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Volume XVIII, Number 9 May 17, 1999 SBE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR SEARCH DATA RELEASE BATTLE CONTINUES $ ACCELERATES ~ While awaiting the Office of Management and The pace of the recruibnent to select a successor Budget's (OMB) evaluation of the more than 10,000 to Bennett Bertenthal as Assistant Director (AD) for comments it received on its revisions of Circular A- the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Social, 110 with respect to data sharing with the public, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Directorate efforts continue to repeal or modify the law that gave (SBE), has picked up in recent weeks. Bertenthal rise to the necessary revision. expects to leave NSF in December. Senator Richard Shelby's (R-AL) amendment to William Julius Wilson, Professor of Sociology the 1999 Omnibus Appropriations bill directing and Public Policy at Harvard's JFK School of OMB to revise the circular so that the public, through Government and chair of the search committee, has the Freedom of Infonnation Act (FOIA), could gain filled out his panel. The distinguished members access to all data from studies supported by federally include: James Anderson, cognitive science at Brown funded grants started this ruckus. (See UPDATE, University; Nancy Cantor, Provost at University of December 12, 1998) Michigan; Irwin Feller, public policy at Penn State University; James Gibson, political science at Representative George Brown (D-CA), Ranking University of Houston; Charles Plott, economics and Democrat on the House Science Committee, and political science at California Institute of Representative Vern Ehlers (R-MI), Vice-Chair of Technology; Yolanda Moses, President of City that panel, have introduced a bill, H.R. 88, to simply College of New York; Samuel Preston, Dean of Arts repeal the Shelby provision. It has garnered about 35 and Science at University of Pennsylvania; and co-sponsors in the House, so far. Other efforts are Robert Solow, economics emeritus at Massachusetts also underway to prevent implementation of any new Institute of Technology. Wilson and the committee OMB revisions to A-110, through the efforts of are evaluating candidates and expect to present a Representative James Walsh (R-NY), Chairman of short-list to NSF by mid-June. the House VA, HUD, IA Appropriations Subcommittee, and Representative David Price (D­ At a meeting with the COSSA Executive NC). In the Senate, Senator Richard Durbin (D-IL) Committee on May 12, NSF Director Rita Colwell has also been searching for an approach to prevent indicated a sense of urgency in selecting the new implementation. All these members are seeking ways Assistant Director. Her criteria for the new AD are: a "highly respected scientist," an excellent manager, a spokesperson for the entire SBE community, and someone steeped in the quantitative aspects of the Inside UPDATE... SBE sciences. She also expressed the hope that the process could be completed and a candidate selected • Researchers Discuss School Violence at Senate by the end of July. COSSA's representatives Hearing applauded this sense of urgency and told Colwell that • Nm Budget Priorities Process Explored we hoped that there would not be a repetition of the • House Subcommittee Holds AHCPR Reauthorization Hearing four month hiatus that occurred between Cora • Fatherhood: Topic of House Hearing Marrett's departure and Bertenthal's arrival. • Socioeconomic Status and Health Disparities Conference • Rockefeller Institute of Government Rejoins COSSA 2 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE May 17, 1999 to develop a data sharing policy that will balance the A Need for Research public's right to know with a scientist's right to conduct his/her research. Suggestions for a In her testimony, Denise Gottfredson, professor moratorium and a study by either the National in University of Maryland's Department of Academy of Sciences or the National Academy of Criminology and Criminal Justice, former COSSA Public Administration are also on the table. seminar speaker, and author of the section on school violence in the University of Maryland study, Of course, Shelby has the upper hand having Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, enacted his provision into law. He also has the What 's Promising, noted a need for more research on strong support of Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott safety in the Nation's schools. Particularly, she said (R-MS) in this struggle. Many scientific societies that research needs to focus on four questions: 1) and universities are working to overcome these What kinds of students participate in violent obstacles and prevent implementation of the new activities?, 2) What kinds of schools and what types provision. of communities experience school violence?, 3) What are the indicators of school violence and what can we do in response to these indicators?, and 4) How can the results of research be translated into actual school RESEARCHERS DISCUSS SCHOOL D\ ~ settings? VIOLENCE AT SENATE HEARING n She said that research has provided some In the wake of the Columbine, Colorado high insights into the causes and correlates of school school tragedy, Senator James Jeffords convened a violence. For example, Gottfredson noted that May 6 hearing of the Senate Health, Education, overall urban schools are more violent than suburban Labor, and Pensions Committee to discuss school schools, despite the recent spate of violent school crime and safety. The Committee heard from three shootings in suburban school settings. Also, she said panels, including a panel of social scientists. Senator that smaller schools and schools with strong Jeffords noted that the federal government often administrative leadership often experience less school develops prevention programs, but often does not violence. There has been some good research, she evaluate the effectiveness of the programs. He said said, that shows a link between student involvement that more evaluation needs to be performed in order in school and community activities and a reduction in to know what really works and what doesn't work. youth violence.

