DOCSLIB.ORG

Functions of Code-Switching in Multilingual Student Community

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Functions of Code-Switching in Multilingual Student Community 2013 Functions of code-switching in multilingual student community IN MULTILINGUAL STUDENT COMMUNITY STUDENT IN MULTILINGUAL UNIVERSIDADE DO ALGARVE DO UNIVERSIDADE FUNCTIONS OF CODE-SWITCHING OFCODE-SWITCHING FUNCTIONS Prof. Doutor Manuel CêlioProf. DoutorConceição Manuel Trabalho efetuado sob orienta efetuado sob Trabalho Mestrado emMestrado Irina Prelovskaia Dissertação Ciências Linguagem da 2013 ção de:ção UNIVERSIDADE DO ALGARVE FUNCTIONS OF CODE-SWITCHING IN MULTILINGUAL STUDENT COMMUNITY Irina Prelovskaia Dissertação Mestrado em Ciências da Linguagem Trabalho efetuado sob orientação de: Prof. Doutor Manuel Cêlio Conceição 2013 2 3 Abstract The aim of the present study is to identify the functions of code-switching in multilingual communication occurring between international exchange university students. Particularly, this study will consider the use of code-switching between English, Portuguese, Spanish and Russian in so-called “temporary language community” of international students within formal and informal settings. In order to achieve this goal, we carried out the investigation which consisted of two stages: applying questionnaire and recording interviews and group discussions. Firstly, we designed and applied an online questionnaire aimed at getting the basic biographical information of participants, overall attitude of exchange students to code-switching, their personal experience and linguistic background. The total of 62 persons answered the questionnaire (completely and partially). Afterwards, we analyzed the results of questionnaire with the help of the Qualtrics online software. As the questionnaire data showed, students more often switch to other languages consciously, to achieve a certain stylistic or pragmatic effect. At the same time, being very tired, anxious or stressed, the students do not realize that they include in their speech units of another language, thus doing it unconsciously. Secondly, we tape-recorded interviews and group discussions with some exchange students who participated in the questionnaire. The instances of code-switching observed in interviews and discussions were analyzed within the Myers-Scotton's Markedness model (1993), thus examples of marked, unmarked and sequential unmarked code-switching were identified. Besides, such specific functions of code-switching were identified: clarification, social/expressing solidarity, topic-related switching, expressing humor/irony, quotation were identified mainly as marked code-switching explained by conscious choice, while lack of lexical item, saving speech and effort and expressing emotions were identified as unmarked thus unconscious code-choice followed by a speaker in a conversation. It was also identified that exchange students mostly code-switch to save time and speech efforts and for topic-related switching. In addition to that, English and Portuguese turned out to be the most frequently used languages for switching in a daily communication of international university students. 4 Resumo O objetivo principal deste estudo é identificar as funções de code-switching em comunicação multilingue, ocorrendo entre os estudantes universitários internacionais. Particularmente, este estudo irá considerar o uso de code-switching entre Inglês, Português, Espanhol e Russo na "comunidade linguística temporária" de estudantes internacionais em contextos formais e informais. Para atingir este objetivo, foi realizada uma investigação em duas etapas: aplicação de questionário e gravação de entrevistas e discussões em grupo. Em primeiro lugar, um questionário on-line foi projetado e aplicado com fins de obter as informações biográficas básicas dos participantes, a atitude geral de estudantes em mobilidade em relação ao code-switching, a sua experiência pessoal e a sua biografia linguística. O total de 62 pessoas responderam ao questionário (total ou parcialmente). Posteriormente, foram analisados os resultados do questionário, com a ajuda do programa Qualtrics. Como os dados do questionário mostraram, os alunos mais frequentemente mudaram para outras línguas, conscientemente, para conseguir um certo efeito estilístico ou pragmático. Entretanto, quando estão muito cansados, ansiosos ou estressados, os alunos usam mudam de código inconsientemente. Em segundo lugar, entrevistas e discussões em grupo foram gravadas com alguns estudantes que responderam ao questionário. Os exemplos de code-switching observados em entrevistas e discussões foram analisados de acordo com modelo Markedness do Myers-Scotton (1993), portanto, exemplos de code-switching marcado, desmarcado e sequencial desmarcado foram identificados. Além disso, as funções específicas do code- switching foram identificadas: clarificação, social / expressão de solidariedade, a mudança conforme tópico relacionado, expressão de humor / ironia e citação relacionados a code- switching marcado, explicados pela escolha consciente, enquanto a falta de unidade lexical, economia de tempo e esforço de fala bem como expressão de emoções foram identificados como não marcado, ou seja, de escolha inconsciente. Os resultados da análise também mostraram que os respondentes usam code-switching para economizar tempo e esforços da fala e para mudança de tópico. Além disso, Inglês e Português acabaram por ser as línguas mais utilizadas para code-switching numa comunicação diária dos estudantes universitários internacionais. 5 Acknowledgments. I would like to show my gratitude to Erasmus Mundus TRIPLE I project for giving me a possibility to participate in this Master program. In particular, I would like to thank all the people who were involved in organization of this program: University of Turku and, of course University of Algarve, and also mobility office, professors and administration staff. I would also like to thank genuinely my supervisor Professor Dr. Manuel Cêlio Conceição for his invaluable help and guidance throughout this process, and for supporting my ideas about the work. In addition, I would like to thank all the focus group participants, who answered questionnaire and participated in interviews and discussions, without them this thesis would not be possible. Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to my family and friends, who were supporting me during all this long journey. I would not have gone that far without their love and support. 