English for Specific Purposes 1 Esercitazioni (James)

DISPENSA

A.A. 2019 – 2020

Cultural Heritage Mass Tourism Risk Recreation Ethical Tourism

(051-2097241; [email protected])

Contents Page

1 Writing 3 Guidelines on essay assessment, writing, style, organization and structure

2 Essay writing exercises 13

3 Reading texts (including reading, listening and writing exercises)

Museums and the Ownership of Cultural Heritage: 25 The Rosetta Stone, The Parthenon Marbles, The Mona Lisa (essay assignment)

The Impact of Mass Tourism: Venice, Florence, Barcelona 57

Risk Recreation: Tornado Tourism (essay assignment) 78

Ethical tourism: South Africa – Canned hunting, safaris, and ecotourism 86 Spain – bull running, La Tomatina 98

All the copyrighted materials included in this ‘dispensa’ belong to the respective owners and, following fair use guidelines, are hereby used for educational purposes only.

1 Writing Guidelines on essay assessment, writing, style, organization and structure

Assessing writing: criteria Exam task: 500-word argument essay. The time allowed is 90 minutes, you can use an English- English dictionary.

1 Task achievement (9 points)

Has the student focused on the question and respected the length?

 Fully answers the question in depth. Essay is of the required length.  Answers the question in sufficient depth to cover the main points.  There are some unnecessary or irrelevant ideas.  There are too many unnecessary or irrelevant ideas dealt with. Shorter than the required length.  Does not answer the question. Much shorter than the required length.

2 Structure and organization (9 points)

Does the essay have a structure? Is there an introduction and conclusion? Is the body divided into paragraphs which are linked?

 There is a suitable introduction and conclusion. Paragraphs and sentences link up and make the essay easy to read and the text easy to understand. Paragraphs follow a general to specific structure.  There is an introduction and conclusion. Paragraphs and sentences generally link up and make the essay quite easy to read and the text quite easy to understand. Paragraphs generally follow a general to specific structure.  There is an introduction and conclusion although they may be rather brief. The sequence of paragraphs may show some weaknesses. There is sometimes a lack of cohesion. Information structuring may not always be adequate.  There may not be a suitable introduction or conclusion. Sequencing of the paragraphs is insufficient. There is a general lack of structure in paragraphs. Cohesion generally not up to the task. It is difficult for the reader to follow the ideas or understand the text in parts.  The essay is unstructured, or structured in a way that prevents understanding. Very few sentence-linking devices appear, and these are usually used incorrectly.

3 Language (9 points)

This relates to the use of the functional language and accuracy in grammar.

 Mistakes are not significant. A wide range of functional language is used which is appropriate for the essay question. Vocabulary is appropriate throughout. Appropriate academic style is used.  Occasional mistakes occur, which do not prevent understanding. A good range of functional language is used which is appropriate for the question. Vocabulary is mostly appropriate throughout. Academic style is used for most of the essay.  Repeated mistakes occur which sometimes prevent understanding. Some functional language is used. Vocabulary is not always appropriate, and the style is sometimes not academic.  There are a large number of very serious mistakes. Meaning is often unclear. There is only limited use of functional language. Vocabulary and style are frequently inappropriate.  The student has very little control over grammar and vocabulary, and is unable to make the meaning clear to a reader; or the language is clearly not the student’s own.

4 Presentation (3 points)

This concerns the overall appearance of the essay: layout, spacing, spelling and punctuation.

 The essay is extremely well presented and easy to read with no mistakes in spelling or punctuation.  The essay is well presented and easy to read with only a few mistakes in spelling or punctuation.  This essay is readable, but mistakes in spelling and punctuation interfere with the smooth flow of reading.

Writing an Argumentative Essay

 An essay is a piece of writing made up of a number of paragraphs.  Each paragraph has a specific role in an essay.  In a five-paragraph essay, the first paragraph is an introduction; the second, third, and fourth paragraphs form the body of the essay; and the fifth paragraph is a conclusion.

The three stages of essay writing: 1 Tell the reader what you are going to tell them (introduction: paragraph one) 2 Tell them (body: paragraphs two, three and four) 3 Tell them what you have told them (conclusion: paragraph five)

An Argumentative essay requires you to present a reasoned argument on a particular issue. A well- balanced essay of this type presents arguments about both sides of an issue. Present your (two) arguments in two paragraphs with supporting evidence, examples or reasons. Then, look at the issue you are addressing in your essay from another viewpoint. In this case:

 One topic sentence will consist of a conflicting opinion.  The rest of the paragraph will provide your counterarguments. That is, you refute the argument or provide evidence against it.

Introductory paragraph  Introduces the topic.  Provides thesis statement The first sentence(s) introduce(s) the topic of the essay in an interesting way. The thesis statement is the most important sentence in the entire essay. It presents the essay topic and your position on the topic and indicates the main ideas that will be discussed in the body paragraphs.

Body paragraphs  The body of an essay consists of three paragraphs.  Each body paragraph explains in detail one of the main ideas expressed in the thesis statement.  There are three parts to a body paragraph: 1 a topic sentence 2 supporting sentences 3 a concluding sentence (optional)

The topic sentence  The first sentence – the topic sentence – expresses the topic of the paragraph  It provides a controlling idea about the topic.  All information in the paragraph supports the controlling idea.

Supporting sentences  Supporting sentences explain and develop the topic sentence.  They present logical thoughts, evidence, and explanations in support of the controlling idea.

Concluding sentence  The paragraph may end with a concluding thought on the paragraph topic.  It may also show a transition to the next paragraph.

The concluding paragraph  The conclusion consists of two elements: a restated thesis, a summary of main ideas.  The thesis is restated in words different from those in the introduction.  The main ideas from each of the body paragraphs are summarized as a reminder to the reader.

NB The introduction and conclusion (together) should account for approximately 20% of the word count (100-110 words).

FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH HOOK BUILDING/INTRODUCTORY SENTENCES THESIS STATEMENT

BODY PARAGRAPH ONE TOPIC SENTENCE

SUPPORTING SENTENCES (CONCLUDING SENTENCE)

BODY PARAGRAPH TWO TOPIC SENTENCE SUPPORTING SENTENCES (CONCLUDING SENTENCE)

BODY PARAGRAPH↓ THREE TOPIC SENTENCE SUPPORTING SENTENCES (CONCLUDING SENTENCE)

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

RESTATED THESIS SUMMARY/REITERATION OF MAIN IDEAS

PLANNING YOUR ESSAY

 The plan gives your essay a clear structure. This makes it a lot easier for the reader to follow your argument.  A good essay has a carefully planned structure that is clear, logical and relevant to the question.  Plans should be in note form. It serves as a map for you to follow.

Points to remember when planning your essay: Brainstorm ideas. Edit and organize ideas. Discard those not relevant to your arguments. Make sure you have evidence to support those you will include in your essay. Set out your arguments clearly. Chose words and phrases to convey them accurately and concisely. Use domain-specific lexis.

NOTE Making up your ideas as your write your essay will lead to an unstructured, and unorganized, piece of writing. It will not have logical coherence or persuasive force. Your arguments will not be clear. Very often, the language suffers as a result.

Writing a Compare/Contrast Essay • A compare/contrast essay notes similarities and differences. • The compare/contrast format should make a point or serve a purpose. i.e to support a for example: Bring one or both of the subjects into sharper focus.

The thesis can present the subjects and argue whether they are similar/different. The same points must be discussed for both subjects. The common organizational structures are: Block method /vertical structure (subject by subject) Point by point / horizontal structure Use detailed topic sentences and the following connecting words to make the relationship between your subjects clear to your reader:

Connectors That Show Comparison (Similarities)

In addition Correspondingly Compared to

Similarly Just as As well as

Like/likewise Same as At the same time

Connectors That Show Contrast (Differences)

However On the contrary On the other hand

Even though In contrast Although

Unlike Meanwhile

Compare and Contrast Essay Structure: Block Method / vertical

In the Block Method, each paragraph addresses My Essay ONE TOPIC ONLY from your pair of topics and includes the SHARED ASPECTS you have chosen to Compare to topic 2. Use the following chart to organize your ideas for your essay Introduction  introduction of general topic  specific topic  thesis statement Topic 1 Topic Sentence: Aspect 1  Detail  Detail Aspect 2  Detail  Detail Aspect 3  Detail  Detail Topic 2 Topic Sentence: Aspect 1  Detail  Detail Aspect 2  Detail  Detail Aspect 3  Detail  Detail Conclusion  Reiteration of thesis statement  Summary of main points

Compare and Contrast Essay Structure: Point by Point Method/Horizontal

In the Point-by-Point Method, each paragraph My Essay contains details on ONE ASPECT of BOTH TOPICS organized in the same order. Use the following chart to organize your ideas for your essay. Introduction  introduction of general topic  specific topic  thesis statement Topic 1 - Aspect 1 Topic Sentence:  Detail  Detail Topic 2 - Aspect 1  Detail  Detail Topic 1 - Aspect 2 Topic Sentence:  Detail  Detail Topic 2 - Aspect 2  Detail  Detail Topic 1 - Aspect 3 Topic Sentence:  Detail  Detail Topic 2 - Aspect 3  Detail  Detail Conclusion  Reiteration of thesis statement  Summary of main points

Text Pattern Signals Text Pattern Signals: These are words or phrases embedded in texts which ‘signal’ the organizational features and ‘direction’ of a text. Text features and semantic cues – phrases found in key sentences, such as explicit topic sentences and thesis sentences – also provide the reader with signals as for the structure and organization of a text. Typical text pattern signals for different text structures Event Compare-Contrast Cause-Effect Enumeration Proposition-Support Problem-Solution Description/ Judgment/Critique Definition Also although accordingly to begin as well as as a result First but because second either … or … consequently next however if … then finally in contrast furthermore in fact in fact for this reason then on the other hand may be due to most importantly not only … but also nevertheless for instance while therefore for example unless thus to illustrate similarly reason why characteristics include the facts show since such as if … then so that in addition for example the effect of besides same as/different to begin with from as opposed to both whereas Semantic cues in Semantic cues in Semantic cues in key introductory thesis statement or sentences, “A reason sentences and introductory for this is …” paragraphs. paragraph

Table adapted from: Hess, K. (2006, updated 2008) Teaching and Assessing Understanding of text Structures across Grades. http://www.nciea.org/publications/TextStructures_KH08.pdf (accessed 12 September, 2014)

2 Writing exercises Quiz: Do I have a good academic writing style? Read each question and choose the best answer for you by putting a tick ✓ next to the answer you choose. Q1 Which one of the following is closest to academic style? a a novel b a newspaper article c an advertisement d a letter from the bank