"Research," she said, "provides a roadmap of precursors of school violence" and has also shown CONSORTIUM OF SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATIONS that some school violence prevention efforts work while others do not. Citing the Maryland report, she Executive Director: Howard J. Silver said that programs that stress early identification and Public Affairs: David A Hess Goverrunent Affairs: Angela L. Sharpe early intervention and after-school programs work. Administrative Officer: Karen E. Carrion In addition, school programs that are comprehensive President: Alfred Blumstein in nature and stress the development of competency skills (developing self-<:<>ntrol, stress-management, The Consortium of Social Science Associations (COSSA), responsible decision-making, social problem-solving, an advocacy organiz.ation for federal support for the social and behavioral sciences, was fowided in 1981 and stands and communication skills) and programs aimed at alone in Washington in representing the full range of clarifying and communicating norms about behavior social and behavioral sciences. UPDATE is published 22 are effective in addressing school violence. The Drug times per year. Individual subscriptions are available from Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) program and COSSA for $75; institutional subscriptions, $150, overseas late-night basketball programs, on the other hand, do mail, $150. ISSN 0749-4394. Address all inquiries to not work to prevent school violence, said COSSA, 1522 K Street, NW, Suite 836, Washington, D.C. 20005. Pl)onc: 2021842-3525, FAX: 2021842-2788. Gottfredson. hllp:l/me,;,bers.aol.com!socsciencelCOSSAindex.htm May 17, 1999 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE 3

There is a need, she declared, for more quality most youth crime occurs in the after-school hours. research on this issue. She also said that more These programs, he said, must be inclusive and schools need to adopt school-based violence participation should not be based on academic prevention programs based on research. Currently, achievement. He said that schools are safe and that only 40 percent of the activities that schools we must keep the issue of school and youth violence undertake to prevent or reduce violence adhere to in perspective. He said that placing metal detectors research. The federal government, she said, should in schools will destroy the learning environment and encourage schools to implement best-practices based portray schools as armed camps. He also noted that on research to prevent school violence. It should also schools unifonns are not the answer to school encourage more high quality research on a broad violence. He said that there is no evidence to suggest range of issues, since the issue of youth violence is that school unifonns prevent violence. Gottfredson overly broad, said Gottfredson. concurred and noted that unifonns, as part of a comprehensive school program, may have some Senator Mike DeWine (R-OH) agreed with impact. Gottfredson that the Nation needs more research and evaluation. "In the future, we must have better data," he declared. NIH BUDGET PRIORITIES PROCESS In response to a question by Senator Jeffords EXPLORED ./15 about who in the federal government could perform this research, Gottfredson ·noted that the National At this year's annual Senate Labor, Health, and Institute of Justice, the National Institute of Mental Human Services Appropriations Subcommittee Health, and the National Institute of Drug Abuse, are hearing to establish the National Institutes of all very capable of performing this type of research. Health's (Nill) budget for FY 2000, Subcommittee Chair Arlen Specter (R-PA), noted that the NIH may James Alan Fox, Dean of Criminal Justice at be the "only crown jewel of the federal government." Northeastern University, said that youth violence has Specter said that his Subcommittee had taken the lead decreased by 50 percent in the last several years. in increasing the allocation for NIH. He cautioned, Fox said that this is nothing to be overly optimistic however, that the Subcommittee was looking at a about since it is a decrease from record levels. The "very tight budget" for FY 2000. While the NIH, he decline in violent youth crime has been driven by the said, has done some marvelous things, the issue had reduction in crime among urban youth resulting from been raised as whether or not the Congress should intensive urban programs. There has been an establish how much is spent on each disease. increase, he said, in the gang membership and crime in smaller non-urban communities. Fox pointed to Senator Tom Harkin (D-IA), the Subcommittee the decline in the crack cocaine market in the urban Ranking Member, commended Specter for calling the centers as the reason for the decline in crime. The hearing to "discuss the process by which funds are crack market, however, has