Permaculture Design Course

Summer 2018

Table of Contents Teaching Session Name Page Number Number The Seed Song 3 The Course Description 4 T5 Introduction, history and Context 5 T6 – T9 Design Process Teaching 11 T11 Climate Patterns (personal, social) 27 T12 Mapping Skills 29 T14 Climate Patterns (physical) 30 T15 Microclimate 38 T16 Geographic Patterns and strategies 45 T17 Subdivision, Access and Fencing 49 T19 – T20 Water & Earth works Patterns and Strategies 51 T24 Soils 67 T25 Zone 1 soil strategies and Bio Intensive 71 T29 – T30 Forest Ecology and Forest Gardens 87 T34 Growing Nutrient Dense Food 95 T35 – T37 Animals – Grazing, poultry, fungi, bees 106 T39 Seeds 127 T40 Buildings and Energy efficient structures 131 T41 Appropriate Technologies 138 T42 Toilets, Greywater and Recycling 145 T45 Urban Strategies 147 T46 Economy, Bioregionalism, community 151 Appendix A Holistic Management 161 Appendix B Summary of Pattern Language 165 Appendix C Plant Hardiness Zones 175 Appendix D Seed Saving 176 Appendix E Comfort in any Climate 179 Appendix F Soil Texturing by Hand 181 Appendix G Client Questioner 182 Appendix H Forest Garden Database 183 Appendix I Chicken Feed Spreadsheet 188 Appendix J: A Pattern Language for Extractive 189 vs Generative ownership

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The Seed Song This is the seed I am the seed carrier This is the garden I am the gardener Do you remember? Do you remember me?

We are the children, of the future We are given the seed to hold We are the children, of the past Given the wisdom of the old Do you remember? Do you remember me?

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COURSE DESCRIPTION Permaculture is about the conscious/scientific design and development of a wide range of environmental systems that are regenerative* in nature.

* Regenerative - The term "regenerative" describes processes that restore, renew or revitalize their own sources of energy, materials and social purpose, creating systems that integrate the needs of society with the integrity of nature. We will cover the following broad topics.

 The history of Permaculture  A broad design structure and methodology which can be applied to any environmental system  A broad ethical base from which the design objectives are set.  A broad understanding of the natural world (the principles and patterns of our environment) as a basis for designing.  A broad understanding of the many strategies and techniques that are available to us in developing Permaculture systems  Daily practise of Permaculture design guided by your tutors.  Daily practical experience of environmental systems that have been created through the permaculture design process and are part of the tutors lives.  literature/media references, and personal/organisational contacts, to support you as a designer and/or allied worker within the global 'Permaculture' network

The whole body of knowledge you will learn, gives an excellent enduring framework for all people involved in the development and management of 'regenerative' systems.

“Permaculture' becomes a whole new way of viewing and being in relationship with your environment.

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T5 - Introduction to Permaculture

What is permaculture? Take 2 min to write your thoughts.

Shortly, what do you expect to get out of this course? Take 2 min to write down your thoughts.

Definitions of Permaculture

From Bill Mollison’s Permaculture: A Designer’s Manual (1988)

Permaculture (permanent agriculture) is the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability and resilience of natural ecosystems. It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people providing their food, energy, shelter and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way. Without permanent agriculture there is no possibility of a stable social order.

Permaculture design is a system of assembling conceptual, material and strategic components in a pattern which functions to benefit life in all its forms.

The philosophy behind permaculture is one of working with, rather than against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless action; of looking at systems in all their functions, rather than asking only one yield of them; and of allowing systems to demonstrate their own evolutions.”

In a nutshell it can be said, permaculture is the science of best relative placement of components in a plan or pattern to increase resources, conserve or create energy and reduce or eliminate pollution or waste.