Q2 The best way to start an academic text is a with a question b with some new or surprising information c with some background details d with the topic of the text

Q3 The best way to keep your reader’s attention in an academic text is a to write short sentences b to give familiar information first, and then new information c to be friendly, e.g., as in an e-mail d to ask questions first, and then give the answers, e.g., as in a conversation

Q4 The best order for ideas in an academic paragraph is a from a general idea of the main point to specific details b from specific details to a general idea of the main point c the order in which I think of the ideas when I am writing d no particular order, as this does not matter

Q5 The best way to start a sentence in an academic text is a with some information the reader knows already b with some background details c with some new or surprising information d with a person or personal pronoun, e.g., We can see

Q6 The best kinds of words to use in academic writing are a unusual words that a reader will notice and admire b simple words, such as big and important, which are easy to understand c words such as reason or similarity which show relationships between ideas d special technical words which are specific to the subject I am studying

Writing in an academic style 1 Use formal rather than informal language. i) Avoid contracted forms ii) Avoid colloquial language iii) Avoid punctuation indicating your attitude 2 Be concise and precise i) Try to use one-word verbs instead of phrasal verbs ii) Avoid vague words common in speech iii) Avoid etc., and so on. iv) Use nominal groups to express ideas efficiently 3 Use impersonal language i) Avoid using I to express your opinion ii) Avoid addressing the reader as you 4 Be cautious in what you say i) Avoid generalizations ii) Avoid words that express your emotions rather than evidence iii) Use hedges to qualify your statements Exercise Below are twelve sentences. Improve them by using an appropriate academic style, follow the order of criteria above.

1 Use formal rather than informal language. i) Ranch owners can’t expect too much sympathy. ii) The country is facing a bunch of problems. iii) The collection is said to be one of the BEST!!!!!!! 2 Be concise and precise i) Certain issues were brought up at the Cairo conference. ii) Government policy can have a big impact. iii) Hemmingway’s ‘Camping Out’ addresses various topics, setting up camp, cooking outdoors etc. iv) The population of wild lions is declining and this is causing concern among anti-hunting groups. 3 Use impersonal language i) I think that the situation will continue to deteriorate. ii) You can see the results of this in numerous historical centres. 4 Be cautious in what you say i) Nowadays everyone chooses to fly low-cost. ii) It is ridiculous to think that such problems can be resolved without government intervention. iii) The problem is widespread in the Middle East.

Key words: analysing titles/key ‘moves’ and strategies in essay writing.

Match the key words on the left with the definitions on the right

Analyse Explain a topic briefly and clearly

Assess (Evaluate) Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main elements

Describe Divide into sections and discuss each critically

Discuss Break down into the various parts and their relationships

Examine (Explore) Make a proposal and support it

Illustrate Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks (for example)

Outline Give a detailed account of something

State Give a simple, basic account of the main points of a topic

Suggest Give examples

Summarise Decide the value or worth of a subject

(From: Bailey, S. (2011) Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. London: Routledge)

How would you approach the following questions? Tourist attractions such as zoos and aquariums are essentially in conflict with the ideals of freedom and dignity which are the basis of a democratic society. Discuss. Tornado chasing is a waste of time and money. Discuss. The rightful home of the Mona Lisa is Italy. Discuss.

Travel Advertising Outcome: creating simple and complex sentences. Below are three travel adverts that have been ‘crunched’. Complete the sentences using the words provided and the say what the adverts are for.

Text 1 (Advert for ______).

1i Black Forest Black Sea connecting countries eight Danube Europe’s from is longest river second the the the to. 1ii a aboard along banks cathedrals cruise Danube delightful deluxe experience Gothic from here lush mighty M.S. Danube Princess on of of pleasure rise river the the the the this vineyards where. 2i as by Danube described Eastern Europe “King of the rivers of Europe” Napoleon on on the the visit was what. 2ii a and and by castles discover fairytale floats historic landscapes of ports quaint river villages vineyards while world. 3 all as and Black Sea Bucharest Budapest capitals countries eight European explore journey of takes the the the through to you your Vienna way wondrous.

1i Connecting ______, the Danube ______. 1ii Here, along ______, where ______, experience ______on______aboard______.

2i Visit ______, on what ______. 2ii Discover ______and______, while a ______, ______.

3 Explore ______, ______and ______as ______through ______.

Adapted from https://www.teachitenglish.co.uk/resources/ks3/persuasive-writing-trail/reading/15- adverts-crunched-in-teachit-s-cruncher/7540 16

Text 2 (Advert for ______)

1i best-kept is Mediterranean’s Northern Cyprus of one secrets the. 1ii a and and awe-inspiring beaches beauty culture history is island mile mile of overflowing the treasure trove unspoilt upon with with. 2i a a a and are backdrop gothic-shaped harbour is Kyrenia located most mountains of of our picture postcard properties small town where with. 2ii and and bistros is full languid of restaurants timeless tiny the town. 3 a commercialism combined destination holiday hospitality lack makes of the this traditional unique with.

1i ______. 1ii With ______of______and ______, the island ______and______.

2i Kyrenia, where ______, ______with______and______. 2ii ______and______, the town ______.

3 The lack ______, ______, makes ______.

Text 3 (Advert for ______) Crunched

1 at along discovery Dordogne meander of own pace Pilgrims’ relaxed Rocamadour the the to village your. 2 and and beautiful character climate discover Dordogne easy enjoying gastronomy hotels in its landscapes most of rich scenery some spectacular splendid staying the the walks warm with yet.

1 Meander ______to______relaxed ______at______.

2 Discover ______of______, with ______, ______and______, staying ______and ______.

Writing a Good Paragraph Topic sentences Before writing a paragraph, think first about the topic and what you want to say about it. The topic is easy, but the real question you have to ask yourself is what you want to say about the topic. This part of the topic sentence is sometimes called the controlling idea. Well-written paragraphs in academic writing are typically about one main idea or topic. This is explicitly stated in the topic sentence. Good topic sentences should contain both a topic and a controlling idea. The topic is the main subject matter or idea covered in the paragraph, while controlling idea focuses the topic by providing direction to the paragraph.

Exercise Identify the topic and controlling idea in the topic sentences: 1 The history of the bullrunning in Pamplona is not clear. 2 Trophy hunters on canned hunts are attracted by the guarantee of success and the price. 3 Tornado tourism is labelled as ‘risk recreation’, putting it in the same class as activities such as skydiving and whitewater rafting, but the risk factor must be kept in perspective.

Following up the topic sentence After stating your topic sentence, you have to provide more specific information. This is included in the supporting sentences. In order to support your point, this information may come in various forms: facts, details, reasons, examples, data. Your paragraph thus moves from general (topic sentence) to specific (supporting sentences) However, all information must be included for a reason, it must relate to the argument you are making in your essay. This must be outlined in your thesis statement in the introduction.

Concluding sentences You may wish to add a concluding sentence. These link one paragraph to the next and help ensure a paragraph is unified. However, not all paragraphs include a concluding sentence. You have to decide whether one is appropriate. Remember, concluding sentences do not merely repeat information already provided in the paragraph. Good concluding sentences summarize the point(s) made, include a linking word indicating that you are drawing a conclusion, and introduce a word/phrase or new concept which will be picked up in the topic sentence of the next paragraph.

After writing Ask yourself if the paragraph supports your thesis and provides an answer to the question asked in the essay title. 18

Identifying text/organizational structure The four paragraphs below have been jumbled up, put the sentences in the most appropriate order following a general-specific pattern. Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites Paragraph 1 a The basic fact is that a healthy social and natural environment is the first and most important asset for this global industry. b Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries, with almost 700 million international tourists in 2002, and can become an essential tool in the challenge to overcome biodiversity losses and eradicate poverty, particularly in sensitive ecosystems and protected areas. c It makes business sense for tourism stakeholders to be natural allies of sustainability. Paragraph 2 a Maintaining such sites requires adequate practices to guarantee environmentally sound management of the park and at the same time to ensure that local communities benefit from the park’s existence. b Protected areas, particularly World Heritage sites, are some of tourism’s main attractions, and are subject to growing visitation. c World Heritage sites are outstanding cultural and natural landscapes covering all kinds of ecosystems, which are carefully selected through a process resulting from a 1972 multilateral agreement involving 175 countries. Paragraph 3 The potential economic benefits that tourism can bring do not materialize without careful planning. a World Heritage site managers are often inadequately prepared to deal with the challenges of visitation and to negotiate with the complex tourism industry. b Their background most often lies in forestry, public environmental management and biological sciences. c A practical, case-specific approach is required to explain these and other subjects to enable park managers to design and develop visitation according to the needs and limits of a site. d Thus, concepts such as business management, marketing, and entrepreneurial risk management are still relatively new to many site managers. e Indeed, uncontrolled tourism development can have major negative impacts on these jewels of humanity’s heritage. Paragraph 4 a A better understanding of issues related to tourism in protected areas and guidelines on how to address them will improve benefits to protected areas through sustainable tourism. b This will result in increased cooperation and partnerships among World Heritage site managers, the tourism industry, local communities, governments and travelers.

(Extract, adapted) Retrieved 10 June, 2013, from http://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_01_en.pdf 19

Comparing and contrasting texts Damascus and Famagusta: similarities and differences OUTCOME Writing a compare-contrast text on the following two cities using the block and point- by-point method.

DAMASCUS, SYRIA World’s Oldest Continuously-Inhabited City

SIGNIFICANCE With evidence of settlement dating back some 10,000 years, Syria’s capital, Damascus, is regarded by historians as the world’s oldest continuously-inhabited city. Before rising to great significance in the year 635 under the Umayyad dynasty, the city witnessed the rule of Aramaeans and Assyrians, Persians and Seleucids, Romans and Byzantines. From 1516 to 1918, it existed under Ottoman occupation, and though much of the city was destroyed during this time, there remain a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods—some of whose ruins remain buried beneath the city’s modern level. Damascus was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.

THREATS Insufficient Management: With such focus in the area on modernization and development, little has been done to preserve or protect the old town core. A growing number of residents have moved in search of more modern dwellings, abandoning ancient buildings to deteriorate and be sought out by developers. Encroachment: Because Old Damascus lies at the heart of Syria’s capital, it is threatened constantly by the encroachment of modern businesses and developers. In recent years, ancient buildings along the old rampart walls have been demolished as part of a redevelopment scheme, while much has also been made of proposed new motorways in the area.

