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Language Change and Variation in Gibraltar IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society

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Language Change and Variation in Gibraltar IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society Language Change and Variation in Gibraltar IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society IMPACT publishes monographs, collective volumes, and text books on topics in sociolinguistics. The scope of the series is broad, with special emphasis on areas such as language planning and language policies; language conflict and language death; language standards and language change; dialectology; diglossia; discourse studies; language and social identity (gender, ethnicity, class, ideology); and history and methods of sociolinguistics. General Editor Ana Deumert Monash University Advisory Board Peter Auer Marlis Hellinger University of Freiburg University of Frankfurt am Main Jan Blommaert Elizabeth Lanza Ghent University University of Oslo Annick De Houwer William Labov University of Antwerp University of Pennsylvania J. Joseph Errington Peter L. Patrick Yale University University of Essex Anna Maria Escobar Jeanine Treffers-Daller University of Illinois at Urbana University of the West of England Guus Extra Victor Webb Tilburg University University of Pretoria Volume 23 Language Change and Variation in Gibraltar by David Levey Language Change and Variation in Gibraltar David Levey University of Cádiz John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of 8 American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Levey, David. Language change and variation in Gibraltar / David Levey. p. cm. (IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society, issn 1385-7908 ; v. 23) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Linguistic change--Gibraltar. 2. Sociolinguistics--Gibraltar. 3. Languages in contact-- Gibraltar. 4. Gibraltar--Languages--Variation. I. Title. P40.5.L542G55 2008 417'.7094689--dc22 2007045794 isbn 978 90 272 1862 9 (Hb; alk. paper) © 2008 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Co. · P.O. Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O. Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa In memory of my father Table of contents Maps xi Tables xiii Figures xv Abbreviations xix Acknowledgements xxi 1. Introduction: English, Spanish . and Yanito 1 1.1 Language in Gibraltar 1 1.2 Aims and objectives 8 1.3 Underlying socio-political contentions: the effects of the Spanish Blockade (1969–1982) 10 1.4 Outline of the book 12 2. The speech community of Gibraltar: Past and present 15 2.1 From the Phoenicians to the British occupation in 1704 15 2.2 The eighteenth century: the birth of a new population 17 2.3 The nineteenth century: consolidation and growth 24 2.4 The first half of the twentieth century: war, evacuation and identity 28 2.5 The post-war period: tension, referendum and blockade 33 3. Fieldwork, methodology and analysis 39 3.1 Sampling considerations and criteria 39 3.2 Social variables 40 3.2.1 Age 40 3.2.2 Sex 42 3.2.3 Ethnicity 44 3.2.4 Class 46 3.3 Test and interview procedure 48 3.4 Recording and analysis 51 Language change and variation in Gibraltar 4. Language choice, competence and attitude 55 4.1 Introduction: mother tongue in Gibraltar 55 4.2 Findings 57 4.2.1 Language choice in the home domain 58 4.2.1.1 Age 62 4.2.1.2 Ethnicity 64 4.2.1.3 Class 65 4.2.1.4 Sex 67 4.2.2 Language choice in the school domain 67 4.2.2.1 Age 68 4.2.2.2 School 70 4.2.2.3 Ethnicity 71 4.2.2.4 Class 72 4.2.2.5 Sex 74 4.2.3 Most Comfortable Language (MCL) 75 4.2.3.1 Age 75 4.2.3.2 Ethnicity 76 4.2.3.3 Class 77 4.2.3.4 Sex 78 4.2.4 Factors influencing language choice and behaviour 79 4.2.4.1 Communication accommodation 79 4.2.4.2 Language confidence and competence 81 4.2.4.3 Acts of identity 82 4.2.4.4 Language awareness, attitudes and norms 83 4.2.4.5 Reading habits 86 4.2.4.6 Television viewing habits 88 4.2.4.7 Contact with the UK 91 4.2.4.8 Contact with Spain 92 4.3 Summary and conclusions 95 5. Gibraltarian English: Vowels and diphthongs 99 5.1 Gibraltarian vowel system 99 5.1.1 KIT/FLEECE 101 5.1.2 FOOT/GOOSE and BULL/TOOL 103 5.1.3 DRESS 105 5.1.4 LOT/THOUGHT merger 107 5.1.5 TRAP/STRUT merger 110 5.1.6 START and BATH 111 5.1.7 NURSE 114 5.1.8 LETTER 117 Table of contents x 5.1.9 FACE 119 5.1.10 PRICE 119 5.1.11 CHOICE 120 5.1.12 MOUTH 120 5.1.13 GOAT/GOAL 120 5.1.14 CURE and POOR 121 5.1.15 NEAR 125 5.1.16 SQUARE 127 5.2. Summary and conclusions 129 6. Gibraltarian English: Consonants 133 6.1 Areas of potential Spanish transfer 133 6.1.1 /b/ /v/ merger 134 6.1.2 /w/ /tw/ merger 136 6.1.3 /Š/ /dŠ/ merger 138 6.1.4 /d/ // merger 139 6.1.4.1. TH-fronting 140 6.1.5 Aspiration of