6 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................................6 CONTENTS...................................................................................................................................7 LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................9 LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................................... ..9 CHAPTER ONE. Introduction.................................................................................................10 CHAPTER TWO. Theoretical background of code-switching..............................................13 2.1. Language choice...................................................................................................................13 2.2. Code-switching: defining the term........................................................................................16 2.2.1. Code-switching vs borrowing.............................................................................................20 2.2.2. Spanglish or Portuñol?........................................................................................................22 2.3. The pragmatics of code-switching.........................................................................................23 2.3.1. CS as a contextualization cue.............................................................................................23 2.3.2. Situational and metaphorical code-switching....................................................................25 2.4. Previous studies on pragmatic functions of code-switching.................................................28 2.5. Myers-Scotton´s Markedness model (1993).........................................................................32 2.5.1. Social motivations for speaker’s code-switching...............................................................33 2.5.2. Rights and obligations set...................................................................................................33 2.5.3. The markedness of code-switching....................................................................................34 2.5.4. Types of code-switching.....................................................................................................35 2.5.4.1. Code-switching as an unmarked choice..........................................................................35 2.5.4.2. Code-switching as a sequence of unmarked choices......................................................36 2.5.4.3. Code-switching as a marked code-choice.......................................................................37 2.5.4.4. Code-switching as an exploratory code-choice...............................................................38 2.6. Synthesis................................................................................................................................39 7 CHAPTER THREE. Methodology of the study: questionnaire and interaction data.........41 3.1. Questionnaire data: collection and analysis........................................................................41
Load more

Recommended publications
  • “Spanglish,” Using Spanish and English in the Same Conversation, Can Be Traced Back in Modern Times to the Middle of the 19Th Century
    FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND CULTURE 391 Logan, Irene, et al. Rebozos de la colección Robert Everts. Mexico City: Museo Franz Mayer, Artes de México, 1997. With English translation, pp. 49–57. López Palau, Luis G. Una región de tejedores: Santa María del Río. San Luis Potosí, Mexico: Cruz Roja Mexicana, 2002. The Rebozo Way. http://www.rebozoway.org/ Root, Regina A., ed. The Latin American Fashion Reader. New York: Berg, 2005. SI PANGL SH History and Origins The history of what people call “Spanglish,” using Spanish and English in the same conversation, can be traced back in modern times to the middle of the 19th century. In 1846 Mexico and the United States went to war. Mexico sur- rendered in 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. With its surrender, Mexico lost over half of its territory to the United States, what is now either all or parts of the states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming. The treaty estab- lished that Mexican citizens who remained in the new U.S. lands automatically became U.S. citizens, so a whole group of Spanish speakers was added to the U.S. population. Then, five years later the United States decided that it needed extra land to build a southern railway line that avoided the deep snow and the high passes of the northern route. This resulted in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. This purchase consisted of portions of southern New Mexico and Arizona, and established the current U.S.-Mexico border. Once more, Mexican citizens who stayed in this area automatically became U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Spanglish Code-Switching in Latin Pop Music: Functions of English and Audience Reception
    Spanglish code-switching in Latin pop music: functions of English and audience reception A corpus and questionnaire study Magdalena Jade Monteagudo Master’s thesis in English Language - ENG4191 Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2020 II Spanglish code-switching in Latin pop music: functions of English and audience reception A corpus and questionnaire study Magdalena Jade Monteagudo Master’s thesis in English Language - ENG4191 Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2020 © Magdalena Jade Monteagudo 2020 Spanglish code-switching in Latin pop music: functions of English and audience reception Magdalena Jade Monteagudo http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo IV Abstract The concept of code-switching (the use of two languages in the same unit of discourse) has been studied in the context of music for a variety of language pairings. The majority of these studies have focused on the interaction between a local language and a non-local language. In this project, I propose an analysis of the mixture of two world languages (Spanish and English), which can be categorised as both local and non-local. I do this through the analysis of the enormously successful reggaeton genre, which is characterised by its use of Spanglish. I used two data types to inform my research: a corpus of code-switching instances in top 20 reggaeton songs, and a questionnaire on attitudes towards Spanglish in general and in music. I collected 200 answers to the questionnaire – half from American English-speakers, and the other half from Spanish-speaking Hispanics of various nationalities.