been replaced by violent allocated among the various programs, diseases, and games and the availability of guns, he declared. activities at NIH. But, frankly, we wouldn't need to have this hearing if Congress could just find a way to The U.S., he said, must deal with an increasingly get the NIH the resources they need to do their job." violent culture perpetuated by the glorification of Until the Senate can effectively do that, this funding violence and the widespread availability of firearms. process "will always be subject to criticism." Overall, Fox said, the sense of "community has weakened." He said that politicians and others have Harkin emphasized that while NIH should make laid a lot of blame on parents and parenting. Parents the final funding decisions through its peer review do not deserve the blame; most parents are well­ system, Congress also "has an important role to play meaning and should not be the focus of the blame. in setting priorities for medical research. We are "We need to assist parents, not assail parents." talking about the National Institutes of Health not the National Institutes of Basic Research - the societal Echoing Gottfredson, Fox indicated his support impact of disease is an important consideration when of after-school programs, since statistics show that making funding decisions," he said. He cited several 4 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE May 17, 1999 examples of the "need for, and positive impact" of estimates of spending by disease, while consistent the Congress' involvement, including the recent from year to year for any single disease, do not allow creation of the National Center for Complementary for meaningful comparisons across diseases. and Alternative Medicines. Congress, he concluded, 5. Science Is Not a Commodity. You Cannot Buy ~ 'must maintain a rigorous oversight role over ND-I to Discoveries. - ''New scientific efforts are also assure that taxpayers' dollars are well spent and that driven by evidence that under-explored opportunities important areas aren't neglected." exist and that they can attract talented investigators, newly trained scientists, or scientists from other ND-I Director Harold Varmus, who testified at fields ." two hearings in 1997 regarding priority setting since his ascension as ND-I director, discussed five issues to bring the Senators up to date on the subject. HOUSE SUBCOMMITTEE HOLDS AHCPR 1. What Are NIH's Criteria for Allocation of REAUTHORIZATION HEARING Research Funds? - Noting that the allocation of funds to medical research is complex, Varmus said On Thursday, April 29 the House Commerce that there are five broad criteria that guide the Subcommittee on Health and Environment held a planning and spending of the ND-I budget. He further hearing on the reauthoriz.ation of the Agency for noted that these criteria were endorsed by the Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR). Institute of Medicine Report, "Scientific Subcommittee Chairman Michael Bilirakis (R-FL) Opportunities and Public Needs: Improving Priority noted that he was "hopeful" that the Congress can Setting at the National Institutes of Health." (See "pass legislation to reauthorize the agency this year." UPDATE ) These criteria include: 1) quality of the AHCPR "serves a critical function in efforts to research; 2) prospects for important discoveries; 3) improve the quality of health care in our nation," he public health needs; 4) a broad portfolio across all of emphasized. science relative to health; and 5) the necessary infrastructure for the conduct of research. AHCPR Administrator John Eisenberg noted 2. Is it Possible to Plan? - Discovery is that this was the agency's 10th anniversary. The unpredictable, said Varmus. He noted that he has AHCPR, established in 1989, has matured in its asked each of the Institute and Center directors to approach and has evolved as a scientific partner to develop a 2 - 5-year strategic plan, which "includes both public and private institutions, he noted. It was input from scientists, patient advocates, and health created in response to congressional interest in care providers with the goal of making these written focusing and expanding federal involvement in plans available to the Administration, Congress, and outcomes research and practice guidelines. the public early in FY 2000." 3. Who Provides Advice to NIH Leadership?