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Of the University of Manitoba in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Àrts PHONOTOGICÀt VÀRIÀNTS I PUKATÀI^IÀGÀN WOODS CREE by Jennifer M. Greensmith A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studíes of the University of Manitoba in partial fulfiLlment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Àrts Winnipeg, Maniloba 1 985 (e) Jennifer M. Greensmith, 1985 PHONOLOGICAL VARIANTS IN PUKATAI.IAGAN I^IOODS CREE BY JENNIFER I"f . GREENSMITH A thesis subntitted to the Faculty of Craduate Studies of the Ulriversity of Ma¡ritoba in partial fulfill¡nent of the requirenrents of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS o teg6 Pernrission has bee¡r granted to the LIBRARY OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF MAN¡TOBA to lend or sell copies of this thesis. to the NATIOTT-AL LIBRARY OF CANADA ro microfilnr this thesis and to lend or sell copies of the film, and UNIVERSITY lvf ICROFILIvf S to publish an abstract of this thesis. Thc' author reserves other publicatiort rights, alld neithe r tire tlesis nor extensive extracts fronl it may be ¡lrinted o¡ othc'r- wise reproduced without the author's writte¡l pernrissiorr. 111 PREFACE This thesis is a first attempt at a study of the phonological contrasts and surface variants of Woods Cree, based on the dialect spoken at Pukalawagan, Manitoba. The analysis is based on direct elicitation and on narrative texts, one of whieh is included as an appendi x . Few studies of Cree phonology exist, and no phonological st.udy has been made of the Woods dialect. Traditionally, Woods Cree has been identified as t.hat dialect of Cree which has the p-reflex of Proto Àlgonquian *1. Àlthough variously written as 0¡ th and 9, I argue that the Pukat.awagan Woods Cree reflex is indeed P" This reflex is usually taken as the prinrary diateetological diagnostic of Cree, but it is by no means the only feature in which Woods Cree differs from the other Cree dialects' I hope that students and Leachers of woods cree will find this study of use, faced as they are' líke the majority of Cree speakers, with the problem of reading wibh materials based on a dialect of Cree other than their or+n" For its financial support during my fieldwork, I am grateful to the University of Manítoba Researeh Board" I should like to 1V thank, amongst, my Cree teachers, Selsey Linklater and Míchae1 caribou, my advisor H.c. I.ioIfart, and Richard carter, John Haiman, John Nichols, DaviC Pentland and Paul Voorhis. From my friends and fellow students I have received much advice and moral support -- especially I am grateful to Freda AnenaKet.¡, Hoo uavlson, Arden oggr Donna Starlçs and to tee Brandson who arso wrote computer programs for the cree text and grossary. Finally, to my husband and children, none of whom ever again wants to hear the word'thesis', I give my thanks and love. v TÀBLE OF CONTENTS PREFÀCE lrl Çhapter Þage I. INTRODUCTION I TheðDialect . o .1 Number of Woods Cree Speakers ,2 No Material for Classroom Use "3 Studies of Other Cree Dialects .5 Historical Documents .8 The External Boundaries of Woods Cree 12 The Internal Boundaries of Woods Cree 14 Pukalawagan Woods Cree o c 16 Sourc es 18 IT. ÀN OVERVIEW OF WOODS CREE SOUNDS 21 Distinctiveness . 22 Summary Table of Phonemes 25 Syllable Structure Constraints ¿b Structure of the Sy1J.able 26 The Syllable in Woods Cree 30 List of Phonemes in Isolation JIa1 s¿ Definition of Symbols " _Stops .. r.. 36 Fr icat ives . o , 41 Nasals . ô . 43 /O/ . o . 45 Semivowels . 48 Vowels...o 50 General Remarks on the Sound System 55 TiI. SURFACE VÀRIANTS -- VOVIETS ÀND SEMIVOWETS 61 Introduction to Surface Variabion bl Surface Variation in Cree o o o e ô o 66 VowelVariants .. o 68 Vowel Elision between ConsonanLs 68 Vowel Adjustments at Morpheme Boundary 69 The Effects of Semivowels upon Vowe1s o . 79 /w/ef.fectsoooo 79 /v/ etfects e . ô . o c o o o ô ô . 84 Semivowels in General 87 v1 The Preverb /nitawi-/, . 88 0rr the Delei i on oi the Semivoweis YU Surface Variation in the Short Front Vowel 91 The Long Front Vowel . 93 IV. SURFACE VÀRIANTS: CONSONÀNTS 99 Assimi lat i on 99 Nasal Àssimilation 100 The Phonene /p/ . aaaa 1Q2 The Phonene /k/ , , 105 Consonant ELision 109 The Phonene /ø/ . 112 v. CONSONÀNT CTUSTERS 119 Phonemic Consonant Clusters .a 119 Surface Consonant Clusters .a 123 Surface Variation: Consonant eluster s 125 /nø/ . 125 tiord F i naI /^ ki 126 t"tedial /hk IJJ vI. coNctusr0N t3t r ! -- AfJIJef-- - - l(1-t I x page A. MTNIMAT PAIRS . 