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The London School of Economics and Political Science The London School of Economics and Political Science Policy Networks in Japan: Case of the Automobile Air Pollution Policies Takashi Sagara A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography and Environment of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy i UMI Number: U615939 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615939 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 "KSCSES p m r . rrti - S • - g r t W - • Declaration I, Takashi Sagara, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 2 Abstract The thesis seeks to examine whether the concept of the British policy network framework helps to explain policy change in Japan. For public policy studies in Japan, such an examination is significant because the framework has been rarely been used in analysis of Japanese policy. For public policy studies in Britain and elsewhere, such an examination would also bring benefits as it would help to answer the important question of whether it can be usefully applied in the other contexts. Based on an examination of the policy networks concept, this thesis sets out four distinct hypotheses. In order to examine their validity, the thesis examines policy-making and policy changes on emission standards in automobile air pollution policies in Japan from the 1960s to the 2000s based on the application of the policy networks approach. The thesis concludes that the policy networks approach can help to explain policy changes in Japan to a certain extent but that its explanatory value is limited. In order to make the concept more relevant to Japan, the thesis suggests that the approach should pay more attention to interpersonal relationships, individuals and individual companies and that it should consider how well participants are incorporated into networks and whether different interests can co-exist without conflicts more fully. Further, it proposes that the approach should take into consideration other associated policy networks and relationships between policy networks in order to more effectively understand policy change. Finally, based on the findings, the thesis proposes future research on shifts from the government style to the governance style of politics on automobile air pollution at both the national and local levels in Japan. 3 Table of Contents Page Abstract 3 Table of Contents 4 Acknowledgements 6 List of Figures 8 List of Abbreviations 8 Chapter 1: Public Policy Approaches and Networks Approaches 10 Chapter 2: Different Policy Network Frameworks and the Concept of Policy Networks 47 Chapter 3: Methodological Approaches 88 Chapter 4: Introduction to the Empirical Study 105 Chapter 5: The Case of Automobile Air Pollution Policies in Japan 122 - 19608- Chapter 6: The Case of Automobile Air Pollution Policies in Japan 152 -19708- Chapter 7: The Case of Automobile Air Pollution Policies in Japan 214 -1980s, 1990s and 20005- Chapter 8: Analysis 261 Chapter 9: Conclusion: Reflections on the research and Suggestions 283 Appendix A: List of Diet Paper 332 Appendix B: List of Interviews 342 Appendix C: Passenger Automobiles, Trucks and Buses: 1955-2000 344 Appendix D: Freight and Passenger Transport by Automobiles: 1955-2000 344 Appendix E: Automobile Production: 1963-2000 345 Appendix F: Freight and Passenger Transport in Tokyo and Osaka 345 Appendix G: Members of the Specialist Committee 346 Appendix H: CVCC Engines 347 Appendix I: Evolutions of Emission Standards 348 Appendix J: Tables of Answers 349 References: 360 4 For Fumi, Yakumo and Caesar Acknowledgements The author greatly depends on the support of a wide range of people for this thesis. First of all, I would like to thank my main supervisor, Professor Andrew Gouldson, who very kindly and patiently helped and supervised me since my Master’s degree course at the LSE. Without his great academic and private support, the thesis could not be complete. I also wish to thank my sub-supervisor, Professor Yvonne Rydin for giving me valuable advices for the thesis and supporting my study since the Master’s degree course. Special thanks go to other academic staff and administrative staff in the Department of Geography and the Environment and in the other sections of the LSE. In addition, I really appreciate a great financial assistance from the Department. I also would like to thank Dr Phillip Mayring at Universitat Klagenfurt for giving me useful advices on the research methodology. A considerable range of academics in Japan also contributed to this thesis including Professor Hiroshi Ohta at Aoyama Gakuin University (Department of International Economics), Professor Yasuyuki Soeya at Meiji Gakuin University and Professor Masatoshi Obata at Musashino Art University, Dr Brendan Barrett and Dr Shuji Yamada. My great thanks go to Mrs Katsuko Asai, who great regrettably passed away in 2005 though she had been greatly looking forward to reading the thesis. Without any doubt, her words of encouragement and English education to me significantly contributed to the production of this thesis. My special thanks go to my family. I would like to thank Hiroshi, Keiko & Yoshi Kaneko as well as Ritsu, Kazuo & Ayako Sagara and Noriko Kono for their kind-hearted support. Also, I would like to thank Kotaro Kaneko (first and second), who cheered me up when I was exhausted. My thanks also go to my three-year-old son, Yakumo Sagara, as his smiling was the greatest source of energy to produce this thesis. Further, I would like to express my cordial thanks to Caesar Sagara, who was my best dog, friend, son, brother and sometimes father, and has been hopefully looking upon me from 6 the Heaven as he passed away on 23rd November 2005. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude deeply from my heart to my wife, Fumi Sagara. Perhaps she had been looking forward to the production of the thesis more than anybody including me. Although she is a veterinary surgeon and has a little interest in environmental policy, she has been often forced to listen to my ideas for more than three hours in the mid-night and has given me some comments for them. As it is always difficult for me to say it face-to-face, by using this opportunity, I would like to say that her kindness and heartfelt support are definitely the main contributor to the production of this thesis and I would like to devote this thesis to her. 7 List of Figures Page 5.1 Highway Networks 1963-1973 128 5.2 Most Congested National Roads 129 5-3 The Policy Network of Automobile Air Pollution 150 5-4 The Policy Network in the First Policy Change 151 6-1 The Policy Network in the Second Policy Change 209 6-2 The Policy Network in the Third Policy Change 210 6-3 The Policy Network in the Fourth Policy Change 211 6-4 The Policy Network in the Fifth Policy Change 212 6-5 The Policy Network in the Sixth Policy Change 213 7-1 The Policy Network between the sixth policy change and the seventh policy change 258 7-2 The Policy Network in the Seventh and the Eighth Policy Change 259 7-3 The Policy Network in the Ninth Policy Change 260 List of Abbreviations COOP Consumer Cooperatives CO Carbon Monoxide C02 Carbon Dioxide EA Environmental Agency EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIW Equivalent Inertia Weight EPA Environmental Protection Agency FEO Federation of Economic Organizations HC Hydrocarbon JAMA Japan Automobile Manufactures Association JCSA Japan Chain Store Association JTA Japan Trucking Association LDP Liberal Democratic Party METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport MoC Ministry of Construction MoE Ministry of Environment 8 MoH Ministry of Health MoT Ministry of Transport NGO Non-Governmental Organization NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide NOx Nitrogen Oxides NPA National Police Agency PAJ Petrol Association of Japan PM Particulate Matter SME Small and Medium Enterprise STA Science and Technology Agency TMG Tokyo Metropolitan Government 9 Chapter 1 Public Policy Approaches and Network Approaches Introduction The thesis seeks to examine the evolution of emission standards in Japan. Then, in order to understand the evolution of emission standards in Japan, it is necessary to focus on relationship between the state actors and the auto industry because the relationship between them significantly influences policy-making processes in emission standards. The Marsh and Rhodes model or the so-called British policy networks framework, given that two British political scientists, Rod Rhodes and David Marsh, led its development and it has been widely used in Britain, has been recognized as useful in analysing the relationship between policy actors and its influence on policy outcomes. Its utility has been confirmed in both British and European contexts, but its utility has rarely been examined in non-European contexts. Especially, examination of its utility in the context of Japan
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