­ Eisenberg testified that AHCPR's priorities Varmus emphasized that ND-I has a broad range of included: 1) conducting and supporting research on advisors. There is a "complex dialogue" with the outcomes and effectiveness of treatments; 2) scientific review groups, advisory councils, and ensuring that clinicians, patients, health care system workshop and town meeting participants. He leaders, and policymakers have the information that highlighted ND-l's new efforts to build upon and will enhance the quality of care; and 3) identifying improve access to and communication from the NIH, gaps in access to and use of health care services. He including a new webpage to serve as the focal point emphasized that AHCPR is not a regulatory or for ND-I public liaison activities: enforcement agency, "but a scientific research agency http:llwww.nih.govlwe/comelpublic/iaison. that sponsors, conducts, and translates research." He 4. Measure of Disease Burden Is an Insufficient characterized AHCPR's role as "helping the practice Way to Allocate Resources - Varmus explained of health care catch up with the science of health that the ND-I considers disease burdens in its care." AHCPR, said Eisenberg, follows the same decisions, but in spite ofthe agency's extensive "rigorous evaluation and peer review standards for efforts to gather and analyze data, the information on awarding research grants as does the National disease burdens is imperfect. He emphasized that Institutes of Health." May 17, 1999 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE 5 ( In 1995, AHCPR was the center of a series of Subcommittee Chair Nancy Johnson (R-CT) controversies that threatened the agency's existence. welcomed several witnesses, including Princeton The agency came under attack during the budget and University Professor Sara McLanahan and Gordon appropriations process in the 104th Congress. The Berlin, Senior Vice President of the Manpower Republican leadership, looking for federal programs Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC). to cut or trim, questioned the agency's involvement in Johnson held the hearing to discuss what research the Clinton Administration's 1993-94 health care suggests about the economic and social reform effort. In addition, opponents of AHCPR circumstances of unmarried fathers, as well as the questioned the need for the agency and whether its effects of programs designed to help these fathers functions could be replicated by other government improve their economic status and their relationships agencies or the private sector. with the children and their children's mothers. The Congresswoman said that the "next logical step in At the hearing, Representative Tom Bliley (R­ reforming welfare is to help poor fathers improve VA), Chairman of the full Commerce Committee their economic circumstances and participate directly released a statement emphasizing that the "role of in the rearing of their children." AHCPR as a nonpartisan agency able to provide evidence-based science to the marketplace is an McLanahan, of Princeton's Office of Population invaluable resource." Research, discussed some preliminary results on a "major new study of unwed parents" that she and her Frist Leads Senate Effort colleagues have undertaken. The ~tudy, she said, is designed to fill the void in knowledge about unwed In the Senate, Senator Bill Frist (R-TN) has parents and their children - the fastest growing introduced bipartisan legislation (S.580) to families in the U.S. - accounting for one third of all reauthorize the AHCPR and to change its name to the births in 1997. McLanahan briefly discussed some "Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality." preliminary findings from Austin, TX and Oakland, There are 11 cosponsors to S. 580, including CA - eventually the study will encompass 20 cities. Senators James Jeffords (R-VT), Edward Kennedy One finding, said McLanahan, is that "the vast (D-MA), Connie Mack (R-FL), and Barbara majority of unwed fathers are strongly attached to Mikulski (D-MD). A slightly modified version ofthe their families, at least at birth." She said that they legislation has been incorporated in the Patients' Bill were able to interview 75 percent of the unwed of Rights Act which was considered by the Senate fathers in these two cities. Of the interviewees, Health, Education, Labor, and Pension Committee's McLanahan said that nearly 60 percent were Public Health Subcommittee chaired by Frist. interviewed at the hospital. "Clearly, these figures belie the myth that unwed mothers do not know who Eisenberg stressed to the House Subcommittee the father is, or that unwed fathers do not care about that the Senate language helps the agency remain their children." A second finding, noted by credible. He further noted that he is "comfortable" McLanahan, is that most of the unwed fathers are not with taking "policy" out of the name and adding in a good position to support their new families. She "quality." He added that the agency's mission should reported that nearly half the men did not have a high be amended to align with the language of S. 580. He school degree, only 20 percent had an education characterized AHCPR's role as "helping the practice beyond high school, 20 percent did not work in the of health care catch up with the science of health past year, I 0 percent had problems with drugs and care." alcohol, and nearly 4 percent were in jail at the time of the interview.