    [Show full text]
  • Eurolanguages-2019: Innovations and Development
    MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE DNIPRO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE OF POWER ENGINEERING TRANSLATION DEPARTMENT EUROLANGUAGES-2019: INNOVATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT 17th INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS’ CONFERENCE, DEVOTED TO THE EUROPEAN DAY OF LANGUAGES Collection of students’ scientific abstracts Digital Edition Dnipro 2019 МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ НТУ «ДНІПРОВСЬКА ПОЛІТЕХНІКА» ІНСТИТУТ ЕЛЕКТРОЕНЕРГЕТИКИ КАФЕДРА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКІ МОВИ-2019: ІННОВАЦІЇ ТА РОЗВИТОК 17-a МІЖНАРОДНА СТУДЕНТСЬКА КОНФЕРЕНЦІЯ, ПРИСВЯЧЕНА ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОМУ ДНЮ МОВ Збірник студентських наукових робіт Електронне видання Дніпро 2019 УДК 811.11 (043.2) ББК 81я43 Є22 Європейські мови – 2019: інновації та розвиток: за матеріалами 17-ї міжнародної студентської конференції. //Збірник наук.студ. робіт. – Електронне видання. – Дніпро, НТУ "Дніпровська політехніка", 2019. – 178 с. Збірник наукових студентських робіт призначено для широкого кола читачів, які цікавляться проблемами вивчення іноземних мов та перекладу в Україні та за кордоном. The collection of students’ abstracts is designed for a large circle of readers who are interested in the state of learning foreign languages and translation both in Ukraine and abroad. Редакційна колегія: Відповідальний редактор: канд. філол. наук, проф. Т.Ю. Введенська, Україна Члени редколегії: докт. філол. наук, проф. А.Я. Алєксєєв, Україна канд. філол. наук, доц. Л.В. Бердник, Україна магістр, ст. викладач О.В. Щуров, Україна Відповідальна за випуск: канд. філол. наук, проф. Т.Ю. Введенська, Україна УДК 811.11 (043.2) ©Державний вищий навчальний заклад ББК 81я43 «Національний гірничий університет»®, 2019 4 ЗМІСТ СЕКЦІЯ ПЕРША ФІЛОЛОГІЧНІ ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ Ndiae Ibrahima. SENEGAL: CULTURAL AND GEOGRAPHIC PECULIARITIES…………………………………………………………………..10 Дрок Ю. ЛІНГВОСТИЛІСТИЧНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПОЕЗІЇ ЕДРІЕНН РІЧ “POWERS OF RECUPERATION”………………………………………………11 Кіяшко Д. ДЕЯКІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПЕЙЗАЖНОГО ОПИСУ В РОМАНІ С.
