above all, by the more rigorous mission from the relevant ministry, which guaranteed discipline and “textbook” approach to learning, which their social security. In addition, young professionals gave little leeway to the student and far more to the could claim various benefits (housing, education for teacher (which, incidentally, is by no means a disadvan- children, vacations), and so-called “lift money” — a tage). non-repayable starting sum to move to a new place of Moreover, the closed nature of the Soviet educational residence and employment after graduation. system did not prevent the enrollment of thousands of The Soviet educational system was, however, rightly foreign students, mostly from countries allied with the USSR. According to the Ministry of Education and Sci- ence of the Russian Federation, the number of foreign 10 Russian universities most popular among foreign students in 2008-2011 students in the USSR and Russia steadily increased 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 from the 1950s onwards. Peoples’ Friendship University 5,353 In the 1950s, there were 5,900 foreign students; in of Russia (PFUR) 5,324 8,221 the 1960s, 13,500; in the 1970s, 26,200, in the 1980s,

Lomonosov 5,776 88,300, and in the 1990s, 126,500. The figure for the Moscow State University (MSU) 4,187 3,512 1990s was the third largest in the world, behind only the U.S. and France. The crisis of the 1990s took its toll St. Petersburg 3,751 3,626 and many foreign students were forced to leave. How- State University (SPbSU) 3,431 ever, the numbers began to pick up in 1996, reaching 2,402 St. Petersburg 2,254 State Polytechnical University 61,400 in 2001. By 2006, it had climbed to 82,000 and 2,297 by 2011, 119,000. 2,335 I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State 2,123 Foreigners were trained in all sorts of different sub- Medical University 2,216 jects: from medicine and military affairs to global Pushkin State Russian Language 3,708 economics and international relations. Among the Institute 2,349 2,001 universities that enrolled students from overseas, the 1,227 Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (formerly, Smolensk State Medical Academy 1,345 1,391 the Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University) Nata l ia M i k hay lenk stands apart. Even in Soviet times, it was oriented Pirogov Russian National Research 1,042 Medical University (RNRMU) 1,187 towards educating foreigners and establishing an in- 1,286 ternational campus environment. In general, foreign 945 Moscow Aviation Institute 973 (National Research University) graduates of Soviet universities went on to hold key 1,277 o Source: The Russian Ministry of Education positions back home. For instance, Azerbaijani Presi-

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dent Ilham Aliyev and head of UNESCO Irina Bokova community. World university rankings have become a ver- (Bulgaria) are graduates of the Moscow State Institute satile tool that has greatly facilitated the process of self- of International Affairs (MGIMO-University). Former positioning in this external environment. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad attended Today, a university’s position in the world rankings car- Simferopol State University. The second president ries considerable weight in the deliberations of prospec- of Romania, Ion Iliescu, graduated from the Moscow tive students the world over in their choice of where to Power Engineering Institute and Moscow State Univer- study. Ever since the release of the first major university (MSU). And former South African President Thabo sity rankings (Academic Ranking of World Universities, Mbeki is an alumnus of the aforementioned Peoples’ 2003; QS-Times Higher Education, 2004), foreign stu- Friendship University. Look closely and you’ll find sev- dents have used them as the first point of call in sifting eral alumni of Soviet and Russian universities among the wheat from the chaff. The rankings have essentially the leaders of African, Latin American, Asian, and Eu- become a means of communication between universi- ropean countries. ties and potential students, and a source of relatively objective information. Over time, the rankings have expanded their functional do international rankings of capacity. They began as a PR tool for universities to adver- Russian universities accurately tise and inform. But they have morphed into an influential depict their quality? phenomenon with a broad, “institutionalized” scope. First, it is the rankings (not the universities) that struc- By Irina Kuzmina ture the global education market and build the hierarchy — from the best to the worst (followed by the outsiders Ranking of higher education that don’t even get considered). The internationalization of higher education has become Having constructed this hierarchy, the rankings (not the one of the key trends of the last decade. For students, universities) indirectly yet tangibly define and formalize globalization has flung open the doors of virtually every the “rules” in the global academic community. In other university in the world, as a result of which the educational words, they determine the approaches in assessing the market has become extremely, if not excessively, competi- quality of universities and higher education, which lie at tive. Compared with 2000, in 2010 the number of students the root of each ranking’s methodology. studying outside their homeland had almost doubled.2 This Given the high popularity of the rankings, a significant has created additional development opportunities for uni- number of universities are forced, in one way or another, versities, but also new challenges. to navigate these approaches. Finding themselves ensnared in a densely competitive The internationalization of education has essentially “in- environment, higher education institutions have been cubated” another revealing trend: the strong influence of forced to redouble their efforts to appeal not only nation- university rankings on the development of higher educa- ally, but to expand their presence in the global academic tion in general. This is particularly true in countries where the higher education system is undergoing a phase of ac- QS World University Ranking tive development. Methodology Russia in university rankings 5% Foreign Russian universities are slowly starting to make their 5% faculty presence felt in the international university rankings. The Foreign students 20% country’s two major institutions — Moscow State Univer- Citation Index sity (MSU) and St. Petersburg State University (SPSU) — appeared in the Shanghai ranking (ARWU) in 2003. As of today, they are the only Russian universities represented 20% Student-teacher in the ARWU. In the QS ranking, the same universities ratio

