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Solid State Transformers Topologies, Controllers, and Applications: State-Of-The-Art Literature Review

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Solid State Transformers Topologies, Controllers, and Applications: State-Of-The-Art Literature Review electronics Review Solid State Transformers Topologies, Controllers, and Applications: State-of-the-Art Literature Review Ahmed Abu-Siada 1,* , Jad Budiri 1 and Ahmed F. Abdou 2 1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley, WA6102, Australia; [email protected] 2 School of Engineering and Information Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, BC 2610 Australia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-(8)-9266-7287 Received: 16 October 2018; Accepted: 1 November 2018; Published: 5 November 2018 Abstract: With the global trend to produce clean electrical energy, the penetration of renewable energy sources in existing electricity infrastructure is expected to increase significantly within the next few years. The solid state transformer (SST) is expected to play an essential role in future smart grid topologies. Unlike traditional magnetic transformer, SST is flexible enough to be of modular construction, enabling bi-directional power flow and can be employed for AC and DC grids. Moreover, SSTs can control the voltage level and modulate both active and reactive power at the point of common coupling without the need to external flexible AC transmission system device as per the current practice in conventional electricity grids. The rapid advancement in power semiconductors switching speed and power handling capacity will soon allow for the commercialisation of grid-rated SSTs. This paper is aimed at introducing a state-of-the-art review for SST proposed topologies, controllers, and applications. Additionally, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis along with a brief review of market drivers for prospective commercialisation are elaborated. Keywords: Solid State Transformer; transformers topologies; power semiconductors switching 1. Introduction Since the Kyoto agreement on global greenhouse-gas emissions was ratified by nearly all nations, individual countries have pledged to reduce conventional fossil fuel-based generation and integrate more renewable energy sources within electricity grids. With such enthusiasm, researchers have identified several challenges in achieving this goal. These challenges include the widespread mix of utility, individual investors and residential generation, employing cost-effective energy storage technology, adopting intelligent online monitoring and self-healing techniques, secured communication protocols, and smart control technologies. In developing future renewable system architectures, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has identified four remarkable points in this ambitious transformation journey: enabling bi-directional energy flow, proposing improved grid interconnection, adopting enhanced technologies, and increasing energy storage capacity. To facilitate the inclusion of these features in future smart grids, a classical magnetic transformer has to be replaced with a solid state transformer (SST) that can enable bi-directional power flow. SSTs utilize a reduced-size high-frequency transformer to control the voltage level, and a range of switching devices to shape and control input and output power. SSTs have the potential to provide extra benefits compared to a traditional transformer in terms of power quality and controllability such as output voltage control, reactive power compensation, voltage regulation (flicker compensation), and power factor correction [1–4]. With the use of advanced Electronics 2018, 7, 298; doi:10.3390/electronics7110298 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics Electronics 2018, 7, 298 2 of 18 Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 control strategies, other functions can be realised; for instance, SSTs can function as a unified power advanced control strategies, other functions can be realised; for instance, SSTs can function as a quality conditioner (UPQC) [5] or as an active filter [6,7]. unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) [5] or as an active filter [6,7]. The earliest AC–AC power electronic transformer was proposed by W. McMurray in 1970 [8], The earliest AC–AC power electronic transformer was proposed by W. McMurray in 1970 [8], followed by the AC/AC buck converter developed by the United States Navy in 1980 [9,10]. However, followed by the AC/AC buck converter developed by the United States Navy in 1980 [9,10]. However, due to slow switching and low power rating of semiconductors, application of SSTs in power systems due to slow switching and low power rating of semiconductors, application of SSTs in power systems could not be implemented during this era. With the latest breakthrough in power electronic industry, could not be implemented during this era. With the latest breakthrough in power electronic industry, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has listed SSTs as one of the ten breakthrough technologies the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has listed SSTs as one of the ten breakthrough technologies that will influence the future of electricity grids [11]. The main advantage of SSTs over conventional that will influence the future of electricity grids [11]. The main advantage of SSTs over conventional transformers is the significant reduction in size due to the fact that at higher frequencies, the required transformers is the significant reduction in size due to the fact that at higher frequencies, the required size of the transformer core and windings drops dramatically [12,13]. The relation between the size of the transformer core and windings drops dramatically [12,13]. The relation between the frequency f and overall transformer size can be approximated as [12] frequency f and overall transformer size can be approximated as [12] S A ·A ∝ (1) w. c∝ B · f ·J (1) m . . wherewhere SS isis the the output output apparent apparent power, power, BBmm isis the the peak peak flux flux density, density, J Jisis the the current current density density of of the the conductor,conductor, AAc cisis the the core core area, area, and and AAww isis the the window window area. area. The The reduced reduced size size and and weight weight are are vital vital for for suchsuch applications applications as as railway railway traction traction [14,15]. [14,15]. Size Size reduction reduction at at higher higher frequencies frequencies applies applies to to other other elements,elements, such such as as capacitors capacitors and and inductors. inductors. Howe However,ver, this this reduction reduction is is counterbalanced counterbalanced by by core core hysteresishysteresis and and eddy eddy current current losses, losses, which which increase increase with with frequency frequency [12,16]. [12,16]. Thus, Thus, an an optimisation optimisation approachapproach between between size size reduction reduction (frequency) (frequency) and and efficiency efficiency was was explored explored in in [16], [16], and and optimum optimum frequenciesfrequencies were were determined determined for for different different core core materials. materials. 2.2. Solid Solid State State Transformer Transformer Topologies Topologies FewerFewer conversion conversion stages stages lead lead to to increased increased efficiency efficiency and and improved improved reliability. reliability. Therefore, Therefore, a a single single stagestage AC/AC conversion (as(as shown shown in Figurein Figure1a) with1a) awith high-frequency a high-frequency transformer transformer link was presentedlink was presentedin [17–19]. in Power [17–19]. transfer Power control transfer in control the single in the stage single SST stage proposed SST proposed in [17]. in [17]. AC a) HVAC LVAC AC LVDC AC DC b) HVAC LVAC DC AC HVDC LVDC AC DC DC c) HVAC LVAC DC DC AC FigureFigure 1. 1. SolidSolid state state transformer transformer (SST) (SST) topologies: topologies: (a (a) )single single stage, stage, (b (b) )two two stages, stages, and and (c ()c )three three stages. stages. FigureFigure 22 isis similar similar to to that that of of a typical a typical DC/DC DC/DC dual dual active active bridge bridge (DAB) (DAB) in which in which the phase the phase shift betweenshift between the secondary the secondary and the and primary the primary bridges bridges is used is usedto control to control the direction the direction and andmagnitude magnitude of powerof power transfer. transfer. The The proposed proposed topology topology in in[18] [18 ac] achieveshieves bi-directional bi-directional power power flow flow by by using using four four quadrantquadrant switches switches and and suggests suggests im improvingproving the the control control strategy strategy to to regulate regulate harmonic harmonic content content [20]. [20]. However,However, the the single single stage stage SST SST has has low low switching switching frequency frequency and and voltage voltage conversion conversion ratio, ratio, while while the the softsoft switching switching is is achieved achieved only only for for a limited a limited range range around around the the rated rated load. load. Thus, Thus, this this design design would would be mostbe most suitable suitable for forconstant constant load load applications. applications. The The cascaded cascaded H-bridge H-bridge topology topology is isscalable scalable to to serve serve higher voltages, but the suggested scheme cannot provide power factor correction without additional active filters [17]. In [19], a minimal single and three phase topologies were presented. Most desired Electronics 2018, 7, 298 3 of 18 higherElectronics voltages, 2018, 7, x FOR but thePEER
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