From David Holmgren’s Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability (2004)

Consciously designed landscapes, which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre, and energy for provision of local needs…

I see permaculture as the use of systems thinking and design principles that provide the organising framework for implementing the above vision. It draws together the diverse ideas, skills and ways of living, which need to be rediscovered and developed in order to empower us to provide for our needs, while increasing the natural capital for future generations. In this more limited but important sense, permaculture is not the landscape, nor even the skills of organic gardening, sustainable farming, energy efficient building or eco village development as such, but it can be used to design, establish, manage and improve these and all other efforts made by individuals, households and communities towards a sustainable future.

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Permaculture’s Many Faces

The word permaculture is commonly used in at least these six distinct ways:

 An ethical scientific design system  A systems-based world view  An international movement  A suite of practical strategies and techniques  A way of life incorporating all of the above  A profession

Where could we apply permaculture? Permaculture’s Breadth

Permaculture applies to all domains of sustainable human existence, as is captured in co-originator David Holmgren’s permaculture flower:

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History & Context of Permaculture

Where permaculture came from

Founders

Bill Mollison

In the early seventies Bill was a radical academic in Tasmania. Brilliant and provocative, Bill had earlier worked as a hunter, trapper, fisherman, glass blower, and forestry researcher and much else. He describes an ‘ah ha’ moment when working in the forests it hit him that natural forests far out-produce human systems with far greater stability and resilience and yet no need for inputs like fertiliser and pesticide.

Bill Mollison

Impressed with Bill’s approach, environmental design student David Holmgren entered an intense but brief collaboration with Bill. Permaculture was the result. David was 20 years old when Permaculture One was published, a thesis of David’s that Bill then fleshed out and polished.

“Perhaps we seek the Garden of Eden, and why not? We believe that a low-energy, high-yield agriculture is a possible aim for the whole world, and that it needs only human energy and intellect to achieve this.”

Bill Mollison & David Holmgren, Permaculture One, 1978

In the past, Bill had retreated to a shack in the woods until he realised we will sink or swim together, re-joined society, co-founded permaculture and started traveling, teaching permaculture wherever he went. He authored Permaculture Two,

Permaculture: A Designer’s Manual (1988), an Introduction to Permaculture (1991), Ferment & Human Nutrition, and several other books.

Bill currently lives in Tasmania with his wife Lisa.

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David Holmgren

Whereas Bill is a wild and irascible storyteller, a provocative and controversial ideas man, David is a cautious and methodical intellectual, testing all ideas thoroughly before recommending them to others. While Bill roamed the planet taking permaculture to thousands and launching permaculture as a globally known concept, David stayed at home and observed nature, gardened, designed properties, documented, and reflected.

David Holmgren

David lives near Melbourne on his property “Melliodora” with his partner Su Dennett. He continues to work on projects around the house, to garden, write, and occasionally to teach & consult.

Key Permaculture Books

 Permaculture One  Permaculture Two  Mollison’s Permaculture: A Designer’s Manual (herein abbreviated as PDM)  Holmgren’s Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability (herein abbreviated as PPP)  Many others by other authors.

So, what are the issues we are dealing with? Context Common Patterns of Industrial Culture Exponential Growth Peak Everything Environmental Degradation  water  soils  air  toxins  diets  human health  genetic diversity

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Peak everything The idea of an imminent or already past peak in global oil extraction is now mainstream. In Peak Everything (2007) Richard Heinberg goes through the many other peaks we face (peak natural gas, peak phosphorus, peak fish, peak potable water etc.). The following diagram gets across that peak oil at least is a temporary blip in the evolution of humanity.

The oil age viewed over historical time

The safe operating space model A recent approach called resilience science gives a useful framework for comprehending the global situation and how to make sense of what we can or should be doing. Resilience science suggests the most important variables determining the fate of the global ecosystem are:

Source: Johan Rockstrom http://www.ted.com/talks/view/lang/en//id/945)

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The Relevance of Agriculture

Permaculture grew from recognition that conventional agriculture is the most destructive human activity on the planet and the desire for a workable alternative. Extensive monoculture agriculture depends on various inputs only possible while oil remains cheap. This makes it a temporary, as opposed to a polyculture permanent agriculture that can persist indefinitely.