Nata l ia M i k hay lenk appeared in 2007, while in 2009 they were joined by the 10% Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO- Reputation in the professional 40% university), and by 2013 the number of universities from community Reputation in the academic (according to surveys) community Russia in the rating had increased to 18. (according to surveys)

o The rise in status of Russian universities is no accident. In Source: Quacquarelli Symonds 2 Approaches to Internationalization and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice.OECD.2012. http://www.oecd.org/edu/imhe/managinginternationalisation.htm

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Top 10 Russian Universities in QS World University Ranking humanitarian and technical universities, since they prepare specialists for different spheres of social development. University name 2011 2012 2013 In a Russian context, this thesis comes even more to the Lomonosov Moscow State University 112 116 120 fore. Technical and humanitarian universities in Russia have St. Petersburg State University 251 253 240 different sets of “input” data when it comes to the rankings.

Bauman Moscow State Technical University 379 352 334 For example, humanitarian universities are more flexible, as witnessed by their more fluid implementation of the re- Novosibirsk State University 400 371 352 quirements and principles of the Bologna Process — espe- Moscow State Institute of International Relations 389 367 386 (MGIMO-University) cially in terms of their ability to switch to a modular form of Moscow State Engineering Physics Institute - - 441-450 study, develop programs in accordance with international St. Petersburg State Politechnical University - - 451-460 Nata l ia M i k hay lenk standards, and adapt them to the changing needs of the Peoples Friendship University of Russia 551-600 501-550 491-500 labor market. Therefore, they are more internationalized. National Research University – 551-600 The arsenal of humanitarian or “classical” universities is Higher School of Economics (HSE) 501-550 501-550 more replete with cooperation programs with foreign