    [Show full text]
  • Espanglish Y Cambio De Código En El Valle De San Joaquín, California
    Symposium Proceedings Espanglish y cambio de código en el Valle de San Joaquín, California Teresa Fernández-Ulloa, California State University. [email protected] Abstract En esta comunicación presentamos un análisis de estos dos fenómenos lingüísticos, muy extendidos en ciertas zonas de Estados Unidos, debido a las raíces hispanas de muchas de las personas que en él habitan. Como profesores, los hemos observado en el ambiente escolar, es especial en si- tuaciones poco formales, y presentamos aquí los resultados de un estudio sociolingüístico de un corpus de grabaciones realizadas escuelas del conda- do de Kern, al sur del Valle de San Joaquín, en California (USA). En esta comunidad se da bilingüismo social e individual (sólo por parte de la pobla- ción "chicana"), ambos de carácter diglósico: nos encontramos con dos lenguas (inglés y castellano), una de las cuales, está relegada a situaciones informales, mientras que el inglés es la lengua de enseñanza, negocios, etc. La alternancia de códigos (code-switching) es uno de los fenómenos más frecuentes en las comunidades bilingües: no es otra cosa que el uso alterno de dos lenguas en el mismo discurso. Este fenómeno ha sido objeto de estudio de varios investigadores como Poplack y Sakoff (1983). Estos inves- tigadores encontraron que lejos de las creencias superficiales de profanos (y no tan profanos), que ven el fenómeno como una clara manifestación de corrupción y deterioro lingüísticos, de conducta verbal indeterminada, el cambio de código resulta gobernado por requisitos funcionales y pragmáti- cos. En cuanto al espanglish o spanglish, los primeros indicios de este dia- lecto (también se la considera una lengua criolloide), se remontan a fines del siglo XIX, inmediatamente después del Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo.
    [Show full text]
  • Announcements
    227 Journal of Language Contact – THEMA 1 (2007): Contact: Framing its Theories and Descriptions ANNOUNCEMENTS Symposium Language Contact and the Dynamics of Language: Theory and Implications 10-13 May 2007 Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Leipzig) Organizing institutions: Institut Universitaire de France : Chaire ‘Dynamique du langage et contact des langues’ (Nice) Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology: Department of Linguistics (Leipzig) Information and presentation: http://www.unice.fr/ChaireIUF-Nicolai/Symposium/Index_Symposium.html Thematic orientation Three themes are chosen. I. “‘Contact’: an ‘obvious fact ? A notion to be rethought?” The aim is to open theoretical reflection on the importance of ‘contact’ as a linguistic and anthropological phenomenon for the study of the evolution and dynamics of languages and of Language. II. “Contact, typology and evolution of languages: a perspective to be explored” Here the aim is to open discussion on what is constructed by ‘typology’. III. “Representation of the phenomena and the role of descriptors: a perspective to be established” In connection with the double requirement of theoretical reflection and empirical underpinning, the aim is to develop an epistemological reflection on the elaboration of knowledge in the domain of languages and Language. Titles of communications Peter Bakker (Aarhus) Rethinking structural diffusion Cécile Canut (Montpelllier) & Paroles et Agencements Jean-Marie Prieur (Montpelllier) Bernard Comrie (MPI-EVA, Leipzig & WALS tell us about the diffusion of structural features Santa Barbara) Nick Enfield (MPI, Nijmegen) Conceptual tools for a natural science of language (contact and change) Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Erin Shay (Boulder, Language-internal versus contact-induced change: the case of split Colorado) coding of person and number.
    [Show full text]
  • Tales of Travels Across Languages: Languages and Their Anti-Languages
    Tales of travels across languages: Languages and their anti-languages Marcela Polanco and David epston Marcela Polanco works as a Counsellor at the Student Counseling Center, at Nova Southeastern University, Florida, and teaches at the Farquhar Department of the same university. She can be contacted via email: [email protected], or 3301 College Ave., Parker Building Suite 150, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. 33314, USA. David Epston is one of the originators of what has come to be known as narrative therapy. He lives and works in Auckland, New Zealand, and travels widely to teach. Appropriately, his latest book is entitled Down under and up over: Travels in narrative therapy (2009). David can be contacted by email: [email protected] This paper is a collaboration between an apprentice bilingual translator/ narrative therapist (Marcela) and one of the originators of narrative therapy (David). Studies of translation and bilingualism offer interesting and useful contributions to the renewal of narrative therapy. As narrative ideas migrate cultures, these crossings can enrich, acculturate, and diversify narrative practices. At the same time, considerations of bilinguality or multilinguality can influence our practice within languages. The example of therapeutic practice that is offered illustrates how narrative therapeutic conversations can move between and across multiple namings of people’s predicaments. In this process, understandings need not be ironed out, as often happens in monolingual conversations. Instead, multilinguality puts names in play as transitory constructions, susceptible to renewal or reinvention. Keywords: bilingualism, narrative therapy, multilingualism, language, anti-language. 62 The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work 2009 No.