Polycultures of mixed systems out produce per unit area any simplistic monocultures. Mixed plant/animal systems are part of a total polyculture.

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T6 - A Permaculture Design Framework: EPDST

In permaculture design it always makes sense to work from general to specific and this framework helps us do that. It helps us start with a general foundation and then places increasingly detailed layers on top of those foundations. Here’s a diagram of this framework and then an introduction to each layer.

Ethics and Values Ethics - that which we see as inherently good, moral principles. Values - that which individuals, families or organisations consider important in their actions and outcomes.

Principles - fundamental truth or laws of our environment that are used as a basis for reasoning or a course of action

Patterns - a theme of recurring events or objects in our natural environment from which we shape a 'common' understanding (of how things are) that we use as a basis for design and actions. This can include social and emotional patterns, and specifically includes patterns in how we understand and use design. The patterns of importance (characteristics and uses) which we will cover in detail later include: - Design – Soils – Water – Climate - Microclimate – Landscape Features – Trees – Edges – Plant Successions. Pattern language is a suite of patterns that have been observed to give good results and the 'language' is used to guide common design.

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Design Process Design can be both a rational/objective exercise and a subjective 'art'. The key elements in the process of design, are:  analysis of characteristics, influences, resources - the current elements  assessing values, needs and goals (**refer to Holistic Management below)  synthesis: imagining supporting relationships to achieve goals  conceptual plans and feedback from stakeholders - modification of plans  detailed plans, implementation planning, budgets etc.  management, evolution of systems, ongoing adaptions/modifications

Strategies - Patterns that we impose on the environment (through design) understanding that they will achieve general outcomes for us over time. Zoning – Sectors - Plant/Animal Guilds – Bio regions – Ecovillages – Swales - No dig gardening – Passive Solar Heating – LETS currencies – City Farms - Community Land Trusts etc. etc. These will be covered in more detail

Techniques - Specific ways of achieving narrow outcomes within a wider strategy e.g. Within the strategy of swaling we might include: - (use of dumpy levels or other levels, use of excavators, combining with water storage spillways, target trees to use moist conditions achieved etc.) Important not to focus on 'fashionable' strategies and techniques at the expenses of appropriate design patterning of all components.

N.B. Whenever we use models such as these, concept plans, mind maps, etc. They are tools to help us gain understanding. Never forget “the map is not the territory” If we get the key components of the systems right, they will take on a life of their own.

** Holistic Management - A Decision Making Processes

While this is not part of the International Permaculture Design Course Curriculum, we have come to see this paradigm as a natural complement to Permaculture Design. It has the same ethics, has a similar understanding of principle and patterns, and complements the design process. Thus we have included the Holistic Management structure as an appendix, which we will use in within our design process. Refer Appendix A

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Ethics Ethics - that which we see as inherently good, moral principles. Underlying permaculture are three core ethics: earth care, people care, and fair share.

Earth Care This ethic not only means care for the earth as a global ecosystem, but looking after the soil beneath our feet, leaving it in a better condition than we found it. Holmgren’s subtext to this ethic is build natural capital. One means to realising this ethic is shrinking our ecological footprint, which comes down to reducing consumption. Here are a few statements relating to earth care from Bill Mollison:

"If we need to state a set of ethics on natural systems, then let it be thus:

 Implacable and uncompromising opposition to further disturbance of any remaining natural forests, where most species are still in balance  Vigorous rehabilitation of degraded and damaged natural systems to stable states  Establishment of plant systems for our own use on the least amount of land we can use for our own existence and  Establishment of plant and animal refuges for rare of threatened species"

"If we do not get our cites, homes, and gardens in order, so that they feed and shelter us, we must lay waste to all other natural systems" (PDM, p. 7)

People Care Part of earth care is care for people - for self, kin & community. Indeed, without caring for ourselves and those around us, we cannot be in a position for earth care.

