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Gender Equity Policies in Higher Education in Japan

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Gender Equity Policies in Higher Education in Japan Gender Equity Policies in Higher Education in Japan Sanae Kawana BA, Hokusei Gakuen University, Japan MBus (Research), Queensland University of Technology A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD through the Centre for Learning Innovation, Faculty of Education, Queensland University of Technology 2010 Principal Supervisor: Dr. Bruce Burnett Associate Supervisor: Associate Professor Sandra Taylor Associate Supervisor: Professor Susan Danby External Supervisor: Professor Harumi Sasatani Keywords power, gender, discourses, gender equity policies, feminists’ activities, higher education, Japan iii Abstract In a similar fashion to many western countries, the political context of Japan has been transformed since the 1975 UN World Conference on Women, which eventually led to the establishment of the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society in Japan in 1999. The Basic Law sets out a series of general guidelines across every field of society, including education. This trajectory policy research study targets gender issues in Japanese higher education and follows the development of the Basic Law and, in particular, how it has been interpreted by bureaucrats and implemented within the field of higher education. This feminist policy research study examines Japanese power relationships within the field of gender and identifies gender discourses embedded within Japanese gender equity policy documents. The study documents the experiences of, and strategies used by, Japanese feminists in relation to gender equity policies in education. Drawing on critical feminist theory and feminist critical discourse theory, the study explores the relationship between gender discourses and social practices and analyses how unequal gender relations have been sustained through the implementation of Japanese gender equity policy. Feminist critical policy analysis and feminist critical discourse analysis have been used to examine data collected through interviews with key players, including policy makers and policy administrators from the national government and higher education v institutions offering teacher education courses. The study also scrutinises the minutes of government meetings, and other relevant policy documents. The study highlights the struggles between policy makers in the government and bureaucracy, and feminist educators working for change. Following an anti-feminist backlash, feminist discourses in the original policy documents were weakened or marginalised in revisions, ultimately weakening the impact of the Basic Law in the higher education institutions. The following four key findings are presented within the research: 1) tracking of the original feminist teachers’ movement that existed just prior to the development of the Basic Law in 1999; 2) the formation of the Basic Law, and how the policy resulted in a weakening of the main tenets of women’s policy from a feminist perspective; 3) the problematic manner in which the Basic Law was interpreted at the bureaucratic level; and 4) the limited impact of the Basic Law on higher education and the strategies and struggles of feminist scholars in reaction to this law. vi Table of Contents Keywords .................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ........................................................................................................................ v Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... vii List of figures and tables ............................................................................................ xii Grant awarded ........................................................................................................... xiv List of abbreviations ................................................................................................... xv Romanised Japanese words ...................................................................................... xvii Statement of original authorship ............................................................................. xviii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... xix Chapter One: Exploring the Impact of Gender Equity Policy on Higher Education in Japan ............................................................................................................................. 1 Background to the study: Gender equity and gender equality in the Japanese context ...................................................................................................................... 2 The enactment of the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society and gender issues in Japanese higher education .................................................................................... 4 The slow progress in implementation of gender equity policies in teacher education in universities ....................................................................................... 6 Research problem ................................................................................................... 11 Research questions ................................................................................................. 14 Theoretical approach .............................................................................................. 14 Research methods and analysis .............................................................................. 15 Significance of the study ........................................................................................ 16 Thesis outline ......................................................................................................... 18 Chapter Two: Gender Equity in Japan—Literature Review ...................................... 23 Background to the development of gender equity in Japan ................................... 23 The women’s movement in Japan ...................................................................... 23 Drafting of gender equality elements in the Japanese Constitution: The hidden story .................................................................................................................... 25 vii The chronology of Japanese gender equity movements from the post war, 1970s to 2000 ................................................................................................................ 29 The synchronicity of gender equity movements from the 1970s to 2000 between western countries and Japan ............................................................................... 36 The emergence of the gender equity movement .................................................... 38 Process of development of policies on ‘gender equality’ .................................. 38 Implementation of gender equity policy: The administrative structure for implementing the gender equity policy .............................................................. 43 The Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society ....................................................... 45 ‘Femocrats’ in the Office of Gender Equality .................................................... 48 Gender equity policy in education ......................................................................... 49 Background to gender equality education in schools ......................................... 49 Gender equity policy in higher education .......................................................... 51 Gender studies in higher education .................................................................... 53 Sexual harassment issues ................................................................................... 59 Summary ................................................................................................................ 64 Chapter Three: Gender and Power Relations—Conceptual Framework ................... 67 Theorising gender ................................................................................................... 67 Gender in the context in Japan ........................................................................... 68 Gender relations ................................................................................................. 70 Gender order ....................................................................................................... 71 Gender regime .................................................................................................... 71 Gender and power .................................................................................................. 73 Patriarchy ........................................................................................................... 73 Hegemony in gender relations ............................................................................ 76 Resistance in gender relations ............................................................................ 78 Discourse ................................................................................................................ 79 Discourse, language and power .......................................................................... 79 Gender discourses .............................................................................................. 82 Feminist discourses and patriarchal discourses .................................................. 83 Summary ...............................................................................................................
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