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East Cree Material Culture Together We Survive

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East Cree Material Culture Together We Survive TOGETHER WE SURVIVE: EAST CREE MATERIAL CULTURE TOGETHER WE SURVIVE: EAST CREE MATERIAL CULTURE By CriTH OBERHOLTZER, M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University (c) Copyright by Cath Oberholtzer, September 1994 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (1994) McMASTER UNIVERSITY, (Anthropology) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: Toge1:her We Survive: East Cree Material Culture AUTHOR: Cath Oberholtzer, B.Sc. (Trent University) M.A. (Trent University) SUPERVISOR: Professor R.J. Preston NUMBER OF PAGES: xi, 304 II ABSTRACT The main goals of this thesis are to recontextualize, to rehistoricize and to facilitate the symbolic repatriation of East Cree material culture. As a consequence of the British presence in the Hudson Bay Territory, from the seventeenth century onward a substantial number of inadequately documented material objects were collected from the Cree of the James Bay region and ultimately accessioned into European and North American museum collections. By using these objects as primary documents, we are able to gain knowledge of the native world view and to reconstruct the social history of both the artifacts and their makers. Foremost is the need to establish a definitive ethnic identification of this material. This identification, derived from bot.h external and internal evidence, allows further analysis of particular items which contribute towards a general understanding of East Cree history and world view. Evidence for embedded symbolism expressed in the decorative elements of beaded hoods reveals the dynamic and negotiated realities of native and European relations. While reworking and incorporating European aesthetics and ideals into their material culture, the Cree retained components paramount to native world view. As well, a socio-semiotic analysis of cloth leggings reveals their communicative role in visually projecting encoded messages to be decoded not only by members of linguistically similar groups but also by others, both human and animal, from outside these groups. On a more abstract level, metaphors of protection and provision as tangibly rendered in the ubiquity of lines and knots demonstrate the interdependence and connectedness of Cree cul.ture. The connecting link throughout is the prevalent theme that "together we survive." This refers not only to the actions and world view of the Cree, but also to the objects that have sur\~ived and which are now' source material. for reconstructing the past. Now that these initial steps have been taken, the Cree can recover this aspect of their history. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My indebtedness to the number of individuals directly involved in the production of this thesis from initial concept to finished product is greater than the space allotted here. Foremost is advisor Professor Richard J. Preston who, in his reflective and supportive manner, was instrumental in creating an intellectual atmosphere that brought me closer to an understanding of the Cree world view. As well, my supervisory committee comprised of Professors Richard J. Preston, Gertrude Nicks, Ellen Badone and Harvey Feit have provided inspiration, guidance, and encouragement lightened by a strong sense of humour. Research in a number of museums was facilitated by the grac iousness of a number of curators and keepers of the collections. Specifically I would like to thank John Allan (Exeter City Museum, Exeter), Stephan Augustin (V61kerkunde­ museum Herrnhut), Dr. George Bankes (Manchester Museum), Dr. Peter Bolz (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin), Stephan Burer (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Basel), Gerardd van Bussel and Cunera Buys (Rijksmuseum voor Volkerkunde, Leiden), The Earl of Elgin and Kincardine (Dunfermline, Scotland), Judith Elsdon (American Museum, Bath), Dr. Christian F. Feest (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Vienna), Dr. Claudius Giese (Ubersee-Museum, Bremen), Dr. Peter Gerber (Volkerkundemuseum der Universitat, Zurich), Sue Giles and Gail Boyle {City of Bristol Museum, Bristol}, Dale Idiens and Maureen Barry (Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh), Veronica Johnston (Leeds City Museum), Dr. David Jones (Ipswich), Jonathon C.H. King and Jim Hamill (Museum of Mankind), Michael King (Perth and Kinross Museum, Perth), Dr. Katarina Klapstord (Naprstek Muzeum, Prague), Frau Dr. Kunik and Andrea Schmidt (Niedersachsisches Landesmuseum, Hannover), Herr Hans Lang (Indianer Museum der Stadt, Zurich), Daniel Levine and Marion Rembeur (Musee de l'Homme, Paris), Antonia Lovel ace, Stephen Carlin and Maira Noonan (Glasgow Museums and Art Galleries), Arthur MacGregor (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford), Dr. E.W. MacKie (Hunterian Museum, Glasgow), Linda Mowat (Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford), Annie Oakley (Bargrave Museum, The Precincts, Canterbury), Christel Opeker (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Freiburg), Jane Pierson-Jones (Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery), Leonard M. Pole (Saffron Walden Museum, England), Dr. Corinna Raddatz (Hamburgisches Museum fur Vblkerkunde), Paul Sant-Cassia (University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge), Yvonne Schumann (Liverpool Museum), Dr. Natalie Torbert (Horniman Museum), lV Anthony Tynan and Chris Brewer (Hancock Museum, Newcastle­ Upon-Tyne), Huguette Van Geluwe (Musee Royale de L' Afrique Centrale, Tervuren), Herr Wagner (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Frankfurt am Main), Frau Dr. R. Wente-Lukas (Deutsches Ledermuseum, Offenbach am Main), Victoria Williams (Hastings Museum), Fran~oise Zehnacker (Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve, Paris). And to the unidentified curatorial assistants and technicians who assisted by locating and assembling the objects, I extend my grateful appreciation. I am further indebted to a number of other individuals who provided data, advice, encouragement and moral support. While this list remains incomplete, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Regina Flannery Herzfeld, Dr. John Long, Dr. Toby Morantz, and Dr. Ruth B. Phillips; also to Dr. D. Kathleen Abbass, Dorothy Burnham, Beth Carter, Michael and Nancy Johnson, Dr. Rachel Pannabecker, Paul C. Thistle and the ethnology staff of both the Royal Ontario Museum and the Canadian Museum of Civilization. The interpretation of the data collected was greatly enhanced by wonderful discussions and interviews with a number of Cree people who generously received me into their communi ties and homes: Josephine Blackned, Daisie Cheezo, Minnie Cheezo, Daisy Cowboy, Ronnie Cowboy, Chief Billy Diamond, Hilda Diamond, Josephine Diamond, Nellie and Gilbert Faries, Evadney and Simon Friday, Robert Gillies, Annie Gilpin, Chief Kenny Gilpin, Jackie Hookimaw, Al ice Jacob, Jimmy Kapashesits, Scottie Lazarus, Munroe Linklater, Florrie Mark-Stewart, Ed Metatawabin, Leo Metatawabin, Josephine Moore, Bi 1 J Morri son, Mary Solomon, Annie Tomatuk, Gertie Murdoch, Mrs. Joseph Wabeno, Louise Weapenicappo, Annie Wesley, Archie Wesley, David Wesley, Chief Silas Wesley, Annie Whiskeychan, Peter Wynne. To each of them, and to translators William Archibald, Elizabeth Iserhoff, Karen McComb, Annie Visitor and Minnie Gilpin, meegwetch. Mere words do not suffice to voice my appreciation to the strength of friendships expressed by Dr. Sharon Roseman, Dr. Wayne Fife, Kitty Curry and George Fulford. Without them, this would never have reached fruition. A very special thanks to my external reader Dr. Regina Flannery Herzfeld who gave me great honour by reading this thesis. Above all, a special thanks to travel companion, photographer and best friend, Ron, as well as to all the other "Obies". This is dedicated to all of them, but especially to Jesse, Noah and Topher. v Hudson Bay / Great Whale Kirer I / liensl:a Lare Klstassini Waslianipl /1' MAP: Cree Communities (map compiled from various sources) V1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract . iii Acknowledgements . iv Map . vi Table of Contents . vli Credits . viii Abbrev iations . ix List of Flgures . x List of Appendices . x List of Photographs . xi Text . 1 Endnotes for Chapt.ers . 233 Appendices . 247 References . 252 Photographs . 292 Chapter Chapter One: Introduct ion. ............................. 1 The Natural Context............................... 3 The History of James Bay.................. ... ..... 5 AssembJ ing the Data... ............................ 12 The Validity of Art and Material Culture Studies.. 15 Objects as Historical Documents................... 27 The Cree Perspective on Art....................... 33 Des ign Origins. ................................... 37 Cree Art and Material Culture: Written Evidence... 39 Together We Survive............................... 45 Chapter Two: Survival of the Fittest: The Extant Objects 49 Nascent Museums................................... 51 The Collectors............................. ....... 53 Collecting Process................................ 57 Composition of Collections. ....................... 67 Materials......................................... 75 Summary. ...................................... 80 Chapter Three: Towards an Ethnic Identification: Material Evidence 81 Current Knowledge . 83 Materials . 89 Decorative Techniques . 92 Motifs . 93 Conclusion . 107 vii Chapter Four: Beaded Hoods: Examples of Embedded Symbolism 109 Material Evidence . 110 Evocative Issues Raised by the Evidence . 118 Historic Evidence . 119 Ethnographic Evidence . 122 Antecedents, Analogues and Speculation . 124 Iconography, Innovation and Embedded Symbolism . 132 Summary and Discussion . 150 Chapter Five: Cree Leggings as a Form of Communication 153 Ethnographic and Historical Evidence
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