Fair Share Sometimes called redistribution of surplus, fair share involves the reinvestment of natural capital towards furthering the first two ethics.

Part of this ethic concerns socio-economic inequality and discussion of what that means for the first two ethics. Questions like what impact does such inequality have on individual, community and environmental health? Are relevant.

These are much generalised statements, and we are challenged to get specific about what these mean in our individual context. Bill gets more specific about this in a global context: "In a world where we are losing forests, species, and whole ecosystems, there are three concurrent and parallel responses to the environment: -  Care for surviving natural assemblies and to leave the wilderness to heal itself.  Rehabilitate degraded or eroded land using complex pioneer species and long-term plant assemblies (trees, shrubs, ground covers)  Create our own complex living environment with as many species as we can save, or have a need for, from wherever on earth they come."

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The Prime Directive of Permaculture:  The only ethical decision is to take responsibility for our own existence, and that of our children  We need to get our house and garden, our place of living, in order, so it supports us

Permaculture is an ethical system stressing positivism and cooperation

Permaculture concentrates on already settled areas and agricultural lands, and almost all of these need drastic re-design and re-patterning. The result of redesign of food supply systems integrated throughout our settlements with fibre and fuel forests placed in a nearby zone and the establishment of water catchments from our settlement run off surfaces, will be to free most of the area of the globe for the rehabilitation of natural systems. These large natural systems need only be of use to people in terms of a very broad sense of global health. The real difference between a cultivated designed ecosystem and a natural system is that the great majority of species and biomass in a cultivated ecology is intended for human use or the use of their livestock.

This is a generalised ‘pattern language' for the Care for the Earth ethic above

The Life Ethic - All living and non-living things have an intrinsic worth

Discussion on pc 'nativism' compared with PC approach. (Importance of context)

Likewise, we need to get specific about what Care for People and Fair Share means in our context. We will develop some pattern languages around this latter Other ethical issues include:

 Decreasing entropy  Recycling  Reducing 'ecological footprint'?

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Principles

Principles - fundamental truth or laws of our environment that are used as a basis for reasoning or a course of action There are countless principles which can come into play, drawn from the traditions of science, indigenous lore, 'wise souls' and spiritual paths. Some of these may be hard won principles of science; others are drawn from the wisdom of observation. All can be useful guides to permaculture design. The key one held in all these traditions can be summarised as Everything is connected - We are all one

Other statements of principle that can be useful include the following: (discussion on each)

 The total energy of the universe is constant; it can’t be created or destroyed. (the first law of thermodynamics)  The total entropy is constantly increasing. (the second law of thermodynamics)  In-coming energy into a system is either stored or lost. Our job as designers is to maximise storage and minimise losses. (increases in entropy or disorder)  A system is sustainable if it produces more energy than it consumes, at least enough in surplus to maintain and replace itself over its lifetime. (EROEI – energy return on energy input)  In ecological systems, every element within the system serves many functions, and every function is served by many elements.  The Principle of Disorder: If resources are added beyond the capacity of the system to use them, then the system becomes disordered and goes into chaos. (increasing entropy)  Life Intervention Principle – In chaos lies unparalleled opportunity for imposing creative order.  Law of Return - “Whatever we take, we must return” or “Nature demands a return for every gift received” or “the user must pay” all cities break the law of return.  Pollution is a product not used by something else, it is an overabundance of a resource.  Work results when there is a deficiency of resources, when an element in the system does not aid another element.  Inter-active diversity - beneficial connections - diversity and integration, leads to stability.  Do not confuse order with tidiness, because tidiness is usually disordered in the life sense.

Mollison’s Permaculture principles  Work with nature, rather than against it.  The problem is the solution.  Make the least change for the greatest possible effect.  The yield of a system is theoretically unlimited.  Everything gardens.

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David Holmgren’s Suite of principles  Observe and interact.  Catch and store energy.  Obtain a yield.  Apply self-regulation and accept feedback.  Use and value renewable resources and services.  Produce no waste.  Design from patterns to details.  Integrate rather than segregate.  Use small and slow solutions.  Use and value diversity.  Use edges and value the marginal.  Creatively use and respond to change.