URGENCY A recent addition to the World Monuments Fund's Watch List of most endangered sites, the ancient city of Damascus is at risk of being swallowed up completely by its modern surroundings. And even if a protection zone is established around the old town center (a resolution was apparently made by the Syrian government in early 201O) the area's crumbling historical sites are in dire need of preservation.

FAMAGUSTA, NORTH CYPRUS Ancient Maritime City of Crusader Kings

SIGNIFICANCE rd Founded as early as 3 century BC, Famagusta, now a city on the east coast of Cyprus, was once an important port for trading and political relationships between the Near East and Europe. Its name in Greek means “buried in the sand” — a quite apt description of the site today, given its current ruinous state. For centuries, however, Famagusta enjoyed great wealth, and was once considered the richest city in the world. It was also a major business center, and its grounds accumulated a great number of artifacts of that epoch. The city’s history contains memories of the coronation of the Crusader kings of Jerusalem, which were held in St. Nicholas Cathedral in the main square. After the Ottomans conquered Famagusta, its European heritage was neglected and left vulnerable to earthquakes, floods and other natural disasters, which gradually turned it to ruins. Today, Famagusta still retains many relics of its great past, such as Cathedrals and parts of the tombs of religious and civil heroes, but more needs to be done to protect its historic monuments.

THREATS Insufficient management: Famagusta now lies in the North side of Cyprus, which is occupied by Turkish army. It has no official designation as a historical site. The city urgently needs archaeological work to preserve what has been left, and to restore what has been destroyed. Inappropriate construction: During the 1970s, Famagusta attracted millions of tourists, mostly because of its azure sea and picturesque landscape, but this left the ancient ruins unprotected against the large crowds. The massive construction of beach hotels and entertainment centers worsened the situation. Since then, some parts of the modern city have been abandoned, making it more difficult for the ancient monuments to attract attention and be preserved. Neglect: No serious excavation, construction or preservation works have been done on the territory of ancient Famagusta. While several world organizations have tried to draw attention to the importance of the archaeological works there, the officials of Northern Cyprus have shown little interest in giving a special status to the place.

URGENCY Lack of attention, lack of funding, and gradual deterioration of the monuments in Famagusta are threatening the ancient city’s potential for survival. Much needs to be done immediately in order to stop deterioration of the site and to protect its heritage for generations to come.

Extracts from http://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_01_en.pdf

EXERCISE Write a paragraph (topic: ‘significance’) for a compare-contrast essay using the point-by- point method. Start the paragraph with a general topic sentence and then summarize the significance of Damascus followed by that of Famagusta. Use connecting words. Write 201 wors approximately.

DAMASCUS, SYRIA World’s Oldest Continuously-Inhabited City SIGNIFICANCE With evidence of settlement dating back some 10,000 years, Syria’s capital, Damascus, is regarded by historians as the world’s oldest continuously-inhabited city. Before rising to great significance in the year 635 under the Umayyad dynasty, the city witnessed the rule of Aramaeans and Assyrians, Persians and Seleucids, Romans and Byzantines. From 1516 to 1918, it existed under Ottoman occupation, and though much of the city was destroyed during this time, there remain a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods—some of whose ruins remain buried beneath the city’s modern level. Damascus was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. (104 words)

FAMAGUSTA, NORTH CYPRUS Ancient Maritime City of Crusader Kings SIGNIFICANCE Founded as early as 3 rd century BC, Famagusta, now a city on the east coast of Cyprus, was once an important port for trading and political relationships between the Near East and Europe. Its name in Greek means “buried in the sand” — a quite apt description of the site today, given its current ruinous state. For centuries, however, Famagusta enjoyed great wealth, and was once considered the richest city in the world. It was also a major business center, and its grounds accumulated a great number of artifacts of that epoch. The city’s history contains memories of the coronation of the Crusader kings of Jerusalem, which were held in St. Nicholas Cathedral in the main square. After the Ottomans conquered Famagusta, its European heritage was neglected and left vulnerable to earthquakes, floods and other natural disasters, which gradually turned it to ruins. Today, Famagusta still retains many relics of its great past, such as Cathedrals and parts of the tombs of religious and civil heroes, but more needs to be done to protect its historic monuments. (176 words)

Essay writing: keeping to the question OUTCOME: Expressing purpose clearly, including all main points, and avoiding irrelevant information

1 Read the introduction of the essay extract below. What is the purpose of the essay? Is it clearly expressed? 2 Read the notes for the essay and compare them with paragraphs B and C. Are all the main points for paragraphs B and C included? Are there examples for the main points? Cross out one irrelevant sentence in paragraph B and C. B Education  Clear exhibition of objects  Clear explanation of objects  Educate people in a country  Educate people from other countries + example C Research  Exhibitions only good if information correct - need to carry out research  Need to know how 1 object connects to others – how object developed and example

The role of museums A Museums vary enormously in size and subject matter and, according to Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, professor of museum studies at the University of Leicester, the museum sector is undergoing rapid and unprecedented change, challenging both the concept of a museum and what a museum is for. This essay will describe and evaluate the educational and research purposes of museums. Furthermore, it will argue that museums are an essential part of any society or culture.

B The primary function of any museum is to educate the visiting public by exhibiting historical artifacts. Museums provide clear descriptions of the objects: they explain where they are from, when they were made, how they were made, and what they were used for. Museums help the visiting public understand the history of a place and learn about the history and culture of countries other than their own. The travelling exhibition of Tutankhamen’s tomb is a good example of this. The exhibition had a public purpose in mind, which was to "stimulate public interest in the UNESCO-sponsored salvage program for Nubian monuments threatened by the Aswan Dam project". It travelled the world between 2004 and 2011 and was visited by millions. The number of gild objects found in the tomb was extremely impressive. It sparked widespread interest in ancient Egypt, providing insight into, and knowledge of, ancient Egyptian culture.

C However, exhibitions are only useful if objects are correctly described and explained. There should be a text describing each object and its origins. In order to do this, museum historians and archaeologists have to carry out extensive research. Unless it is understood how an object relates 23

to other objects from the same period, as well as from earlier and later periods, it is not possible to understand the development of that object. For example, ancient glass bottles have been found all over the world. It was only through research, however, that archaeologists were able to date the earliest man-made glass objects to around 3500 BC. These were mainly non-transparent glass beads unearthed during excavations in Egypt and Eastern Mesopotamia. The oldest fragments of glass vases, however, date back to the 16th century BC. These were discovered in Mesopotamia and, from here, hollow glass production spread throughout Europe, and eventually to China.

[…]

3 Make notes for paragraph D on ‘museums as an essential part of any society or culture’. Write the paragraph using your notes (130 words approximately).

4 Write the conclusion, summarizing the main points of paragraphs B, C, and D. (40 words approximately)

Check list: Is the purpose of your essay clear? Is it to discuss, compare and contrast, evaluate?

Does your essay  introduce the topic clearly and provide a clear thesis statement?  include all the main points?  exclude irrelevant or inappropriate information?  provide topic sentences and supporting sentences?  conclude appropriately? Organization  are the ideas in a logical order?  is the essay divided into paragraphs? Topic = paragraph?  are the ideas linked appropriately?

(Adapted from Philpot, S. and Curnick L., Academic Skills (2007). Oxford. OUP)

3 Reading Texts: Museums and the Ownership of Cultural Heritage

OUTCOME Writing a 500-word argumentative essay under the title: The rightful home of the Mona Lisa is Italy. Discuss.

The article below provides background information that you should expand through your own research in order to plan your essay. The texts in this section concern the issue of the ownership of cultural heritage and include ideas you might adopt when writing the essay above.

THE INDEPENDENT

We want our masterpiece back – Italians petition France to return Mona Lisa to Florence

MICHAEL DAY MILAN SATURDAY 08 SEPTEMBER 2012 Italian campaigners have collected more than 150,000 signatures calling on the Louvre Museum in Paris to hand over Leonardo Da Vinci's Mona Lisa to its "home city" of Florence. The National Committee for Historical, Cultural and Environmental Heritage says it has made a formal request to the French Culture Minister, Aurelie Filippetti, for the world's most famous painting to be returned to the Uffizi Gallery, where it was displayed briefly a century ago. "I am convinced that, thanks to the minister's Italian origins, she will not only respond positively to our request, she will understand its motives," said the committee's president, Silvano Vincenti, who is determined to turn the Mona Lisa into Italy's equivalent of the Elgin Marbles. Returning the painting would be of "high historical value, both symbolic and moral", he added. The committee, along with the Province of Florence, hopes to press its claims in a meeting with the 26

French minister. The Louvre has already snubbed the approach. Florence's claims on the Renaissance masterpiece, known to Italians by its proper title, La Gioconda, might not be that straightforward. Leonardo is thought to have begun work on the enigmatic portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, the wife of a wealthy Tuscan silk merchant, in Florence in 1503. But art historians believe he took it with him when he moved to France in 1516. The French royal family acquired it and, following a spell at Versailles, it ended up at the Louvre after the French Revolution. It was stolen in 1911 and was discovered two years later at the Florence home of the Italian patriot and former Louvre employee, Vincenzo Peruggia, who thought the Mona Lisa belonged in the city described as the birthplace of the Renaissance. However, the painting was exhibited only briefly in the Uffizi and in Rome before it was returned to the Louvre.

Retrieved 12 November, 2014, from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/we-want-our-masterpiece-back--italians- petition-france-to-return-mona-lisa-to-florence-8117931.html

OUTCOME Topic sentence writing EXERCISE Choose the most suitable topic sentence (see end of article) for each paragraph

Museums battle with source nations over ownership of artefacts BOOK REVIEW

‘Loot: The Battle Over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World’ by Sharon Waxman

As museums battle nations of artefacts’ origin, the author weighs both sides in a sane manner.

By Wendy Smith November 25, 2008

Journalist Sharon Waxman’s “Loot,” a cogent survey of the conflict over classical antiquities, is notable for its common sense, a rare quality in a debate generally characterized by high- pitched rhetoric. As Italy, Greece, Egypt and Turkey attempt to reclaim ancient artworks, their government officials depict Western museums as predatory institutions working hand-in-glove with tomb robbers, crooked dealers and shady collectors to strip vulnerable nations of their patrimony. In response, the beleaguered directors and curators of the Louvre, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum and the J. Paul Getty Museum proclaim that they are repositories of universal culture, the places best qualified to conserve masterpieces that, if returned to their countries of origin, would languish in institutions that no one visits.