139 B. DISTRIBUTION OF PHONEMES . lþ/ c. THE M00SE HUNT, By MICHÀEL CÀRIBoU . 165 D. CREE-ENGIISH GLOSSÀRY . 213 REFERENCES 249 1 Chapter I INTRODUCTION In the laLe seventeenth century, speakers of the Woods dialect of Cree were first encountered on the eoast of Hudson's Bay. They aeted as interpreters between officials of the Hudson's Bay Company and the tribes who came from further inland to trade with the English. In view of this early contaet, it is nore than a little ironic that the Woods dialect of Cree is now the least studied of all the Cree dialects. 1.1 THE õ I ÀIEET The Woods dialect of Cree is most often referred to as the ð-dialect -- that is, the dialect with the sound ð in words such as g[ða 'I' , where other dialects of Cree have y¡ [, ] or !, for example, fu., [i¡e., nila, Rira. The sound ö has been variously described as 9, th, and d. Beyond this formal identifieation, very littIe information is generally given. Pentland's eomparaLive study (979) proves to be an exception to the general rule in that he gives modern data from several different. Woods Cree dialect areas" His main interest, of course, is a search for historical- correspondences" 2 The woods dialect of cree has yet to be studied in detail. One reason for this neglect may be that, relative to other cree dialects, the number of woods cree speakers is sma11. Another reason nray simply be that there has not been a linguíst in the areas where the dialect is spoken. 1.2 NUMBER oF CREE SPEÀKERS According to smith (1981¡268), the population of "western woods cree" by government bands in'1978 (canada 1980) was given as 35,550. This figure is totally misleading -- it is based on legal and cultural affiliation rather than linguistic status, and encompasses all speakers of woods cree proper, as welL as most, if nn| ¡l'ì nf ll'o hln¡+La*n tll !L- r.1^-! ¡.ve s¡¿, vr u¡¡ç .rv! ur¡çt¡¡ I Áqr¡¡Ð^.i ^^ vrsç^-^^ cl¡¡u--J Lt¡Ë Fttri5Lerll Þwd¡llpy urgg. If we add together the figures given for bands that are known to be in the woods cree dialect area, possibly no more than 8,000 of the total number may be speakers of woods cree. This figure in itself is only a rough estinate, as it reflects only the number of 'treaty'Indians, not all of whom speak cree, whitst ignoring the number of uétis and'non-treaty' Indians, many of whom are cree speakers. I.lolf art (973:'10 ) quotes government f igures f or numbers of Plains Cree, to a total of.26,000, although he notes that the figures are not reliable for dialect or even language assignment. ? EIlis ('1973:6) suggests figures of. 24,000 Swampy Cree speakers, 21,000 Plains Cree, a tentative 2,500 for the [- and the r-dialects combined, and another 2,500 Moose eree speakers. while EIIis' figures may appear somewhat lorr' in comparison to the f igure of 8,000 given previous).y, we musL t'ake into account lhe fact that a proportion of each band number will not speai< Cree -- or, at least, v¡iII not consider cree as their firsl language. Some who grow up in urban cenLres do not speak Cree at home, whilst others who grow up on a reservation may learn their native language along with the more traditional way of life. In view of the small number of speakers, it is perhaps not surprising that the Woods dialect has had a low priority for siudy aRdf furthermore, that nothing has been written specifically about Woods Cree. 1.3 NO MATERIÀL FOR CTASSROOI-{ USE As we shall see, Lhere are three paedagogical works which have been produced for the dialeets l¡ith the majority of speakers -- for James Bay Cree, for Manitoba Swampy Cree, and for Plains Cree. Às a direct result of the existence of Èhese teaching manuals, and of the absence of anything comparable for Woods Cree, speakers of this dialect are of necessity presented with material based upon an unfamiliar dialect. They meet different sounds, words and infleetional endings, as well as unfamiliar sentence patlerns and 4 meanings. All this cannot fail to create the impression that woods Cree is not the "correct" form of Cree to speak. soveran (1966) writes about the difficulties that cree speakers encounter when learning the sound systen of EngIish. Her observations on the handicap of a foreign accenl apply equally to a speaiter of a di if erent diatect: À foreign accent is a handicap when it colors speech in such a vray as to cause social discrinri nation, classing the speaker as an "outsider", making i t hard for him to be accepted on an equal footing with the rest of the 9roup. This, of course can happen to anyone who speaks a diatect that differs from the mainstream.
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