The Natural Step – Overview of the science

The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics set limiting conditions for life on earth: The First Law says that energy is conserved—nothing disappears. Only its form may change. Another way of stating this is: "Energy cannot be created, or destroyed, only modified in form." The implications of the Second Law are that matter and energy tend to disperse over time. This is referred to as “entropy”. Putting the two laws together and applying them to our planetary system, the following facts become apparent: All the matter that will ever exist on earth is here now (First Law). 1. Disorder increases in all closed systems and the Earth is a closed system with respect to matter (Second Law). (not absolutely true, but useful model) - However it is an open system with respect to energy since it receives energy from the sun. 2. Sunlight is responsible for almost all increases in net material quality on the planet through photosynthesis and solar heating effects. Chloroplasts in plant cells take energy from sunlight for plant growth. Plants, in turn, provide energy for other forms of life, such as animals. Evaporation of water from the oceans by solar heating produces most of the earth's fresh water. This flow of energy from the sun creates structure and order from the disorder. System Conditions of Sustainability: The Natural Step Framework's definition of sustainability includes four system conditions (scientific principles) that lead to a sustainable society. These conditions, that must be met in order to have a sustainable society, are as follows: In a sustainable society, nature is not subject to systematically increasing: 1. concentrations of substances extracted from the Earth's crust; 1. concentrations of substances produced by society; 2. degradation by physical means and, in that society. . . 3. people are not subject to conditions that systematically undermine their capacity to meet their needs.

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The Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle or precautionary approach to risk management states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public, or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. seven generations - discuss

Birch's Principles of Natural Systems  Nothing in nature grows forever.  Continuation of life depends on the maintenance of the global bio-geochemical cycles of essential elements, in particular, C, O, N, S and P.  The probability of extinction of populations of a species is greatest when the density is very high or very low.  The chance that a species has to survive and reproduce is dependant primarily upon one or two key factors in the complex web of relationships of the organism to its environment.  Our ability to change the face of the Earth increase at a faster rate than our ability to foresee the consequences of change.  Living organisms are not only means but ends. In addition to their instrumental value to humans and other living organisms, they have an intrinsic worth.

Regrarians Principles (Darren Dougherty)

 Ecosystems not Egosystems.  Integrate any methodologies, techniques and belief systems as tools to be tested.  Set up nature's capital and infrastructure with humans as a functioning regenerative organism.  Move from Oil Age to Soil Age.  You have to be Blue (water), before Green (vegetation and currency) and Black (carbon and profit).  A vegetarian ecology does not exist.  For regenerative agroecologies to function, all trophic levels need to be catered to.

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T7 - Patterns

Patterns - a theme of recurring events or objects in our natural environment from which we shape a 'common' understanding (of how things are) that we use as a basis for design and actions. This can include ecological, geographical, social and emotional patterns, and specifically includes patterns in how we understand and use design.

Patterns manifest uniquely each time.  Patterns are like principles, in the sense that they contain such deep truths about a design problem or situation that their expression remains adaptable to circumstances.  Because patterns are like principles, a pattern can express itself a thousand times and each expression will be unique. (a willow tree – no two the same but can recognise instantly) "A pattern is a description of a recurring general understanding or solution"