[…]

(1) Some, like the Elgin Marbles and the zodiac ceiling of the Temple of Denderah, were openly pillaged by freebooting archaeologists and diplomats in the 18th and 19th centuries, when weak regulations rarely prevented imperial powers from doing as they liked in colonized territories. The British Museum and the Louvre, where these works have been exhibited for about 200 years, are under pressure to repatriate them to Greece and Egypt. Others, like the Lydian Hoard at the Met and a spectacular Macedonian gold wreath in the Getty collection, were clearly illegal acquisitions, purchased after the UNESCO convention of 1970 banned the transfer of looted cultural property. They were returned to Turkey and Greece after considerable foot-dragging by the American museums.

(2) In Western museums, Waxman’s scrutiny of display cases and exhibition catalogs exposes shameful obfuscation about how these objects were acquired “during decades of unchecked looting,” as she bluntly puts it. In Egypt and Greece, she visits monuments scarred by the brutal removal of decorative elements intrinsic to their meaning. But she also visits dilapidated museums unable to coherently inventory their holdings, many of which are disintegrating unseen in basement storage.

(3) In 2006, a Turkish newspaper reported that the most valuable artefact in the Lydian Hoard had been stolen from a museum in Usak, and the museum’s director was arrested as a suspect. In the five years before the theft, only 769 people had visited the museum, an aging one-room facility in a provincial town. But Waxman also found the modern museums of Turkey’s cities virtually empty, as was a well-curated, beautifully maintained Egyptian museum located a stone’s throw from the Temple of Luxor.

(4) They contend that they make great works of art accessible to a broader public and that their encyclopaedic collections are a way to understand the whole of human history in a cross- cultural environment. Culture, they say, is universal and not the exclusive property of any one nation.

[…]

(5) However, Waxman concludes that facing facts would be a good place to start. Western museums should publicly acknowledge that many of their antiquities came to them through plunder. Nations demanding repatriation should admit that they do not always have the resources to properly conserve these treasures. “The only realistic path forward,” she writes, “is one of collaboration between poorer source countries so rich in patrimony and the wealthy industrialized nations that have the cash and expertise to preserve that patrimony.”

Retrieved (adapted) 2 December, 2018, from http://www.elginism.com/similar-cases/museums-battle-with-source-nations-over-ownership-of- artefacts/20081126/1573/print/

Choose the most suitable topic sentence for each paragraph. There is one extra. a This is a multifaceted problem with no single solution. b Museums in Turkey and Egypt are awful. c There is no clear answer as to whether these masterpieces are the exclusive property of the lands in which they were found, or whether the foreigners who brought them to the world’s attention have a legitimate stake. d The millions of tourists who flock to the Louvre, the Met, the British Museum and the Getty each year could be seen as evidence that such museums provide the best home for these artefacts. e The morality or legality of the removal of artefacts is questionable. f The argument against repatriation put forward by Western museums that masterpieces. If returned, risk lying in museums that very few visit certainly has some validity. Outcome Building domain-specific vocabulary. Identifying argument. Exercise Complete the gaps with the most suitable word 29

The Telegraph British Museum under pressure to give up leading treasures The British museum is to come under renewed pressure to give up leading treasures as 16 countries plan to sign a declaration that demands the return of artefacts sent overseas generations ago.

The Rosetta Stone at the British museum in London. Photo: AP by Damien McElroy, Foreign Affairs Correspondent 07 Apr 2010 The demand to give up leading treasures, issued in Cairo at the end of a two-day conference, is addressed to every country that holds ancient relics. Western museums 1 ______most of the items listed by countries ranging from China to Mexico. The British museum is the principal target because of the prominence of the artefacts it owns. The 2 ______Egypt wants to see returned include the Rosetta stone in the British Museum and the bust of Nefertiti in Berlin's Neues Museum. Both the British and Neues Museum have rejected the 3 ______. The conference was hosted by Zahi Hawass, the head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, who has been an outspoken campaigner for the 4 ______of lost treasures. Mr Hawass acknowledged that there was no international legal basis* for the demands but said a united stand between affected 5 ______would bolster the claims. "Instead of Egypt fighting on its own, let's all fight together. Let's all come out with a wish list," he said. "We need to co-operate all of us especially with that wish list. We need all of us to come with one list and fight until we see these artefacts 6 ______. "Forget the 7 ______issue," he said. "Important icons should be in their 8 ______, period." A spokeswoman for the British Museum said the 9 ______had “not received an official request from Egypt for the permanent return of the Rosetta Stone. The Museum has received a 10 ______from the Supreme Council of Antiquities requesting the short-term 11 ______of the Stone for the opening of the new museum in Giza in 2012 or 2013. The Trustees* of the British Museum will consider this request in due course." It has faced a long running campaign by the Greek government for the return of the Elgin Marbles which were 12 ______from the Parthenon at the outset of the 19th century. Elana Korka, a Greek culture ministry official said the marbles were its prime 13 ______. "We would like to see some good faith," she said. "They are the Parthenon marbles and that is where they 14 ______."

* International conventions written since 1954 prohibit wartime looting, theft and resale of artefacts but the agreements do not apply to 15 ______taken abroad before national or global laws were in force. * Trustees: Museum trustees are elected to govern institutions voluntarily. They set policy, ensure funding and oversee the management of their institutions.

Retrieved (adapted) 2 December, 2013, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/7563963/British-Museum-under-pressure-to-give-up- leading-treasures.html

Outcome Building domain-specific vocabulary. Identifying argument. Complete the gaps with the most suitable word.

Cairo Communiqué on International Cooperation for the Protection and Repatriation of Cultural Heritage

June 30, 2010 Representatives from twenty-two countries attended the first Conference on International Cooperation for the Protection and Repatriation of Cultural Heritage in Cairo, on April 7 and 8, 2010. […] General Principles and Recommendations.

General Principles Cultural heritage belongs to the country of 1 ______, and is essential to its culture, development and identity. Ownership of cultural 2 ______by the country of origin does not expire, nor does it face prescription. Cultural property is irrevocably identified with the cultural 3 ______which it was created. It is this original context that gives it its authenticity and unique value. The combating of 4 ______trade in cultural heritage is the shared responsibility of market countries and countries of origin.

[…]

General Conclusions Efforts should be made to strengthen 5______between states, including the implementation of bilateral treaties and the exchange of information, for the protection and 6 ______of cultural goods and cultural heritage. Countries and institutions should be prepared to initiate 7 ______for the return of important cultural property to its country of origin. This should be undertaken on 8 ______and scientific principles.

Retrieved 17 September, 2014, from http://www.sca-egypt.org/eng/pdfs/RST_ICHC_SA%20Communique_2010-08-20.pdf

Outcome Building domain-specific vocabulary. Identifying argument.

The second conference on "international cooperation for the protection and repatriation of cultural heritage"

Lima, July 4-5, 2011. On his blog, Dr Zahi Hawass wrote: I am currently attending the Second Conference on International Cooperation for the Protection and Repatriation of Cultural Heritage in the beautiful city of Lima, Peru.

This conference continues the work begun at the Cairo Conference in April 2010. It is an opportunity for countries to exchange ideas and experiences about how to protect remains of the past for 1 ______generations, prevent looting and theft and demand that illegally exported objects belonging to our cultural heritage be returned to their 2 ______homes.

[…]

It is a tragic loss when 3 ______are stolen and fall into the hands of thieves, antiquities dealers, private collectors and even museums. We 4 ______not only vital information about the past with the loss of an artifact, but also a part of our national 5 ______. […] I have realized the importance of 6 ______. It is important to educate people about the value of history. I was so proud of the young people of Cairo who joined hands to form a protective human barrier around the Egyptian Museum during the revolution. Also the brave people of Luxor’s West Bank who protected the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings from looters.

Protecting 7 ______is important, but it is not simply a matter of law and administration. It is the pride of a nation and offering hope and inspiration to future 8 ______.

(Extract) retrieved 17 September 2014, from http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.it/2012/03/honor-fundamental-right-of-each-state.html

The Rosetta Stone Will Return 26/01/2010 By Dr. Zahi Hawass Cairo, Asharq Al-Awsat With all its history and glory, Egypt owes a great deal to the black basalt slab called the Rosetta Stone that unravelled the mysteries of Pharoanic scripture engraved on temples, graves, obelisks and the pyramids. Before the stone was discovered, these writings were merely signs and symbols. The story of the puzzling stone began when part of the French military expedition to Egypt arrived in the Mediterranean city of Rosetta, where the water of the River Nile meets the Mediterranean Sea. The soldiers admired the city and its fresh air, and were fascinated by its residents, their handicrafts, their small fishing boats and the beautiful houses. Engineers then made changes to the Citadel of Qaitbay in Rosetta before they surrounded it with red brick walls to act as a fort and protect the city’s entrance against a potential English invasion.

In July 1799, a soldier under the command of Captain Pierre Francois Bouchard found a black basalt slab whilst digging the citadel wall’s foundations. The stone was inscribed with hieroglyphics, Demotic and Greek script. The scholars on the expedition realized the importance of the stone and called it the ‘Rosetta Stone.’ It was included in the list of antiquities collected by the French military expedition until the French fleet was defeated by the English. Then the 1801 Treaty was signed, and the French left Egypt. One of the articles within the treaty stipulated that ownership of the Rosetta Stone would be transferred to the English army. Unaware of the stone’s historical value, the French approved of the transfer of ownership as they had made several wax models of it and sent them to France to be studied. The Rosetta Stone eventually arrived at the British Museum and was placed in a dark corner in the sculpture wing on the ground floor. Though England owned the stone, the French were the ones to decipher its archaic scripture through the distinguished scholar Jean François Champollion. It is thanks to Champollion that the ancient Egyptian language was deciphered and that the drawings of human beings, animals, plants and other depictions engraved on Pharaonic temples and graves can finally articulate the secrets of the Pharaohs, and demonstrate their creativity in all aspects of knowledge and civilization. The hieroglyphics can now be understood by all readers who are interested in Egyptian stories that represent one of the world’s greatest ancient civilizations. Therefore, we have come to recognize the importance of the Rosetta Stone – a piece that has been stolen and passed on from one occupier to another – whilst the occupied country remains helpless. In fact, Egypt’s most significant document was taken from its soil in a manner that anybody with a conscience would not accept. Ever since I was appointed head of Egypt’s antiquities, I have embarked upon trying to regain the Rosetta Stone as well as other antiquities that I consider key to understanding the Egyptian civilization and ones that can best convey its superiority and uniqueness. I began to probe the British Museum about returning the Rosetta Stone to Egypt and though it was long neglected by the museum there, the British began to pay attention to it and placed it at the centre of a well-lit hall as part of a dazzling display as soon as we began discussing returning the stone to its motherland, Egypt. I requested that the British lend us the stone so that it could be exhibited during the inauguration of the Grand Egyptian Museum scheduled to be completed in a few years because of the piece’s significance to Egyptian civilization. 34