    [Show full text]
  • Spanglish: a Controversial Dystopic Or Utopic Language? Controversial
    1 Spanglish: A Controversial Dystopic or Utopic Language? Controversial opinions abound about Spanglish making it a “sizzling topic” (Montes- Alcalá, 2009, p. 98) and “an emotionally charged issue” regardless of whether it is viewed as good or bad (Rothman & Rell, 2005, p. 516). There are diverse opinions on how to define it and what to call it given that the term itself is controversial. The editor of Hispania, the prestigious journal of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, states, “I cannot think of a more innovative research area than what I will dub ‘Spanglish Studies’” (Spaine Long, 2013, p.435). Indeed teachers’ interest in the influence of English on the Spanish language has increased as the number of immigrants and subsequent generations has increased the population of heritage speakers in our classrooms. However, outside of the academic environment, there is interest as well in how people use language daily and varying attitudes surrounding the issue. In the movie Elysium, released in August 2013, we are introduced to upper class individuals who live on a utopian habitat in space and speak flawless English, French, and Afrikaans, while those living on chaotic and dystopic Earth are depicted as criminals, dirty, and members of the lower class who speak Spanish mixed with English, or Spanglish. This movie, set in the year 2150, is a social commentary of our current society and its beliefs and practices. In this paper I will present varied opinions and definitions of Spanglish and arguments over what we should call this phenomenon, a linguistic analysis including some rules governing its usage, and issues related to speakers using Spanglish as an identity marker.
    [Show full text]
  • Competence and Creativity in Translation: Multilingual Perspectives
    Competence and Creativity in Translation: Multilingual Perspectives Carmen Ruschiensky A Thesis in The Department of Études françaises Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Translation Studies) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada April 2015 © Carmen Ruschiensky 2015 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY School of Graduate Studies This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Carmen Ruschiensky Entitled: Competence and Creativity in Translation: Multilingual Perspectives and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Translation Studies) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: _____________________________________Chair Christine York _____________________________________Examiner Reine Meylaerts _____________________________________Examiner Sherry Simon _____________________________________Supervisor Deborah Folaron Approved by ___________________________________________________________________ Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director April 10, 2015 _______________________________________________________ Dean of Faculty iii Abstract Competence and Creativity in Translation: Multilingual Perspectives Carmen Ruschiensky This thesis addresses competence and creativity in translation by focusing on the translator as a multilingual, historically grounded subject. Drawing on recent multilingualism research and integrating insights
    [Show full text]
  • Defining Spanglish: a Linguistic Categorization of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the United States Leah Mernaugh Seattle Pacific Nu Iversity
    Seattle aP cific nivU ersity Digital Commons @ SPU Honors Projects University Scholars Spring April 1st, 2017 Defining Spanglish: A Linguistic Categorization of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the United States Leah Mernaugh Seattle Pacific nU iversity Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.spu.edu/honorsprojects Part of the Spanish Linguistics Commons Recommended Citation Mernaugh, Leah, "Defining Spanglish: A Linguistic Categorization of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the United States" (2017). Honors Projects. 89. https://digitalcommons.spu.edu/honorsprojects/89 This Honors Project is brought to you for free and open access by the University Scholars at Digital Commons @ SPU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Projects by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ SPU. DEFINING SPANGLISH: A LINGUISTIC CATEGORIZATION OF SPANISH-ENGLISH CODE SWITCHING IN THE UNITED STATES by LEAH MERNAUGH FACULTY ADVISOR, DR. KATHRYN BARTHOLOMEW SECOND READER, DR. KATYA NEMTCHINOVA A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the University Scholars program Seattle Pacific University DEFINING SPANGLISH 2 Abstract This paper will linguistically explore the forms of Spanish spoken by Spanish-English bilinguals in the United States in order to argue that Spanglish is a complex linguistic system governed by a set of specific linguistic rules and patterns. I will do this by drawing on previous research in this field that examines the phonological patterns, morphological trends, and syntactic constraints that govern acceptable code switches between English and Spanish (Otheguy, 1993; Rodriguez-Gonzalez and Parafita-Couto, 2012; Rothman and Rell, 2005; Lipski, 2008; et al.). This evaluation of Spanglish will also include description and assessment of different arguments regarding how it can best be described linguistically, ultimately claiming that the most compelling argument poses Spanglish as a well-developed system of Spanish-English code-switching.