fortis plosives /p, t, k/ 142 6.1.6 Initial /s/ + consonant 142 6.1.7 Clusters and final consonants 143 6.1.7.1. T-glottalling 144 6.1.8 NG 146 6.1.9 J and W 147 6.1.10 H and H-dropping 148 6.1.11 R 151 6.1.12 L 155 6.2 Summary and conclusions 162 7. Summary and conclusions 165 References 173 Index 189 Maps Language change and variation in Gibraltar www.mapquest.com Copyright acknowledgement: Th e author tried to obtain permission for reproduction of the maps whenever possible. Tables Table 3.1 Research sample (by sex, age/educational level and school) 40 Table 3.2 Research sample (by sex and ethnic groups) 45 Table 3.3 Research sample (by class and sex) 48 Table 3.4 Comparative formant readings for American vowels for male, female and child voices (from Hillenbrand et al. 1995) 53 Table 3.5 Comparative formant readings for /i/ and /æ/ Americanvowels (adapted from Peterson & Barney 1952; Ladefoged 1993; Hillenbrand et al. 1995) 53 Table 4.1 Language spoken by informants with grandparents (GL) in the GibM by age 60 Table 5.1 Gibraltarian English (GibE) vowel summary 100 Table 5.2 Average F1 and F2 formant readings for KIT and FLEECE vowels 103 Table 5.3 Distribution of THOUGHT vowel length by class 108 Table 5.4 Distribution of LETTER vowel variants 118 Table 5.5 Distribution of CURE diphthong/monophthong variants by age 121 Table 6.1 Standard Castilian and British English consonants 133 Table 6.2 Different pronunciations of the word garage in the sample 139 Table 6.3 Distribution of voiced 〈th〉 segments in casual conversation 140 Table 6.4 Distribution of R by phonetic environment 153 Table 6.5 Distribution of L in pre-pausal and pre-consonantal environments 159 Table 6.6 Distribution of L by phonetic environment 159 Figures Figure 4.1 Home language (HL) compared with the inter-parental language (PL) 58 Figure 4.2 Self-report BEST findings 59 Figure 4.3 Language spoken by informants with grandparents (GL) 60 Figure 4.4 Language spoken by informants with grandparents (GL) by age 61 Figure 4.5 Development of language preference/competence in Gibraltar 1890–1993 (based on findings of Kellermann 2001 combined with data from this study) 62 Figure 4.6 Home language (HL) by age 62 Figure 4.7 Home language (HL) in the GibM by age 63 Figure 4.8 Percentages for English as the inter-parental language (PL), home language (HL) and inter-sibling language (SIBL) by ethnic groups 65 Figure 4.9 Home language (HL) by class 66 Figure 4.10 Percentages for English as the inter-parental language (PL), the home language (HL) and the inter-sibling language (SIBL) by class 66 Figure 4.11 Self-report BEST findings by class 67 Figure 4.12 Distribution of the inter-student languages (ISL) of the sample 68 Figure 4.13 English as the inter-student language (ISL) in middle schools 71 Figure 4.14 English as the inter-student language (ISL) by ethnic groups 71 Figure 4.15 Inter-student language (ISL) in the GibM and Jewish communities 72 Figure 4.16 English as the inter-student language (ISL) by class 73 Figure 4.17 English as the inter-student language (ISL) in the GibM by class 73 Figure 4.18 English as the inter-student language (ISL) in the GibM by age + sex 74 Figure 4.19 Comparisons between the home language (HL), inter-student language (ISL) and most comfortable language (MCL) of the sample 75 Figure 4.20 Most comfortable language (MCL) by age 76 Figure 4.21 Most comfortable language (MCL) by ethnic groups 76 x Language change and variation in Gibraltar Figure 4.22 Most comfortable language (MCL) in the GibM by age 77 Figure 4.23 English as the most comfortable language (MCL) by class 78 Figure 4.24 English as the most comfortable language (MCL) by age + sex 78 Figure 4.25 English as the most comfortable language (MCL) in the GibM by age + sex 79 Figure 4.26 Reading language preferences by age + sex 87 Figure 4.27 TV language preferences 89 Figure 4.28 TV language preferences in the GibM by age 90 Figure 4.29 Frequent contact with UK by class 91 Figure 4.30 Frequent contact with UK by ethnic groups 92 Figure 4.31 Degree of contact with Spain by age 93 Figure 5.1 Percentages for BULL/TOOL merger by class 106 Figure 5.2 Percentages for BULL/TOOL merger by school 106 Figure 5.3 Percentages for LOT/THOUGHT merger by class 109 Figure 5.4 Distribution of TRAP vowel quality by age 111 Figure 5.5 Distribution of START vowel length by school 112 Figure 5.6 Distribution of START vowel length by class 112 Figure 5.7 Distribution of START vowel length in the GibM by age 113 Figure 5.8 Distribution of NURSE vowel quality 114 Figure 5.9 Distribution of NURSE vowel quality by class 115 Figure 5.10 Distribution of NURSE vowel quality by sex 116 Figure 5.11 Distribution of NURSE vowel length 116 Figure 5.12 Distribution of NURSE vowel
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