Ural Federal University 451-500 451-500 501-550 o Source: Quacquarelli Symonds universities and their geographical scope of interaction is 2012, Russia launched a program of state support aimed at wider. Technical or research universities may lag behind on increasing demand for Russian university education in the this indicator, but faculty members have high citation in- global market.3 dexes and are actively involved in R&D. In line with the global trends outlined above, universities There is another somewhat disputed issue with respect have set their sights on rapidly expanding their presence to university rankings: they form a system of international in the international rankings. However, the extent to which recognition for educational leaders. the rankings reflect the true quality of the education pro- This “premier league” of universities is practically closed vided is a moot point. off to newcomers. The competition is so high that the Very often, university rankings (like any other) end up first 100-150 places in the rankings are virtually static. Any having to compare things that cannot be accurately com- fluctuations are oscillatory and opportunistic. Sensational pared. For example, is it possible to give a definite answer breakthroughs do happen, but quite rarely. For example, as to where the quality of education is higher at Bauman City University of Hong Kong leapt from 149th in 2007 into Moscow State Technical University, which prepares top- the top 100 in 2012, taking 95th position. But in 2013 it was notch engineers, or MGIMO-University, which prepares pushed back to 104th. first-rate diplomats? To date, the only Russian university within reach of the In this context, university rankings can hardly be consid- top 100 in the QS ranking is MSU (120th). SPSU is in the ered the ultimate tool in objectively evaluating quality and top 300, while another group of Russian universities potential. The QS rankings in 2012 and 2013 reflected the makes the top 400 (see table). Does this mean that the main trends in the education market: the consolidation of quality of education, for example, at the National Research technical universities’ positions and the shift towards natu- Nuclear University, whose graduates make up two thirds ral sciences and technology. The leader in the 2013 ranking of the Russian researchers at CERN,4 but unranked in the was again the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), QS, does not match the quality of education of any techni- which squeezed out both Cambridge and Harvard. It is not cal university in the top 200 of that same ranking? Hardly. hard to understand why. The educational results of techni- Here, as always, the devil is in the details. cal institutes are more tangible. Their graduates work in the In the case of university rankings, the primary factor is real sector of the economy, produce more objects of intel- methodology. To objectively compare universities with dif- lectual property, and are more in demand at the current ferent orientations, history of development, even ethnicity, technological stage of global development. is a task verging on the impossible. But by no means does this mean that the quality of educa- University rankings serve admirably as a promotional tion at humanitarian universities is lower. Quality of educa- and informational tool. But the enlargement of their func- tion is characterized, first and foremost, by the knowledge tion to encompass setting the agenda of educational de- and skills that graduates take with them, and the ability to velopment is fraught with consequences that could bring use them effectively in their professional activity. From this about a rapid decline of not only Russian, but Western position, it is somewhat difficult to construct a hierarchy of universities, too.

3 In 2012, the Russian president signed the decree “On measures to implement state policy in the field of education and science,” one of the tasks of which was to ensure the entry of at least five Russian universities in the top 100 world rankings. http://graph.document. kremlin.ru/page.aspx?1;1610850. 4 Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. http://new.mephi.ru/press/release/content/5556

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Recommended Books on russian Top 10 Twitter accounts for education #education

1. Peter Kneen. Higher education and cultural revolution @minobrnauki_ru in the USSR. University of Birmingham. Centre for Rus- Official Russian-language twitter account for the Ministry of sian and East European Studies, 1976. Education of Russia.

2. James Muckle. Education in Russia past and present. @DmitryLivanov Nottingham: Bramcote Press, 1993. Includes tweets in Russian from the Minister of Education of Russia. 3. Anthony Jones. Education and society in the new Rus- sia. Armonk, N.Y.; London: M.E. Sharpe, 1994. @VA_Sadovnichiy Includes tweets in Russian from the rector of the Moscow State 4. Ferdinand Mertens. Reflections on education in Russia. University. Leuven: Acco, 1995. @RSGovUK 5. Paul Hare. Structure and financing of higher education Rossotrudnichestvo twitter account with updates on Russian in Russia, Ukraine and the EU. London: Jessica Kingsley, culture, science and education. 1997. @OECD_Edu 6. e ducation in Russia, the Independent States and East- OECD Education provides policymakers with the information ern Europe. Soviet education study bulletin. Hampton to improve the quality of education worldwide. on Thames: Study Group on Education in Russia, the Independent States and Eastern Europe, 1993-2004. @QS_pressoffice QS World University Rankings provides independent higher 7. Ben Eklof, Larry Holmes, and Vera Kaplan (eds.). Ed- education research, trend analysis in undergraduate, postgradu- ucational reform in post-Soviet Russia: legacies and ate and MBA education. prospects. London; New York: Frank Cass, 2005. @timeshighered 8. David Johnson (ed.). Politics, modernization and edu- News on global higher education and updates on the Times cational reform in Russia: from past to present. Oxford: Higher Education World University Rankings. Symposium Books, 2010. @ShanghaiRanking 9. e llen Hazelkorn. Rankings and the reshaping of higher Updates on higher education from the publisher of the Aca- education: the battle for world-class excellence. Bas- demic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking). ingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. @GdnHigherEd 10. Wolciech Bienkowski, Josef Brada, and Gordon Stanley The Guardian Higher Education Network includes news on (eds.). The university in the age of globalization: rank- higher education and an overview of world university rankings. ings, resources, and reforms. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. @chronicle The Chronicle of Higher Education is the leading source of news on higher education for people in academe.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORs

Yan Vaslavskiy is Director of the School of Government and International Affairs and Associate Professor of the Political Theory Department at Moscow State In- stitute of International Relations (MGIMO-University). Dr. Vaslavskiy is author or co-author of more than 20 works, including Political Atlas of the Modern World; a multi-volume Encyclopedia of Political Systems of Contemporary Nation-States and Constitutional Conditions for Democracy: Comparative Analysis. His research interests include European history in the 19th and 20th centuries. Dr. Vaslavskiy conducts research in the areas of Russian politics, constitutionalism, the role of natural resources in world politics, e-government and e-governance. He also serves as a Member of the Board of the Russian Political Science Association.

Yan Vaslavskiy

Irina Kuzmina is the head of Quality Assurance and Academic Development De- partment of MGIMO-University, where she has been working since 2011. The sphere of her professional activity includes world university rankings, quality assurance, international accreditation and quality assurance procedures. Dr. Kuzmina embarked on her career path in education in 2010 in the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration in a position of the head of the E-Learning unit and at the same time started doing her Ph.D. in Economics there. She got her B.A. degree in European Studies in the St. Petersburg State University, and her M.A. in International Affairs in MGIMO-University.

Irina Kuzmina

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About Russia Direct:

Russia Direct is an international analytical outlet of Russia Beyond The Headlines launched in June of 2013. The website, russia-direct.org, features articles, white pa- pers and monthly memos that provide the kind of nuanced understanding required by those with a deep involvement and interest in Russia-U.S. relations and Russian foreign policy. Russia Direct is fast becoming the pre-eminent forum for high-level policy mak- ers, experts, international observers and business leaders from the U.S., Russia and other countries. Long-term, the goal of the project is to improve multilateral relations at the interpersonal, interagency and intergovernmental levels.

available for subscribers only coming UP on february, 25 | #4 | MARCH 2014 megatons to megawatts program: hard lessons and new opportunities for us- russian cooperation Megatons to Don’t miss our next Russia Direct Quar- Megawatts terly report on the Megatons to Mega- prograM: watts (HEU Agreement). Having been Hard Lessons one of the most successful and mutually and new opportunities beneficial examples of cooperation be- for us-russian tween the U.S. and Russia, it has come to nucLear an end after 20 years of work. The pro- cooperation ject paved the way for future Russia-U.S. cooperation in the nuclear energy sphere. The big question now is what will come in cial mechanisms. It concludes with a dis- place of the agreement. cussion exploring various perspectives of The Russia Direct Quarterly report out- the future of Russia-U.S. cooperation in lines the history of the HEU Agreement the nuclear energy and nuclear disarma- and gives an assessment of the results ment spheres. in the format of a round-table discussion The work on the report was led by Di- where Russian and international experts rector of the Center for Energy and Se- share their views. curity Studies (CENESS) Anton Khlopkov. The report also examines the unique- Also contributing to this discussion was ness of the project and shows how the Thomas Neff, who created the original disarmament process can use commer- concept of the HEU Agreement.

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