    [Show full text]
  • Examples of Pidgin and Creole Languages
    Examples Of Pidgin And Creole Languages Anthropogenic Sauncho usually replevin some Ramsay or tambour round-arm. Alastair mutualizing her poking enigmatically, she corrode it inextricably. Nikos still stagnates sumptuously while uncrowded Marlin deports that wouralis. English is clearly not taught a separate from early middle of acquiring language in is as a general movement in mc with a creole phrase you pass away. Is English a creole WordReference Forums. If no longer period of examples for example of a result of communication, its musicality is mixed languages are also third. The examples from Arabic and the pidgins and creoles considered appear such a uniform system of transliteration The curb is organized as follows 2 and 3. So doing to an important in our website is an army and international, most salient grammatical features that has subscribed to be useful. Creoles on the guest hand wound to any pidgin language that. Black identity are pidgin and creole examples languages of! Philippine Creole Spanish composed of the remote local varieties Ternateo. Is derived from? S Gramley English Pidgins English Creoles and English Nov 2009 31 Examples of Pidgin English If pidgins are indeed mixed languages and non-native. Nigerian Pidgin Wikipedia. Creoles an overview ScienceDirect Topics. What are examples of pidgin languages Quora. Pidgins and Creoles 'Pidgin' and 'Creole' Theories of origin Developmental stages A pidgin is a restricted language which arises for the purposes of. Although it take the pidgin and creole examples of pidgin and languages? Chomsky famously used the example shift the progress from a pidgin to a creole to inspire his hypothesis of an innate language function in the.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introduction: Taking Testimony, Making Archives
    Notes 1 Introduction: Taking Testimony, Making Archives Notes to Pages 2–5 1. K. Gavroglou, “Sweet Memories from Tzimbali.” To Vima, August 29, 1999. 2. I am indebted for the use of the term personal archive to a panel organized by colleagues Laura Kunreuther and Carole McGranahan at the American Anthropological Association Meetings in San Francisco in November 2000, entitled “Personal Archives: Collections, Selves, Histories.” On the historian’s “personal archives,” see LaCapra (1985b). 3. On the history and theory of collecting and collections, see, for instance, Benjamin (1955), Stewart (1993), Crane (2000), Chow (2001). 4. The interdisciplinary literature on memory is voluminous, including studies on the “art of memory” from antiquity to modernity (Yates 1966; Matsuda 1996); monuments, public commemoration, and “lieux de mémoire” (Nora 1989; Young 1993; Gillis 1994; Sider and Smith 1997); photography, film, and other kinds of “screen memories” (Kuhn 1995; Hirsch 1997; Sturken 1997; Davis 2000; Strassler 2003); public history and national her- itage (Wright 1985; Hewison 1987; Samuel 1994); and trauma, testimony, and the “sci- ences of memory,” such as psychoanalysis (Langer 1991; Felman and Laub 1992; Caruth 1995, 1996; Hacking 1995; Antze and Lambek 1996); as well as many theoretical analy- ses, review articles, and comparative cultural studies (Connerton 1989; Hutton 1993; Olick and Robbins 1998; Bal, Crewe, and Spitzer 1999; Ben-Amos and Weissberg 1999; Stoler and Strassler 2000). 5. For commentaries on the “memory boom” as a “postmodern” phenomenon, see Fischer (1986), Huyssen (1995). James Faubion has argued that anthropological interest in history and memory might be ascribed to astute “participant observation” of a world in which the past has become the “privileged ground of individual and collective identity, entitlements, of la condition humaine,” but charges nonetheless that “anthropologists have been more likely to reflect this transformation than reflect upon it” (1993b: 44).
    [Show full text]
  • International English Usage Loreto Todd & Ian Hancock
    INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH USAGE LORETO TODD & IAN HANCOCK London First published 1986 by Croom Helm This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” First published in paperback 1990 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE © 1986 Loreto Todd and Ian Hancock All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Todd, Loreto International English usage. 1. English language—Usage I. Title II. Hancock, Ian 428 PE1460 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Todd, Loreto. International English usage. Includes index. 1. English language—Usage—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Hancock, Ian F. II. Title. PE1460.T64 1987 428 86–28426 ISBN 0-203-97763-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-05102-9 (Print Edition) ISBN 0-709-94314-8 hb. Contents Introduction iv Contributors vi List of Symbols viii Pronunciation Guide ix INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH USAGE 1–587 Index 588–610 Introduction In the four centuries since the time of Shakespeare, English has changed from a relatively unimportant European language with perhaps four million speakers into an international language used in every continent by approximately eight hundred million people. It is spoken natively by large sections of the population in Australia, Canada, the Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the Philippines, Southern Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States of America; it is widely spoken as a second language throughout Africa and Asia; and it is the most frequently used language of international affairs.
    [Show full text]