And what did the British say? They said that, first of all, they need to be sure of the protection and safety measures applied in the Grand Egyptian Museum. They said that even though they know very well that this museum is a giant project in all regards and will be unparalleled in terms of size and the number of exhibits, and that the protection and safety mechanisms have been provided by international specialized companies. Most English people are in support of returning the Rosetta Stone to Egypt. We wouldn’t be exaggerating if we said that English people wonder why the Museum’s administration is clinging on to this stone. We will not be silent until we return to Egypt, even if takes a thousand years! Retrieved 21 June, 2017, from http://www.elginism.com/similar-cases/the-rosetta-stone-will-return-to-egypt-one- day/20100209/2703/ - See more at: http://www.elginism.com/similar-cases/the-rosetta-stone-will-return-to-egypt-one- day/20100209/2703/#sthash.rxTMzYF7.dpuf

Video. Egypt wants Rosetta Stone Back 1) How does the presenter describe the British Museum’s Egyptian Collection, and the Rosetta Stone? 2) What has the tablet, which dates from 196 BC, allowed historians to do? 3) What does Egypt say has happened to its heritage and artefacts? 4) Do the Egyptians say they want every artefact back from the British Museum? 5) What did the British Museum say in its statement? 6) What reasons are given by the two visitors in support of keeping the Rosetta Stone in the British Museum? 7) What views are provided by the antiquities scholar Richard Falkiner in support of keeping the Rosetta Stone in London? 8) What does Greece hope to see returned? 9) What did the Louvre Museum in Paris return last month? 10) What are the Egyptians hoping? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XnMcTa5Vd8

Egypt wants treasures back (Video: National Geographic) What points of view are expressed regarding the question of who owns artefacts, in this case the Rosetta Stone? How do they ‘put their cases’? 1) Dr Zahi Hawass (Former Minister of Antiquities. Now ambassador for tourism ministry) 2) Anna Boulton (Head of Press and Marketing) spokeswoman for the British Museum) 3) Gary Vikan (Director of Walters Art Museum, Maryland, Baltimore, USA) YouTube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wpwYqwf4Qc

Newsweek Who Owns the Elgin Marbles? By Newsweek Staff On 6/5/09 at 8:00 PM It's not polite to call the Elgin Marbles the Elgin Marbles anymore. Not even in the British Museum, where the ancient Greek sculptures and reliefs have resided since the early 19th century, after a British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire named Lord Elgin hacked them off the Parthenon. Even in that age of imperialism, many Brits saw Elgin's acts as cultural vandalism. Lord Byron slammed the marbles' removal in his bestselling epic poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. The call for their return has grown since Greece won its independence from Ottoman rule in 1829, led by the Greek government in particular since the 1980s. In the noisy debate over the restitution of ancient artworks to their original locale, no case is more controversial or inflamed than the question of the Parthenon marbles: should the British finally send them back? Later this month a new Acropolis Museum will open in the shadow of the Parthenon in Athens. The building is more than a bold composition in glass, steel, concrete and stone: it is architecture as argument, explicitly meant to sway opinion over the fate of the marbles. Designed by the Swiss- born, New York–based Bernard Tschumi, the three-level structure begins to express its agenda in the way it defers to an ancient settlement that was discovered during excavation of the construction site. (The building was adapted so that it is raised on concrete pillars, allowing archeological work to continue beneath it—and with glass floors that will give visitors a dramatic view of the ongoing dig.) But it's the crown of the museum that will make the most powerful case for restitution: the top floor is a glass box that is canted at an angle away from the structure beneath it—like an uneven stack of cartons—so that it lines up perfectly with the Parthenon, visible about 1,000 feet away. Many of the Parthenon's original sculptures were lost or destroyed over the centuries; those remaining on the temple were removed in recent years because the pollution in Athens was eating away the marble. Now, along with other sculptures, the frieze that encircled the temple—it depicts a procession of figures, some bringing sacrifices—is installed in the new museum in its original configuration on the Parthenon. To accentuate the ghostly absence of the missing marbles, there are white plaster copies to fill the gaps. The history of how the marbles got to London is muddy enough to bolster both sides of the argument. When the seventh Earl of Elgin took up residence in the embassy in Constantinople in 1799, he began to pursue his passion for classical antiquities. He sent emissaries on a mission to - Athens, which was then a shabby little outpost that had been under the Ottoman thumb for 400 years. At first, Elgin wanted only some sketches and plaster casts made of the great sculptures and reliefs on the Parthenon and other nearby ruins. But his permit from the Ottoman sultan granted his crew access to the Acropolis—then a Turkish garrison—and stated that "no one meddle with their scaffolding or implements nor hinder them from taking away any pieces of stone with inscriptions and figures." Politics was at play here at least as much as art appreciation. The Ottomans were grateful to Britain, which had blocked the advance of Napoleon in Egypt—and over several years, Elgin's agents chiseled away at the most potent symbol of the golden age of classical Greeks. But the gods got even, with Elgin at least. In the course of his Ottoman escapade, he lost the following: his beautiful and rich wife to his best friend, a big chunk of his nose to a nasty infection he'd caught in Constantinople and, ultimately, his marbles, which he was forced to sell to the British

government in 1816 for £35,000 (roughly equivalent to $4 million today) to dig himself out of debt after his divorce. Since then, the trustees of the British Museum have never wavered in their position that Elgin's marbles legally belong to the museum. Scholars long argued that the marbles were better preserved in London than they would be in smog-choked Athens, with its poor museum facilities. "The British said, you don't deserve them, you don't have a place to put them," says Antonis Samaras, the new minister of culture in Greece. "Now we have one of the best museums that can be." But rather than trying to negotiate the point right now, the Greeks are letting their new museum do the talking. "We are presenting in a visual way what was, to this point, a verbal discussion," says the museum's president, Dimitrios Pandermalis. Is there a glimmer of hope that all the remaining marbles from the Parthenon might eventually be reunited, at least temporarily? The trustees of the British Museum have stated they would consider lending the marbles to Athens—though some are too fragile to travel in either direction, notes the director, Neil MacGregor—provided the Greek government acknowledge Britain's ownership of the artworks. For many Greeks, that's a sore point. "How can anyone dare say they belong to the British?" asks Samaras. "These are treasures taken out of the Acropolis when Greece was under enemy occupation." Pandermalis takes a gentler, less political approach: he suggests that Greece could lend other classical pieces to London in exchange for a long-term loan of the marbles. "It's not easy," he says, "but let's find a solution for both sides." Those who agree the British Museum owns the marbles have a strong case. Unlike the recent instances of American museums returning ancient Roman artifacts to Italy—where there was proof of theft or looting since 1970, under the terms of international treaties—here there is no legal basis, many experts say, given that Elgin's actions were approved by the rulers in power and that 200 years have passed. What's more, the precedent set by giving back the marbles would open a Pandora's box of similar claims, says James Cuno, the director of the Art Institute of Chicago, citing one potential high-profile target: Queen Nefertiti, ensconced in Berlin's Altes Museum for nearly a century. To cut through this Gordian knot would practically require the wisdom of the ancients, but here's one idea: Wouldn't it be thrilling to see the marbles together in -Athens for a period of time? And wouldn't it be reasonable to return them afterward to the stewardship of the British Museum, where they can bask in a panorama of mankind's highest achievements? The ancient Hellenic culture that produced the marbles seeded all of Western civilization, not just the contemporary nation of Greece. The marbles, really, belong to everyone. http://www.newsweek.com/who-owns-elgin-marbles-80661

Video Parthenon Battle | National Geographic The Parthenon is among the greatest national treasures of Greece, but important parts of it have been displayed at the British Museum in London for two centuries. Should they be returned to Athens? Watch the video and note down the views for and against returning the sculptures to Greece. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3MXPqYKKRM

The British Museum The Parthenon Sculptures The position of the Trustees of the British Museum The question of where the surviving sculptures from the Parthenon should now be displayed has long been a subject of public discussion. This page provides key information for understanding the complex history of the Parthenon and its sculpture. The main arguments of the debate are also presented here. For another view, see the website of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture www.culture.gr What is the Parthenon and how did the sculptures come to London? 1 The Parthenon in Athens has a long and complex history. Built nearly 2,500 years ago as a temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it was for a thousand years the church of the Virgin Mary of the Athenians, then a mosque, and finally an archaeological ruin. The building was altered and the sculptures much damaged over the course of the centuries. Exercise: Put the remaining sentences (a – d) of the paragraph in the most suitable order a Archaeologists worldwide are agreed that the surviving sculptures could never be re-attached to the structure. b When the city was under siege by the Venetians in 1687, the Parthenon itself was used as a gunpowder store. c The first major loss occurred around AD 500 when the Parthenon was converted into a church. d The building has been a ruin ever since. e A huge explosion blew the roof off and destroyed a large portion of the remaining sculptures.

2 By 1800 only about half of the original sculptural decoration remained. Exercise: Put the remaining sentences (a – e ) of the paragraph in the most suitable order a The arrival of the sculptures in London had a profound effect on the European public, regenerating interest in ancient Greek culture and influencing contemporary artistic trends. b Since then the sculptures have all been on display to the public in the British Museum, free of entry charge. c Between 1801 and 1805 Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, of which Athens had been a part for some 350 years, acting with the full knowledge and permission of the Ottoman authorities, removed about half of the remaining sculptures from the fallen ruins and from the building itself. d These sculptures were acquired from Lord Elgin by the British Museum in 1816 following a Parliamentary Select Committee enquiry which fully investigated and approved the legality of Lord Elgin’s actions. e Lord Elgin was passionate about ancient Greek art and transported the sculptures back to Britain.

Where can the surviving sculptures from the Parthenon be seen? Exercise: fill in the gaps with the most suitable form of the following verbs locate publish display work remove divide see make begin be survive promote (also) hold include

About 65% of the original sculptures from the Parthenon 1 ______and 2______in museums across Europe. The majority of the sculptures 3 ______between the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the British Museum in London (about 30% each), while important pieces 4 ______by other major European museums, 5______the Louvre and the Vatican. 1. Parthenon Sculptures in Athens The Greek authorities 6______the remaining sculptures from the Parthenon, work that 7______over 200 years ago by Elgin. All of the sculptures have now been removed from the building and 8______in the Acropolis Museum.