Patterns Solve problems and give instructions  Few site problems are totally without precedent, and patterns serve as a direct bridge to design solutions for these recurring problems.  Patterns not only exist in time and space as a set of relationships among things (once created) but also are instructions for how to generate themselves.  A pattern is an instruction, which shows how something can be used, over and over again, to resolve the given system of forces, wherever the context makes it relevant e.g. - Zone and Sector placement. They are often based on common observations, and on distinct scientific principles, however we don’t need to fully understand the principles to use the wisdom in the observed pattern. e.g. red sky night, shepherds delight, red sky morning shepherds warning. A design pattern may be used many times over without necessarily doing it the same way twice. e.g. the pattern of facing windows into the north, to use passive solar gain. Patterns help us remember insights and knowledge within the design process, and can be used in combination to create solutions. A pattern language is a network of patterns that call upon one another. It is a method of describing good design practices (strategies) within a field of design application. Christopher Alexander, an architect and author, coined the term pattern language. He used it to refer to common problems of the design and construction of buildings and towns and how they should be solved. The solutions proposed in the book include suggestions ranging from how cities and towns should be structured to where windows should be placed in a room. Refer Appendix B

Much of the skill of a permaculture designer is based on having a wide understanding of patterns in our environment, and common pattern languages that we can apply in any environment without a lot of analysis of that particular environment. We will spend several days learning about some of these patterns and observing them in the field. Your ability to design in any particular field depends largely on accumulating knowledge of patterns, pattern languages and practise at applying them. Go for a walk – point out patterns. Discuss ways of obtaining understandings of relevant patterns.

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T9 - Design Concepts and Processes

The core starting point to permaculture design is an understanding of the Ethics, Principles and Patterns. From this base, the design process (moving from where we are now to a preferred vision) challenges us to create patterns in our environment. (both physical and social) using an assembly of various strategies and associated techniques. Our ability to create good design comes from:  An understanding of the 'core' (Ethics, Principles and Patterns).  A conceptual and/or experimental understanding of the strategies we will impose and the 'patterning' of these strategies into our environment.

The 'patterning' of strategies is something we create. “A beneficial assembly of components in their proper relationship"

Maximising Useful Energy Storage The key role of a permaculture designer is to maximize useful energy storages in any system on which they are working, be it a house, urban property, rural lands, or gardens. A successful design contains enough useful storage to serve the needs of people.

The web of life. - A net of functional relationships - A design/ecosystem.

Full of potential energy.

This is Earth’s system and net universal system of energy flow. Pathways through the net follow energy flows to useful life niches or storages available as yield. Diversity is related to stability. It is not, however, the number of diverse elements you can pack into a system, but rather the number of useful connections you can make between these elements: - From source to sink: -  Diversity increases.  Energy stores increase.  Organizational complexity increases.

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Resources, Their Nature and Management: Matter - Energy - Space - Time - Diversity These are all categories of resources and these are constant universal principles.

Food - Climate - Habitat - Plants - Animals These are the basic resources affecting plant and animal populations. Resources are things thought of as of use to us, and enable us to utilize energy more efficiently.

A resource is anything available to an organism, population, or ecosystem which up to an optimum level allows an increasing rate of energy exchange. However, we need to look at life systems as a whole in order to see that there are several categories of resources and the use of some decrease the availability of others, over-use of parts of the general resource base by a species or individual decreases the diversity and or vitality of the whole system. Definition of resource use effect:  Increase if used (browse)  Not affected by use (time)  Decrease if not used (annuals)  Need management to be maintained (forests)  Decrease if used (fossil fuels, deep aquifers)  Decrease other resources if used (uranium, biocides) All these to some extent are affected by wise or unwise management. All except time and diversity, have an optimum amount which can be stacked into a system beyond which there is either no increase in yield, or a decrease in yield. However, the number of possible life niches in a designed system has no fixed value, there is no limit to richness.

Yields Yield is the number of useful energy stores. It is the energy conserved, stored or generated within the system. Never is it just product yield (tons of grain per acre) but always a sum of storages. It is created by the complexity of the web we build which decides the number of useful storages. Yield can be defined as usefully stored energy, therefore, yield, is a function of design. Limits to Yield: Yield is the measure of the understanding and ability of the designers and managers of that design.