Berlin discussed the MDRC's recent evaluation FATHERHOOD: TOPIC OF HOUSE WAYS rP7 of the Parents' Fair Share (PFS) program, a seven AND MEANS COMMITTEE HEARING (J/ site test of programs that provide employment, parenting, and other services to fathers of children On Tuesday, April 27, the House Committee on receiving welfare, who are unemployed and unable to Ways and Means Subcommittee on Human meet their child support obligations. Berlin Resources held a hearing on fatherhood . concluded that the PFS, authorized by the Family 6 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE May 17, 1999

Support Act of 1988, was partly successful in had made health disparities a topic of the NIH increasing the fathers' quality involvement with their Directors Retreat. Designation of an Area of families. Specifically, Berlin said the PFS program Research Emphasis by the NIH Direetor provides for resulted in fathers who were "more likely to get a "renewed emphasis on research to understand the involved in decisions involving their children." causes of disease; to identify and increase knowledge However, he noted that the PFS was less successful of risk factors for disease; to determine reasons for in increasing fathers' economic earnings. Berlin health disparities that may be associated with race, noted that "referral to PFS did not produce an overall ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status; and to impact on employment rates or earning across the understand the role of personal behaviors and seven sites." The employment of the fathers referred environmental factors in health disparities." NIH's to PFS did not differ from a control group of fathers approach to SES, said Anderson, is an integrated who were not referred to PFS, concluded Berlin. one. Researchers, he emphasized, need to begin to think about multidiscipline and cross-dist;ipline approaches. Solving the mystery of SES and the health gradient requires a multilevel perspective, he SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND HEALTH said. DISPARITIES CONFERENCE #7 The conference was organized into five sessions: According to Norman Anderson, Director of the 1) an Introductory Session moderated by Nancy Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Adler from the University of California and a (OBSSR), "there is a cultural shift occurring at the conference co-chair; 2) Developmental Influences National Institutes of Health (Nlli)." Anderson made Across the Life Span, moderated by Teresa Seeman, the remark at a New York Academy of Sciences University of California; 3) Effects ofthe Social conference, Socioeconomic Status and Health in Environment, moderated by George A. Kaplan, Industrial Nations: Social, Psychological, and University of Michigan; 4) Psychobiological and Biological Pathways, jointly sponsored by the John Psychosocial Pathways and Mechanisms to Disease, D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Research moderated by Mark R. Cullen, Yale University; and and hosted by the NIH with educational grants from 5) Aspects of Policy Implications - For Health and the OBSSR, and the National Institute on Research, moderated by Katherine Newman, Harvard Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). University.

The conference, held May 11-12, highlighted SES: A Powerful Determinant of Health recent research results which show that there are a range of issues, beyond health behaviors and access Adler emphasized that research has shown that a to healthcare, which affect health throughout people's per~on's SES "is a powerful determinant of his or her lives. The meeting was also convened to examine the health," noting that the effect is not "simply the result data on socioeconomic status (SES) and health, of the extreme effects of poverty, but is found across specifically focusing on the impact of SES the whole range of SES." This means that on throughout the lifetime. Conference participants average the more "advantaged individuals are, the discussed the "gradient of health" and the relationship better their health." There are still a number of between health and such indicators as income, questions that remain unanswered regarding the SES­ education, occupation, and neighborhood and health gradient, Adler emphasized. including: community characteristics. 1. Is the gradient the same in all populations? Most of the research has been done on white males in the Anderson told conference attendees that the NIH U.S. or Western Europe. Are there some groups for is "very committed to research on SES and health," whom the gradient is less defined or even reversed? citing NIH Director Harold Varmus' inclusion of 2. Is the gradient due to the impact of SES on health health disparities as one of his new "Areas of or the impact of health on SES? Resear..:h Emphasis" for FY 2000. Varmus, said 3. Does the gradient occur for all diseases? Does the Anderson, is "intellectually intrigued" with the social patterning of diseases for which the gradient holds and behavioral sciences, further noting that Varmus shed light on causative mechanisms? May 17, 1999 COSSA WASHINGTON UPDATE 7