2. Parthenon Sculptures in London The sculptures in London, sometimes known as the ‘Elgin Marbles’, 9______on permanent public display in the British Museum since 1817, free of charge. Here they 10______by a world audience and are actively studied and researched 11______worldwide understanding of ancient Greek culture. The Museum 12______the results of its research extensively. 13______closely with colleagues at the Acropolis Museum, new discoveries of ancient applied colour on the sculptures 14______with the application of special imaging technology. 3. Parthenon Sculptures in other museums The following institutions also hold sculpture from the Parthenon:  Musée du Louvre, Paris  Vatican Museums  National Museum, Copenhagen  Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna  University Museum, Würzburg  Glyptothek, Munich What has the Greek Government asked for? Since the early 1980s Greek governments have argued for the permanent removal to Athens of all the Parthenon sculptures in the British Museum. The Greek government has also disputed the British Museum Trustees’ legal title to the sculptures. For more information on the Greek Government’s official position, see the website of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture: www.culture.gr

What is the British Museum’s position? The British Museum tells the story of cultural achievement throughout the world, from the dawn of human history over two million years ago until the present day. The Museum is a unique resource for the world: the breadth and depth of its collection allows the world’s public to re- examine cultural identities and explore the connections between them. Exercise put the sentences of the following two paragraphs in the most appropriate order 1 a They also gain insights into how ancient Greece influenced and was influenced by the other civilisations that it encountered. b Millions of visitors admire the beauty of the sculptures each year – free of charge. c Within the context of this unparalleled collection, the Parthenon sculptures are an important representation of the culture of ancient Athens. 2 a The Trustees remain convinced that the current division allows different and complementary stories to be told about the surviving sculptures, highlighting their significance for world culture and affirming the universal legacy of ancient Greece. b This display does not alter the Trustees’ view that the sculptures are part of everyone’s shared heritage and transcend cultural boundaries. c The Acropolis Museum allows the Parthenon sculptures that are in Athens to be appreciated against the backdrop of ancient Greek and Athenian history. More about the Parthenon and its history can be found at theacropolismuseum.gr Further reading The following books provide good introductions to the Parthenon and its sculptures:  Mary Beard, The Parthenon (Profile, 2002)  Brian Cook, The Elgin Marbles (British Museum Press, 1984)  Ian Jenkins, The Parthenon Frieze (British Museum Press, 1994)  Ian Jenkins, The Parthenon Sculptures in the British Museum (British Museum Press, 2007)  Ian Jenkins, Greek Architecture and its sculpture in the British Museum (British Museum Press, 2006)  Ian Jenkins and Kate Morton, Explore the Parthenon – an ancient Greek temple and its sculptures (British Museum Press, 2009)  William St Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles (3rd edition Oxford University Press, 1998) These titles, and others, are available in the British Museum shop. Retrieved 29 January 2018 from http://www.britishmuseum.org/about_us/news_and_press/statements/parthenon_sculptures.as px?fromShortUrl

DEMANDS OF THE GREEK GOVERNMENT

The Acropolis Museum (inaugurated summer 2009)

Exercise Fill in the gaps with the most suitable word The Greek government has made major concessions in recent years to try and accommodate the concerns of the British Museum and the British government. 1______have made it clear for over a decade now that ownership is not the key issue (see the policy statement from May 2000 below). 2______, the relocation of the Marbles to Athens is a 3 ______issue for the Greek government and 4 ______could be achieved without raising the issue of ownership 5 ______the Marbles were sent to Athens on a permanent loan from the British Museum. In 6______, the Greek government has offered to loan the 7______of Greek antiquity to the British Museum on a rotating loan basis 8______that the gallery where the Marbles are currently exhibited 9 ______still be dedicated to Greek culture. 10______have also proposed that the British Museum 11______operate a branch of the new Acropolis Museum [to be completed in 2009], where the Parthenon Marbles would be exhibited 12 ______they were returned to Athens.

Policy statement on the return of the Parthenon Sculptures (May 2000) Statement by the Greek Minister of Culture Mr Theodoros Pangalos Exercise Choose the most appropriate topic sentence(s) for the statement paragraphs a Returning the sculptures to Greece need not, should not and will not diminish Greece's presence in the British Museum. b Returning the Parthenon sculptures to Greece need not and should not create a precedent, leading to claims for the general restitution of cuItural property to the countries of origin and thus depleting the great museums of valuable exhibits. c The issue is not confined to the agenda between two governments. It is a matter between two peoples and their respective parliaments. d Who owns the sculptures is unimportant, irrelevant and immaterial. What matters is where they are and where they should be. e There need not be any winners and losers in the solution of this long-standing problem.

During his visit to London as a guest of the British Government for the inauguration of the new Tate Modern gallery, the Greek Minister of Culture Mr Theodoros Pangalos redefined Greece's policy goals with regard to the return of the Parthenon sculptures. Speaking in London to Greek journalists on 13 May 2000, he outlined a policy statement based on the following principles:

1 “The British Parliament, having entrusted the Parthenon sculptures to the British Museum, is the only authority that can change the situation. The British Government with its parliamentary majority can naturally bring this about speedily but we do not consider this simply as an issue between our two governments.

2 There is no legal claim against anyone in this case and no adjudication is required. The return of the Parthenon sculptures is simply a matter of co-operation between the Greek and the British peoples in the wider European context to which they both belong.

3 On this point I believe that we have a very strong case, which is the continuity and the integrity of the unique monument known as the Parthenon. This monument, let me point out, was not built by Pericles as a storehouse for free-standing sculptures. The Parthenon sculptures were conceived and created as an integral part of the temple. Having kept them apart from the rest of the monument for nearly two centuries is long enough and should no longer be tolerated. The time has come for the re-unification of the monument on its original Acropolis site. Therefore, what we ask is for the sculptures to be returned so that they can be housed in a new state-of-the art

Acropolis Museum that will be ready by 2004. The integrity of the monument will thus be restored on its original site with the sculptures displayed against the background of the Parthenon and in visual contact with the temple. In the meantime, we will continue to explain our position and press for the return of the Parthenon sculptures in due course.

4 Quite the contrary, in fact. For one thing, full use can be made of modern technology that can produce copies of the originals so perfect that these can be distinguished from the originals only through elaborate chemical analysis. There is also the possibility of holding periodic exhibitions of valuable, rare and stunning Greek antiquities in London on loan from Greek Museums. The great British Museum might even see its worldwide prestige and appeal enhanced if our proposal for a negotiated return of the Parthenon sculptures implemented.

5 I wish to emphasize yet again that we request the return, of only those sculptures removed from the Parthenon by Lord Elgin and that we make no general claim for the restitution of any other artefacts. We simply want restore the unity of a unique monument which is the supreme symbol of the Greek cultural heritage and western civilization." ______

Why Athens and not London Because the monument to which they belong, namely the Parthenon, is in Athens. Because in Athens the Marbles will be exhibited close to the Parthenon and within sight of it, and the visitor can form a complete picture of the temple in its entirety. Because they form an inseparable part of the monument – the symbol of Greek Classical civilisation at its apogee. The restitution of the Marbles will restore the unity of the decoration and the architectural cohesion of the monument. Because the British have an obligation, not to Greece but to the cultural heritage of the whole world, to restore its symbol, the Parthenon, which is also the emblem of UNESCO. ______

The Melina Mercouri Foundation The Greek Ministry of Culture works very closely with the Melina Mercouri Foundation on the issue of the Parthenon Marbles. You can visit the Melina Mercouri Foundation web site, (it will open in a new window) where you can read more about the plans of the Greek government concerning the Acropolis, the New Acropolis Museum, the Parthenon and the Parthenon Marbles. http://www.greece.org/parthenon/marbles/greece.htm

BRITISH OBJECTIONS ANSWERED [Two of the] British arguments against returning the Marbles are: 1. They were bought legitimately from the Turks on the basis of a legal document -- the Sultan's firman. 2. If the Parthenon Marbles are returned then the museums of Europe will be emptied as other countries demand the return of their treasures. Let us answer these points. Exercise: put the sentences in the most appropriate order

They were bought legitimately from the Turks on the basis of a legal document -- the Sultan's firman. a The validity of the firman is questioned in a major article on this website by Professor Vassilis Demetriades of the University of Crete entitled "Was the removal of the Marbles illegal?" b Anyway, there is no evidence that the Marbles were purchased legitimately. c The various local Turkish officials were bribed by the British with luxurious presents. d This argument is invalid because any purchase from the conqueror in a conquered land is like buying stolen articles from a thief or robber.

If the Parthenon Marbles are returned then the museums of Europe will be emptied as other countries demand the return of their treasures. Exercise: put the sentences of the two paragraphs in the most suitable order It is claimed that the museums of Europe will be emptied if the Parthenon Marbles are returned to Greece. a The Greek government does not support these demands. b First of all, the Greek government has declared that it has no claim on any of the thousands of other artefacts from Ancient Greece held in museums abroad. c But they are not telling the whole truth. d Secondly, the British Museum claims that Greek politicians continue to demand the return of pieces like the Venus de Milo and the Nike of Samothrace. e The politicians making these demands are local politicians who believe that if these pieces are returned to the islands where they were found it will boost tourism to their islands. f This is clearly not true.

The Egyptian government has also announced that it has no claim on anything from Ancient Egypt in the British Museum. a It displays the whole of the Parthenon Frieze, using plaster casts of those parts still held in London, in a glass gallery bathed in natural light and with the Parthenon itself visible 280 metres away. b Now is the time for the plaster casts to be replaced by the sculptures from the British Museum. c It is clear that this argument is being used as an excuse to avoid the issue that the Parthenon Marbles were an integral part of the Parthenon and should be displayed together with the other Parthenon Marbles currently in Athens. d The New Acropolis Museum has been open since 2009.

Retrieved 18 February 2017 from http://www.greece.org/parthenon/marbles/answers.htm

LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

The law and ethics deriving from the Parthenon Marbles case Irini A. Stamatoudi, LLM * Attorney at Law, Athens and Doctoral Researcher at the University of Leicester

Conclusion In this article the law and the ethics of the Parthenon Marbles case have been analysed, showing the complexity of the issues involved. Both parties have interesting points and arguments to make, but evidently any solution has to favour just one of them. The two basic arguments of the retentionists regarding Britain's title of possession and the passage of time have proved to be weak and they are therefore unconvincing. On the side of morality-based arguments it has also been concluded that preservation and safety are no longer viable arguments since Greece is able to provide both. However, these arguments were once more presented by the British government as a response to Lord Jenkins' question and plea for the return of the Parthenon Marbles when it was brought before the House of Lords. On 18 January 1996 this discussion took place and the same ethical issues, as the ones that were rebutted in this article, were raised. In spite of the flimsiness of these arguments the British government made it clear that it had no intention of returning the Marbles. Nevertheless, the Parthenon Marbles case is not only a legal and moral one, but it also touches the heart of the Greek nation. Characteristic in this respect are the words of the former Greek Minister of Culture, Melina Mercouri: "This is our history ..." (San Francisco Chronicle, 26 May 1983, p 26) "(T)hey are the symbol and the blood and the soul of Greek people ... (W)e have fought and died for the Parthenon and the Acropolis ... (W)hen we are born, they talk to us about all this great history that makes Greekness ... (T)his is the most beautiful, the most impressive, the most monumental building in all Europe ..." (New York Times, 4 March 1984, p 9).

