Non-Traditional Sources and Uses of Water-Reuse recreational areas. As of 2012, there are 167 permitted fa- cilities authorized to reuse treated wastewater. One hun- Introduction dred and thirty seven facilities (including one federal and 35 industrial facilities) are authorized to use wastewater Due to projected increases in population and potable water effluent for irrigation of grass or agricultural land. One demand, the evaluation of non-traditional sources and uses commercial and 24 municipal facilities are authorized to of water is an emerging strategy to conserve available sup- irrigate golf courses and other public use areas such as plies of potable water. parks, ball fields and cemeteries. One facility is authorized to use effluent for cooling water for a bio-diesel plant, one The amount of water on the earth is fixed–water is not a for in-plant equipment wash down and one for an emer- renewable resource but it is reusable. Water is constantly gency discharge. used and reused through the hydrologic cycle, withdrawn from aquifers and streams, and placed back into the hydro- Irrigation accounts for about 86% of all reported water logic system. Raw water withdrawn from a point of diver- pumped or diverted in the state. Using wastewater or other sion is treated before use to the standards appropriate for non-traditional sources of water for irrigation of agricul- that use; water treated to drinking water standards that are tural land could have a significant impact on fresh water related to public health is termed potable water. use. Wastewater that has been used for private, municipal, in- dustrial or commercial purposes must be treated to stand- An opportunity for industrial water reuse exists in energy ards related to aquatic life, safety and recreational contact production Ethanol production, like many industrial and before discharge; usually back into the aquatic system that agricultural practices, involves a consumptive use of wa- it came from. ter. A 50 MGY ethanol plant uses about 200 MGY of wa- ter (or about 550,000 gallons per day), primarily due to The vast majority of public water supply systems treat all evaporation during cooling and wastewater discharge. As water to potable quality. In most homes, businesses and new facilities are sited and current facilities are improved, commercial locations, only a small percentage of potable they can be designed for water reuse. Reuse of treated water is actually consumed as drinking water. The majori- wastewater and reuse of biofuel process water could re- ty is used for cleaning, irrigation and recreation. place the use of fresh water to dome degree.

Lower quality water, such as water with higher solids or Oil and gas production water reuse could include hydraulic salt, can be used to supply demand for uses such as land- fracturing of reservoir rock and enhanced oil and gas re- scape irrigation, car washing, fire-fighting, cooling water covery which uses between 2 and 4 million gallons per reuse and toilet flushing, thus preserving higher quality well. water for drinking. High quality wastewater effluent may also be able to replace potable water in some commercial Artificially recharging the Equus Beds aquifer, which un- and industrial uses. If additional treatment is required, this derlies the City of Wichita well field, is being utilized to is typically done on-site through distillation, reverse osmo- meet the region’s current and future demands. Diverting sis or other technology. water from the Little Arkansas River when flow in the riv- er exceeds base flow, treating the water to drinking water Artificial recharge is a method to store water for later use. standards, and artificially recharging the treated water into When surface water supplies are available, such as during the Equus Beds aquifer through injection wells and re- river high flows, or during stormwater runoff events, water charge basins is an example of a successful non-traditional may be captured and diverted into aquifer storage for pos- water use strategy. In 2007, over 350 million gallons were sible later use. Treated wastewater may also be used for recharged into the aquifer through this project. An addi- this purpose. tional benefit is the artificial recharge creates a hydraulic barrier in the groundwater, thus blocking migration of salt- Types of Water Reuse water plumes from the Burrton oil field into the aquifer region of the city well field. Additional potential locations Across the country, wastewater is used for cooling water, for artificial recharge in the state could be identified. agriculture, industrial scrubbers, and boiler feedwater among other uses. Currently in Kansas, the primary per- mitted reuse of treated wastewater is for irrigation, gener- ally supporting irrigation of parks, golf courses and other

Secure, Protect & Restore Kansas Water 25 SECTION 2: STATEWIDE WATER ASSESSMENT - WATER SUPPLY Barriers and Limitations to Reuse and Use of Nontra- ment potable water sources, even in an indirect manner, ditional Sources has prevented some projects from implementation.

Protection of human health is the primary concern when Under the rules and regulations of the Kansas Water Ap- developing and implementing a water reuse program. propriation Act, consumptive use cannot increase after a KDHE identifies several standard management practices water right has been perfected. for reuse of treated domestic wastewater when it will be applied to public areas such as golf courses or parks. Typi- Consideration of the potential impacts of water reuse to cal protective practices include an increased degree of dis- downstream users is needed to ensure water reuse activi- infection, application of the treated wastewater when pub- ties do not negatively impact the regional water supply. lic access is restricted and posted warnings against swim- ming in or drinking ponded wastewater. Use of wastewater Water reuse and the associated change in the amount of for irrigation of crops produced for direct human con- water returned to the natural system may impact instream sumption is not permitted by KDHE. Monitoring of the habitat and flow requirements of aquatic organisms. Con- treated wastewater is required using EPA approved meth- sideration of the potential impacts to instream habitat and ods and KDHE certified laboratories if applicable. species viability is needed to ensure that water reuse measures do not negatively impact instream use. Salt accumulation may be a factor when evaluating the potential for water reuse, especially on golf courses and in Other limitations to the use of non-traditional sources are agricultural irrigation. Water softening and other activities the uncertainty of water availability for reuse and the prox- can add substantial amounts of sodium chloride to the imity to an area or facility for reuse. wastewater. Typical wastewater treatment processes in use today often do not remove or manage inorganic salts. Fa- cilities choosing to irrigate with treated wastewater may need to alter plant species selections or use other methods to address total dissolved solids, sodium and salinity in effluent.

The use and disposal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products entering wastewater systems and surface water is an emerging concern for wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment plants are designed to remove con- ventional pollutants such as suspended solids and biode- gradable compounds, but they are not designed to remove low concentrations of synthetic pollutants, such as phar- maceutical compounds. Depending on the purpose and application of treated wastewater, the effect and mitigation of these contaminants needs to be considered.

Negative public perception may be the biggest barrier to reuse of wastewater. An early example of water reuse oc- curred in Chanute, Kansas, located adjacent to the Neosho River which serves as its drinking water supply source. When the Neosho River ceased flowing in 1956 treated wastewater was further treated to drinking water standards and used as a potable water supply. Although the water was safe to drink, aesthetic issues resulted in public con- cern about its quality. Treatment technologies have ad- vanced a great deal in the past 55 years since this incident addressing aesthetic issues. Community involvement and public education are important components in developing large scale wastewater reuse projects in the state. In some states, public perception of utilizing reused water to aug-

26 Secure, Protect & Restore Kansas Water SECTION 2: STATEWIDE WATER ASSESSMENT - WATER SUPPLY