DRUM, DANCE, AND THE DEFENSE OF CULTURAL CITIZENSHIP: BÈLÈ’S REBIRTH IN CONTEMPORARY MARTINIQUE By CAMEE MADDOX A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 1 © 2015 Camee Maddox 2 To the memory of my beloved Grandma Ernestine S. Francis (1922–2001) I carry your sweet spirit with me everywhere I go 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was brought to fruition thanks to various sources of support, near and far. The moral and emotional support of my family has followed me from start to finish of this academic journey. First, I thank my parents Camilla and Wayne Maddox, who instilled a fearlessness and tenacity that have carried me through every life endeavor. They did everything humanly possible to help me realize my academic goals with their love and unwavering encouragement. I thank my brother Mackey, my sister- in-law Nicole, and my loving nephew Mosiah for always motivating me to reach for the stars. Thanks to my Grandma Tish, who always pushed me to give meaning to my life’s passion, in her classic, tough-love fashion–I am so grateful for that. Countless other family members and lifelong friends always kept me in the light, reminding me to keep balance, prioritize self-care, and enjoy life while finishing the Ph.D. And I thank my companion Robert, who observed me every step of the way toward this professional milestone, always affirming my hard work and dedication. I am so grateful to my mentor and committee chair Faye V. Harrison who gave me every reason under the sun to pursue my graduate training at the University of Florida. Working under Dr. Harrison’s supervision, with her wide breadth of knowledge, strong advisory skills, and visionary contributions to the field of anthropology, must have been the most rewarding formative experience a doctoral student like myself could ever imagine or hope for. This dissertation is a product of her “labor of love,” and I can only pray that my scholarship and service meet the exceptionally high standard that she has set. Thank you for constantly reminding me that I am indeed in the right place. Other committee members, Florence Babb, Abdoulaye Kane, and David Geggus always offered a listening ear and a critical lens to provide thoughtful commentary and 4 feedback for strengthening my work. External readers Willie Baber and Yvonne Daniel were also influential in helping me formulate research questions related to the Caribbean and deal with methodological quandaries. Doctoral training and research for this dissertation were made possible by a number of institutions that I would like to recognize here. The University of Florida Department of Anthropology provided support for coursework and fieldwork through the Zora Neale Hurston Diaspora Fellowship and the Polly and Paul Doughty Field Research Grant. UF’s Office of Graduate Minority Programs also offered their support in a variety of ways, with workshops and supplemental funding opportunities. The UF Center for Latin American Studies extended a summer field research grant for preliminary research in 2011, as well as two Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowships for the study of Haitian Kreyòl. The Institute of International Education supported my first nine months of field research in 2013 with the Mellon Graduate Fellowship for International Study, and the Reed Foundation, Inc. made it possible for me to extend my research for an additional nine months with the Ruth Landes Memorial Research Fund. The Florida Education Fund provided the necessary support for the write-up phase of this project with a McKnight Dissertation Fellowship. And of course, I must thank friends of the Black Graduate Student Organization at UF for keeping me balanced and focused during my early years of graduate study. My friends and colleagues in Maryland and Washington, D.C.–especially SisterMentors under the leadership of Shireen Lewis–helped me push through the last phase of writing, and I am so lucky to have met this brilliant group of Women of Color Ph.D.s. Our mountain 5 writing retreats, work dates at Busboys and Poets, and mentoring sessions kept me on my toes. And finally, my colleagues, consultants, and friends in Martinique. Justin Daniel at the Université des Antilles et de la Guyane provided me with an institutional affiliation and an academic home away from home. Various bèlè associations and actors in the bèlè movement played a cooperative role in this research, making it possible for me to hear ideas and perspectives from all different angles–mostly in the name of advancing the bèlè movement, and in some cases out of pure affinity and mutual understanding. I especially thank Linda, Relta, Clara, and the rest of les filles du bèlè à Bô Kannal. These women gave me the confidence and boldness to practice the dance as an integrated participant-observer, and provided an interesting framework for understanding women’s experiences in the bèlè subculture. I also want to acknowledge Mr. Victor Treffe and the wider Tanbou Bô Kannal family, many of whom witnessed my personal growth and the growth of this project from my very first contact with the tradition at their bèlè school in 2009. The association Mi Mes Manmay Matinik (AM4) provided me with the structure, attention, and opportunity to learn and observe the dance, and formulate pertinent questions at the heart of the bèlè movement. Members of the association Lézinisyé took a sincere interest in my work and my general wellbeing out of heartfelt kindness. I thank Lézinisyé’s founder and artistic director David- Alexandre, who was generous with his time as a key consultant, teacher, friend, and liaison between myself and les anciennes (elders) from Sainte Marie. His counsel and his approach to bèlè transmission helped to inspire very important ideas in my work. And to all my hospitable friends–Leila, Astride, Nadine, and Pascale, who invited me 6 into their respective homes at various times over the five-year course of my research, thank you! George and Gilbert are acknowledged for introducing me to Martinican life, history, and culture, and helping me integrate with ease from my very first visit to the island. And to my fictive kin Jean Jacques, Sylvie, and Bruno who stepped in as adoptive family when I needed it the most, I will be forever grateful for their love and generosity. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... 10 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 12 GLOSSARY OF FRENCH AND KRÉYÒL TERMS ....................................................... 13 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 19 Development and Dependency from a French Antillean Perspective ..................... 23 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 26 Citizenship ........................................................................................................ 27 Cultural Politics ................................................................................................. 29 Chapter Organization .............................................................................................. 30 2 BÈLÈ AS ACCOMMODATION OR RESISTANCE: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW .. 35 The Conundrum of Pan-Caribbean Dance Continua .............................................. 36 Defining Bèlè as a Regional Folk Tradition ............................................................. 39 Martinican Bèlè: Questions of African Resistance and French Accommodation ..... 41 Inferences from Congo/Angolan Culture .......................................................... 42 French Quadrilles ............................................................................................. 44 Imitation: A Form of Flattery or a Form of Survival? ......................................... 46 Bèlè’s Pre-revival Eclipse in Martinique .................................................................. 52 Bèlè’s Rebirth: Giving the Drum New Life in Contemporary Martinique .................. 59 3 METHODOLOGY: REFLEXIVITY AND POSITIONALITY IN DANCE (AUTO)ETHNOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 73 The Legacy of Katherine Dunham: Reflexivity and the Dancing Body as a Research Tool ..................................................................................................... 77 Doing Dance Ethnography in Martinique ................................................................ 81 Humility............................................................................................................. 84 Communication ................................................................................................ 85 Formal and Informal Learning in the Bèlè Scene ............................................. 89 Swaré Bèlè, Moman Bèlè, and Bèlè Mawon: Occupying Public Space