4. What is it about SES that influences health? Are several participants of the conference publically the effects of SES on health due to the material expressed fiustration and concern that the conference resources associated with the traditional indicators of largely ignored the role of racism. SES? Are they due to the impact of differential social status and relative rather than absolute What Next? deprivation? 5. What are the multiple pathways by which SES According to Norman Anderson, several of the influences health? What is the role of the social NIH Institutes and Centers are in the process of envirorunents in which people live and work, of their developing Requests for Applications (RFA) and psychological traits and responses, of health-related Program Announcements (PA), or are currently behaviors, and biological responses? To gain a full actively seeking applications RFAs and P As that understanding of how SES impacts health we need to have been released, including: study the intersection of these pathways, said Adler. + PA-98-098 - "Socioeconomic Status and Health Social Capital and Health Across the Life Course" - the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; the National Institute on lchiro Kawachi, from the Harvard School of Aging; the National Institute of Child Health and Public Health, discussed "social capital and Human Development; the National Institute of community effects on population and individual Environmental Health Sciences; and the National health." Noting that enormous variations in health Institute of Mental Health, are seeking research grant status have been observed· across geographic areas of applications to study the cilmulative and the country, including states, counties, and contemporaneous relationships between SES and neighborhoods, Kawachi emphasized that population physical and mental health and functioning over the health is determined by features of the social life course and across generations; envirorunent as well as by the behaviors of +the National Institute on Dental and Craniofacial individuals. Recently, Kawachi said, researchers Research is planning a major RFA for Centers for have turned their attention toward examining the research on health disparities; influence of social capital on population and +the National Institute on Aging is placing new individual health. Social capital, he said, refers to emphasis on ethnicity, SES, and health in its features of social organization - such as levels of Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (an interpersonal trust and norms of reciprocity - that Intramural Program) to move the field forward; facilitate collective action and promote public health. +the Fogarty International Center is planning a "Intervening to reduce socioeconomic disparities in workshop on international health and economic health requires that we focus on the characteristics of development; and places as well as people," he said. +the NIEHS is aggressively developing a research agenda on envirorunental aspects of SES, as well as SES and Ethnicity coordinating a trans-NIH funding initiative on SES and health. David Williams, from University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research, discussed the complex ways in which race and SES combine to affect health. "Racism is an added burden for individuals who ROCKEFELLER INSTITUTE OF j}+f belong to stigmatized racial/ethnic minority GOVERNMENT REJOINS COSSA populations," said Williams. Individual and institutional discrimination, along with ''the stigma of The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of inferiority can adversely affect health by restricting Government at the State University of New York at socioeconomic opportunities and mobility." He Albany has rejoined COSSA as a Contributor. We stressed that there are large racial differences in SES welcome them back and look forward to working and that SES accounts for much of the observed with them on matters of mutual concern. racial disparities in health. Yet, even when SES levels are the same, racial differences in health persists, noted Williams. Despite ~s presentation, MEMBERS

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CONTRIBlJfORS

American Council of Learned Societies Duke University National Opinion Research Center American Institutes for Research Emory University Nelson Rockefeller Institute of Government University of Arizona University of Georgia New York University Bowling Green State University George Mason University University ofNonh Carolina, Chapel Hill Brook.in~ ~tution Harvard University North Carolina State University Brown University Indiana University Northwestern University University of California, Bcriceley Institute for Social Research. University of Ohio State University University of California, Davis Michigan University ofOregon University of California, Los Angeles Institute for the Advancement of University of Pennsylvania University of California, San Diego Social Work Research Pennsylvania State University University of California, Santa Barbara Institute for Women's Policy Research Princeton University University ofCalifornia, Santa Cruz University oflowa Purdue University Carnegie-Mellon University Johns Hopkins University Social Science Research Council Case Western Reserve University Kansas State University Stanford University Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences University of Maryland State University of New YorX, Binglwnton University of Chicago University of Massachusetts State University of New YorX, Stony Brook Clarie University Massachusetts Institute of Technology University ofTexas, Austin University ofColorado Maxwell School ofCiti.zenWp and Public Texas A & M University Columbia University Affairs, Syracuse University Tulane University Cornell Institute for Social and Economic Research University of Michigan University ofWuhingt.on Cornell University Michigan State University University of Wisconain, Madison Department ofCriminology & Criminal Justice, University of Minnesota University ofWi!conain. Milwaukee University of Maryland National Bureau of Economic Research Yale University

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