Strategies that create yield (or increased yield)

Physical-Environmental  the creation of a niche in space  the provision of a critical resource  rehabilitating or creating soils  the diversion of water, water recycling  the integration of structures and landscape

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Biological  selection of low maintenance cultivars or species for the particular site  new species  supplying key nutrients  assembling guilds

Spatial and Configurational  tessellation  nesting or stacking  innovative spatial design  zoning, sectors, placement, orientation

Temporal  interpolating  increasing cyclic frequency  tessellation of cycles and successions (browsing sequences)

Technical  appropriate technology  energy efficient structures

Conservation  recycling  storage of food  no or low tillage  durable manufacture  storage of run-off water.

Cultural  removing cultural barriers  expanding choices

Legal/Administrative  removing socio-legal barriers  creating effective structures for resource management  energy costing analysis

Social  cooperatives, pooling of resources  financial recycling

Design  positive design connections within systems  good placement  observing, managing, and directing systems.  using information

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Design Strategies 1 Analysis: List the needs, products, and the intrinsic characteristics of each element. Lists are made to try and link the supply needs of elements to the production needs of others. (Beneficial relationships guide placement) ` An example that is easy to understand is the lists needed to link a chicken into a system:

Make a list of elements on the board – assign an element to each student, go outside and play with a ball of string – making connections 2 Observations Begin on and around the site. Maps and overlays are very useful design tools. But there is nothing like observation, walking and experiencing the land, for dependability and relevance. A note book and camera are great aids. Attitudes to Observation- go outside and experiment with those  CHILD-LIKE, NON SELECTIVE APPROACH “I wonder why….” May preface actual observation  THEMATIC APPROACH. Follow selected themes, water, energy flows, soils, people movements etc.  INSTRUMENTAL APPROACH. Measure things, water flows, temperature, wind flow etc.  EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH Using all our senses to 'get a feel' for the site. Thermal inversions, 'tasting' and smelling soil, wind chill, ambience etc.  PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH Use of natural indicators. Puriri as indicators of frost level, spring flowers as indicators of spring conditions, plant species as indicators of soil conditions, stock camp sites, wind patterns in trees, red sky at night etc.

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3 Deduction from Nature This was the inspiration for Fukuoka (healthy bearing rice plants beside road vs their hard work.) Using our senses & organised information we can discover a lot about natural processes in the area. In order to put it to use we need to look at: STRUCTURE ▪ Observe the structure of natural systems ▪ Use example of rainforest edge beside road= densest, most productive. PROCESS ▪ Where does water run? How does it absorb? How does a certain tree propagate itself? ▪ Example of Rainforest regeneration. Lantana > shades out pasture grass > habitat for small birds > Birds drop rainforest seeds > seedlings come up > allow lantana to creep forward taking more of pasture > slash and allow new seedlings to get up and shade lantana. LANDSCAPE ▪ Gullies, ridges, sides of Multi-storey buildings. ▪ Observe niches and why and how they exist. What grows there etc. We can:  Design such niches into the system  Fill such niches productively ▪ Reading the Landscape (wind direction, weed indicators etc.) ▪ Building personal knowledge of appropriate plants from similar situations

4 Options and Decisions A design has many potential outcomes. Above all, it’s the stated aims, lifestyle and resources of the clients that decide their options. Often begins with a general decision (a distant goal) often set by an ethical decision (earth care, or fear of peak oil) which leads to a second set of possible options (food, energy, & water security). For a specific site and specific occupants, a design is a sequence of options based on such things as:  Product or crop options  Social investment options  Skills and occupations (education available)  Market availability, or specific market options  Management skills

5 Data Overlay A good design map makes any landscape design much easier and more visual. It:  Indicates sensible options (i.e. Contour map for dams, house sites, roads etc.)  Options later checked against site conditions (presence of clay, existing vegetation, threatened habitat)

6 Flow Charts Good for work places Maps the movement of people (kitchens, nurseries, eco-village)

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7 Tradition Observing and copying successful designs which have been shown to work (many having evolved over centuries i.e. roads, culverts, retaining walls etc.) Can be totally inappropriate if transferred out of culture, climate or if applied to a different purpose. Can be blinded by lack of a different perspective or past patterns that are no longer applicable.