Even J H Merryman agrees that "if the matter were to be decided on the basis of direct emotional appeal, the Marbles would go back to Greece tomorrow" (Merryman 1983, p 759). As has been shown above even if the matter were to be decided on the more tangible grounds of law, Greece would still have a strong case. And after all, law cannot be considered in isolation. If it is to fulfil its natural role it has to be blended in with the realities and the real life in which it finds its roots and from which it is destined to be an emanation.

Retrieved 13 April, 2016, from http://www.greece.org/parthenon/marbles/legal.htm

churchcourtchambers.co.uk

The Elgin Marbles: Who Owns Them Now And Should They Ever Be Returned To Greece? Alkan Shenyuz, a barrister with Church Court Chambers in London and a specialist in international law, summarises the key legal arguments for and against the return of the Elgin marbles to Greece and gives his assessment on where they should be today.

Summary In conclusion, therefore, it is quite reasonable to argue that the collection of marbles were removed by Lord Elgin under a lawful mandate issued by the rightful authority at the time these events took place. There is no evidence to suggest that the totality of Lord Elgin’s activities amounted to an illegal act under the prevailing legal system, which governed the region from where the marbles were taken. In these circumstances, it is not plausible to see the case for the return of the marbles to Greece exclusively as a legal battle. Instead, the arguments in favour of one way or the other will most likely turn on cultural or moral grounds. The tragedy is that without the original document it is difficult to imagine the legal argument ever becoming settled once and for all. Instead, scholars will have to make do with a translation of the original, which by all accounts should be taken to be authentic and reliable. More generally, without a final legal settlement of this dispute, the art world will be left guessing as to the true ownership of other historically important artifacts around the world. http://www.churchcourtchambers.co.uk/the-elgin-marbles-who-owns-them-now-and-should- they-ever-be-returned-to-greece/

Further reading Vanity Fair, The Lovely Stones, by Christopher Hitchens http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2009/07/hitchens200907

Buying, selling, owning the past. Stanford news. Stanford University https://news.stanford.edu/news/multi/features/heritage/

Il firmano (1801) “Con la presente vi significhiamo che il nostro sincero Amico, Sua Eccelso la Porta della Felicità, ci ha spiegato come notoriamente la maggioranza lenza Lord Elgin Ambasciatore Straordinario della Corte d’Inghilterra presso delle Corti Franche ambisca a leggere e ad indagare i libri, le pitture ed altre opere di scienza degli antichi sapienti Greci; e come in ispecie, i ministri, i sapienti, i primati ed altri uomini dell’Inghilterra prediligano le pitture che rimangono sin dal tempo di detti Greci e che si possono vedere sui lidi dell’Arcipelago ed in altre contrade; e come per effetto di ciò essi abbian mandato di quando in quando gente ad esplorare e ad esaminare gli antichi edifizi e pitture.

E come taluni Dilettanti della Corte d’Inghilterra, essendo desiderosi di vedere gli antichi edifizi e le rare pitture della Città di Atene, e restando le vecchie mura sin dal tempo dei Greci, che oggidì sussistono nella parte interiore di detto luogo; egli (ossia l’Ambasciatore) abbia quindi ingaggiato cinque pittori inglesi ora domiciliati in Atene, affinché esaminino e considerino, et eziando copino le pitture ivi rimaste “ab antiquo”, ed egli ci ha pure espressamente pregati in questi giorni che possa essere scritto e ordinato che, sin quando detti pittori saranno impiegati nel passar dentro e fuori la rocca di detta città, che è luogo di osservazione, e nel fissare ponteggi intorno all’antico Tempio degli Idoli di lassù; e nel modellare detti ornamenti e figure visibili, in stucco od in gessi; e nel misurare gli avanzi d’altre ruine di lassù; e nello scavare quando trovino necessario le fondamenta al fine di rinvenire iscrizioni che possano essere state ricoperte tra le macerie: nessuna interruzione abbia ad essergli fatta, né alcun ostacolo posto sulla loro strada dal Disdar o da altre persone; che nessuno debba manomettere i ponteggi o gli arnesi di che abbisognassero nei loro lavori; e che, qualora sia lor volontà, non si faccia opposizione al portar via qualche pezzo di pietra con vecchie inscrizioni o sculture.

Noi adunque abbiamo scritto a voi questa lettera e spedita a mezzo di N.N.?, affinché non appena ne avrete compreso il tenore, ossia essere esplicito desiderio ed impegno di questo Sublime Imperatore dotato di tutte le eminenti virtù onde accogliere le summentovate richieste, conformemente a quanto devesi all’amicizia, alla sincerità, all’alleanza e al buon volere sussistenti “ab antiquo” fra la Sublime e sempre durevole Corte Ottomana e quella d’Inghilterra e che stanno manifestamente crescendo in ambo le Corti; in ispecie, dacchè non v’è alcun male nell’esaminare, nel contemplare e nel ritrarre in tal modo dette pitture ed edifizi (…)”.

(Firmato con un sigillo) Seget Abdullah Kaimmaccam http://www.mondogreco.net/partenone_tesi4.htm

The Firman (translated from the Italian)

The most relevant sections -- those dealing with what Elgin was given permission to do -- appear in Italics.

[After the usual introductory compliments, and the salutation of Peace]

It is hereby signified to you, that our sincere Friend his Excellency Lord Elgin, Ambassador Extraordinary from the Court of England to the Porte of Happiness, has represented to us, that it is well known that the greater part of the Frank [i.e. Christian] Courts are anxious to read and investigate the books, pictures or

figures, and other works of science of the ancient Greek philosophers: and that in particular, the ministers or officers of state, philosophers, primates and other individuals of England, have a remarkable taste for the drawings, or figures or sculptures, remaining ever since the time of the said Greeks, and which are to be seen on the shores of the Archipelago and in other parts; and have in consequence from time to time sent men to explore and examine the ancient edifices, and drawings or figures.

And that some accomplished Dilettanti of the Court of England, being desirous to see the ancient buildings and the curious figures in the City of Athens, and the old walls remaining since the time of the Grecians, which now subsist in the interior part of the said place; his Excellency the said Ambassador has therefore engaged five English painters, now dwelling at Athens to examine and view, and also to copy the figures remaining there, ab antiquo : And he has also at this time expressly besought us that an Official Letter may be written from here, ordering that as long as the said painters shall be employed in going in and out of the said citadel of Athens, which is the place of their occupations; and in fixing scaffolding round the ancient Temple of the Idols there; and in moulding the ornamental sculpture and visible figures thereon, in plaster or gypsum; and in measuring the remains of other old ruined buildings there; and in excavating when they find it necessary the foundations, in order to discover inscriptions which may have been covered in the rubbish; that no interruption may be given them, nor any obstacle thrown in their way by the Disdar (or commandant of the citadel) or any other person: that no one may meddle with scaffolding or implements they may require in their works; and that when they wish to take away any pieces of stone ("qualche pezzi di pietra") with old inscriptions or figures thereon, that no opposition be made thereto.

We therefore have written this Letter to you, and expedited it by Mr Philip Hunt, an English gentleman, Secretary of the aforesaid Ambassador, in order that as soon as you shall have understood its meaning, namely, that it is the explicit desire and engagement of this Sublime Court endowed with all eminent qualities, to favour such requests as the above-mentioned, in conformity with what is due to the friendship, sincerity, alliance and good will subsisting ab antiquo between the Sublime and ever durable Ottoman Court and that of England, and which is on the side of both those Courts manifestly increasing; particularly as there is no harm in the said figures and edifices being thus viewed, contemplated and designed.

(Note: the section below is not included in the Italian text above)

Therefore, after having fulfilled the duties of hospitality, and given a proper reception to the aforesaid Artists, in compliance with the urgent request of the said Ambassador to that effect, and because it is incumbent on us to provide that they meet no opposition in walking, viewing or contemplating the figures and edifices they may wish to design or copy, or in any of their works of fixing scaffolding or using their various implements; It is our desire that on the arrival of this Letter you use your diligence to act conformably to the instances of the said Ambassador, as long as the said five Artists dwelling at Athens shall be employed in going in and out of the said citadel of Athens, which is the place of their occupations; or in fixing scaffolding around the ancient Temple of the Idols, or in modelling with chalk or gypsum the said ornaments and visible figures thereon; or in measuring the fragments and vestiges or other ruined edifices; or in excavating, when they find it necessary, the foundations, in search of inscriptions among the rubbish; that they be not molested by the said Disdar nor by any other persons, nor even by you [to whom this letter is addressed]; and that no one meddle with their scaffolding or implements, nor hinder them from taking away any pieces of stone ("qualche pezzi di pietra") with inscriptions or figures. In the above- mentioned manner, see that you demean and comport yourselves.

(Signed with signet) Seged Abdullah Kaimacan

http://www.greece.org/parthenon/marbles/firman.htm

The Bust of Nefertiti: Remembering Ancient Egypt’s Famous Queen On Dec. 6, 1912, archaeologists in Egypt discovered the bust of the great Queen Nefertiti. A hundred years later, the aura of that potentate — and the artifact that has immortalized her — lives on By Ishaan Tharoor. Dec. 06, 2012

Michael Sohn / Reuters The Nefertiti bust is pictured during a press preview of the exhibition "In the Light of Amarna" at the Neues Museum in Berlin on Dec. 5, 2012

On a sunny afternoon on Dec. 6, 1912, an Egyptian worker at a dig along the banks of the Nile came across what may be the most striking find in the history of Egyptology. Ludwig Borchardt, the German archaeologist in charge of the excavation, scribbled excitedly in his diary a century ago: “The tools were put aside, and the hands were now used … It took a considerable amount of time until the whole piece was completely freed from all the dirt and rubble.” What emerged was a 3,300-year-old limestone bust of an ancient queen, colored with a gypsum lacquer. A flat-topped crown perched above a finely defined brow. Her cheekbones were high, nose distinguished. A thin, elegant neck — some now describe it “swanlike” — rose from the bust’s base. “We held the most lively piece of Egyptian art in our hands,” wrote Borchardt. The bust is of Nefertiti, queen of Egypt and wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten, who reigned in the 14th century B.C. A hundred years after Nefertiti’s bust was lifted out of the ground at Amarna, some 480 km south of Cairo, it remains one of the most iconic figures of Egyptian antiquity, far smaller than the pyramids or the Sphinx, but no less globally resonant. […] When it went on display at a museum in Berlin in the 1920s, it was almost immediately held up as a symbol of universal, timeless beauty. That’s not surprising. Nefertiti’s name means “the beautiful one has come.” But she’s much more than a pretty face. The queen and the bust that made her famous in our time are both fascinating stories — with endings that are still shrouded in uncertainty. Little is known of Nefertiti’s origins save that she was born outside the royal family, the daughter of the pharaoh’s vizier. She married Amenhotep IV, who inherited a vast, rich empire from his father Amenhotep III that stretched from the Nubian wastes to the river lands of Syria. Theirs was a moment of relative stability, with trade, not conquest, filling Egypt’s coffers.

[…] Nefertiti’s bust, then, remains the most vivid artifact from their reign. It was found by Borchardt’s excavation in the studio of the court sculptor Thutmose and, it seems, whisked out of the country to Germany swiftly thereafter. That appropriation was in theory legal — the Europeans who dominated Egypt at the time as a colonial protectorate also ran the administration of its antiquities. When Egyptian authorities realized what sort of treasure had been taken from them, they petitioned Berlin for its return. […] [Today], Nefertiti’s bust sits alone in Berlin, the centerpiece of an exhibition now commemorating its discovery. Defenders of global museums insist that no one nation has an exclusive right over the legacy of the past. “There are artworks that belong to our collective consciousness — Nefertiti is such a work,” said German Culture Minister Bernd Neumann, at the exhibit’s opening. Looking at Nefertiti’s serene face — Borchardt claimed it was “the epitome of tranquility and harmony” — one wonders what she would have thought.

Retrieved 19 January 2018 from http://world.time.com/2012/12/06/the-bust-of-nefertiti- remembering-ancient-egypts-famous-queen/?iid=gs-article-mostpop1

FINANCIAL REVIEW How Nefertiti's bust ended up in Germany

Joyce Tyldesley Feb 23, 2018

By the turn of the 20th century the days when a non-Egyptian archaeologist could arrive at an archaeological site in Egypt, dig it up and take his finds home to dispose of as he wished, had long gone. While Egypt was a British protectorate, veiled from 1882-1914 then de facto from 1914-56, the French-run Antiquities Service protected Egypt's heritage. No archaeological mission could excavate or export antiquities without their permission.

Relationships between the foreign excavators and the French officials were not always cordial, and many of the excavators regarded the Antiquities Service – which they considered to be French rather than Egyptian – as acting in direct conflict to the interests of Egyptology.

In 1907, the eminent Egyptologist Gaston Maspero, both director of the Antiquities Service and head of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, awarded the concession to dig at Amarna to the German entrepreneur and philanthropist James Simon. Thanks to his co-ownership of the largest cotton wholesale firm in Europe, Simon could count himself one of the 10 richest in Prussia and he shared his good fortune generously. He allocated up to a third of his personal income to building public baths and homes for disadvantaged children, financing concerts and public lectures, stocking Berlin's newly opened national gallery and eventually, in 1898, founding the German Oriental Society (Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, or DoG), of which he was the treasurer.

Although he funded the Amarna excavations with lavish donations from his own pocket, he did not personally excavate at Amarna. The work was done by a team of archaeologists from the DoG, supervised by Ludwig Borchardt. Work at Amarna started with a survey of the city, and the cutting of an exploratory series of trenches that would indicate where the richest archaeological rewards lay hidden. This investigative phase was followed by excavation proper. On 6 December 1912 they found a collection of stone and plaster pieces.

Borchardt was on site that day, and able to observe the excavation in progress. Borchardt's excavation diary gives a concise description of the colourful queen and includes a small sketch of the bust: "Life-sized painted bust of the queen, 47cm high. With the blue wig cut straight on top, and garlanded by a ribbon half-way up. Colours look freshly painted. Really wonderful work. No use describing it, you have to see it." A preliminary report and photographs were sent to Berlin, where they greatly excited the directors of the DoG. It was hoped that the bust would be allowed to travel to Germany, but this would be entirely dependent on the goodwill of the Antiquities Service. In 1912 all non-Egyptian holders of excavation licences were entitled to a share of each season's finds. This division, or partage, was designed to protect Egypt's heritage by ensuring that no unique items and no items of great archaeological or commercial value left Egypt, while allowing those who financed excavations a tangible reward for their generosity.

Today the division of finds is generally seen as a bad thing: it breaks up groups of interrelated artefacts, turns a scientific excavation into a treasure hunt and encourages excavators to discard what they may perceive as insignificant discoveries in order to ensure that their share of finds is not entirely comprised of broken potsherds. A century ago, opinions were very different. Western archaeologists regarded their digs as a legitimate means of exploring mysteries of the past, which brought employment to some of the poorest areas of Egypt while stimulating the tourism that brought money to the country as a whole. But with little or no institutional funding available, all archaeological missions were dependent on sponsors, and those sponsors liked to be rewarded for their generosity. As the law demanded, the Amarna finds were split into two lists. Gustave Lefebvre, the Antiquities inspector for Middle Egypt, reached Amarna at noon and the division started with the inspector examining photographs of the finds. He was then given access to both the excavation records and the finds themselves. Lefebvre made the most cursory of inspections. As Borchardt later confided to the art critic Julius Meier-Graefe, "the gents in Cairo were just too slack to look in the box". As Lefebvre did not claim the list headed by the bust, and declined to exercise his right of pre- emption to transfer it to his own share, ownership of the bust fell to Simon as the holder of the Amarna concession. On 7 July 1920 Simon donated his entire Amarna collection to the Neues Museum in Berlin, transferring ownership of the artefacts to the state of Prussia. In 1957 with the state of Prussia dissolved, title to all cultural assets owned prior to 1945 was transferred to the newly created Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation (Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, or SPk). Today the SPk, Germany's largest cultural institution, is conscious that there are legal and ethical questions over the ownership of many of the pieces in its collections and is working with countries of origin with the aim of preserving "a shared heritage". This includes working with the Egyptian Ministry of Culture on the creation of an Akhenaten Museum in Minya, Middle Egypt, which will display the most recent finds from the site. Currently, the SPk remains the legal owner of the Nefertiti bust. Adapted from https://www.afr.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/art/how-nefertitis-bust-ended-up-in-germany- 20180220-h0wdyb (accessed 20 May 2019)

02/10/2009 10:06 AM Archaeological Controversy Did Germany Cheat to Get Bust of Nefertiti?

A secret document has emerged claiming that German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt may have misled Egyptian officials into letting him take the world-famous bust of Nefertiti to Germany in 1913, SPIEGEL reports.

DPA Berlin's most treasured museum exhibit – the bust of Egyptian Queen Nefertiti.

The Egyptian Museum in Berlin is concerned that it may face fresh demands from Egypt that it return the world-famous bust of Queen Nefertiti following the emergence of new information on how Germany got the priceless ancient artwork. SPIEGEL has seen the contents of a document written in 1924 in which the secretary of the German Oriental Company (DOG) gave an account of a meeting on Jan. 20, 1913 between a senior Egyptian official and German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, who found the bust during a dig in 1912. The secretary had been present at the meeting which was called to divide up the spoils of the dig between Germany and Egypt on a 50-50 basis. Borchardt, the witness noted, "wanted to save the bust for us" and to that end presented a photograph that didn't show Nefertiti in her best light. The bust lay already wrapped up in a box in a dimly lit room when Egypt's chief antiques inspector, Gustave Lefebre, perused the various artifacts found in the excavation. It's unclear whether Lefebre went to the trouble of lifting the bust out of the box. In order to further mislead the inspector, Borchardt claimed the figure was made of gypsum, when in fact it's made of a limestone core under a layer of stucco. The witness concluded that there had been "cheating" regarding the material the bust was made of. The German Oriental Society confirmed the existence of the document but maintains that the finds of the archaeological dig were divided up fairly. "Nefertiti was at the top of the exchange list. The inspector could have looked at everything closely at the time," a spokesman for the society said. "It's not admissible to complain about the deal reached at the time." Egypt has repeatedly demanded the return of the Egyptian beauty, which is seen by 500,000 visitors in Berlin each year.

URL: https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/archaeological-controversy-did-germany-cheat-to-get- bust-of-nefertiti-a-606525.htm

10/20/2009 12:40 PM Berlin's Nefertiti Trouble Egyptian Official Calls Museum Behavior 'Suspicious'

She's been dead thousands of years but she's still causing trouble. The bust of Queen Nefertiti has taken pride of place in Berlin's New Museum, re-opened this weekend after 70 years. Now Zahi Hawass, head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, says Berlin should give it back.

SPIEGEL ONLINE: Do you really want to take Nefertiti away from her privileged new position in the newly re-opened New Museum in Berlin and bring her back to Cairo? Hawass: Not by any means. Such an important issue won't be resolved just by wishful thinking or by making statements of intent. SPIEGEL ONLINE: So have you asked that Nefertiti be returned -- or not? Hawass: We are still addressing the question and we are looking into all details related to the current location of Nefertiti -- as the world famous, former chief consort of the great Pharaoh Akhenaten is now known. We will only reach a decision when we are absolutely clear on this issue. SPIEGEL ONLINE: What exactly do you still need to know? Hawass: We want to know if the Nefertiti sculptures -- and most importantly, the head of the queen as exhibited in Berlin -- left Egypt legally. When that is absolutely clear and the evidence is in front of us, then there won't be any problems. SPIEGEL ONLINE: Is it so difficult to find this sort of evidence? After all, those in the German capital who are responsible have tried their best to ensure that these valuable sculptures were brought to Berlin with the knowledge and agreement of Egyptian officials. Hawass: Around two months ago I petitioned the Berlin museum administration to share with me the exact details of Nefertiti's "emigration" and to send all and any material that relates to the legitimacy of that process. To this day, my request has not been answered. That is annoying. What sort of conclusions should we draw from this? That seems suspicious. SPIEGEL ONLINE: You doubt the legitimacy of the transport of the sculpture out of your country? Hawass: We have evidence that supports that suspicion: That Nefer