8 Creative Random Assembly Free ourselves from 'rational' perspectives, and fear of criticism - what if?? Sometimes solutions can lie in areas free from acquired knowledge and values (Note creative tension between this and other methods, particularly Tradition)

9 Intuition Learn to use and trust Don’t ignore, but also check compatibility with other approaches.

10 Incremental/ Experiential Small changes to existing design, sometimes over centuries Most traditional design has probably been achieved this way This is a successful way to proceed after selective placement and energy conservation is paid sufficient attention.

11 Pattern Language Outline of Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander application to permaculture - ongoing development

12 Guilds mutually supportive associations

13 Combinations Use combinations of all approaches to design.

14 Feedback Loops/ Testing

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APPROACHING A DESIGN

A walk around the site with no preconceived ideas can be very helpful. What does the land suggest to you? Quiet mind, Zen state. Practiced by many designers. Begin with clear assessment of client or occupier’s ▪ Needs ▪ Aims ▪ Ideas (of all potential occupiers including children) ▪ See yourself addressing the needs of three clients: - The land, the paying client, and your ideal Permaculture Dream. (in that order) Proceed with observation of site (using base map, aerial photo, or person as guide) Where to start? What are the biggest problems? ▪ Easy decisions will often be adversely affected by solutions to the big problems. ▪ No point walking down the primrose path if we just have to walk back up it. ▪ What are the easy decisions? Scale of permanence ▪ Introduced by PA Yoeman’s, added to by Bill and David, added to once again by Dave Jacke in E.F.G and Darren Doherty (Regrarians) ▪ Recognised that some elements are harder to change than others. ▪ A smart man fits the tie to match the suit, not vice versa, ▪ Hence, makes sense to consider and modify the more permanent landscape effects first and the more easily changed ones later.

1. CLIMATE - You, Enterprise, Risk, Weather 2. GEOGRAPHY - Landform, Components, Proximity 3. WATER - Storage, Harvesting, Reticulation 4. ACCESS - Roads, Tracks, Trails, Markets, Utilities, People 5. FORESTRY - Blocks, Shelter, Savannah, Orchards, Natural 6. BUILDINGS - Homes, Sheds, Portable, Yards 7. FENCING - Permanent, Electric, Cross, Living 8. SOILS - Planned Grazing, Minerals, Fertility, Crops 9. ECONOMY - Analysis, Strategy, Value Chain 10. ENERGY - Photosynthesis, Generation, Storage

Of course, in reality land isn’t a linear, ordered system, so all the elements interact with each other, but this is still a valuable tool to help you prioritise. (the map is not the territory!)

This is essentially a pattern language for both prioritising and comprehensive addressing of design issues/components.

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T11 - Climate Patterns (personal, social)

Just as the physical climate determines the 'Rules of the Game' and the climate patterns are unlikely to change, our personal and societal patterns set a context for design that is unlikely to change (in most cases). These patterns need to be understood as well as gathering strategies for addressing your needs within these patterns.

Personal Patterns

The Four Seasons Medicine Wheel

Lots of cultures have used medicine wheels to understand some of the ‘patterns’ in their life. There are lots of different ones. we call this one the ‘four seasons’ medicine wheel. It is similar to Celtic and Cherokee medicine wheels.

Discussion on its understanding and use

Patterns in Emotional/Personal Being  primary emotional patterns frequently drive (subconsciously) ideologies (primacy of emotions over intellect) hence the need to address emotional blocks in achieving design objectives (see Medicine wheel)  emotional and financial investment in paradigms dominates 'scientific ‘`enquiry, new ideas are first ridiculed, then fought against, then they become self-evident (corollary of above) Again primacy of emotions over intellect (normally) As designers we need to be at least aware of this, if not using strategies to address this, e.g. Non Violent Communication  Very important to assess whether scientific paradigms have arisen from philanthropic or corporate sources (“follow the money”) - again from the emotional quadrant  The 'Diffusion of Innovation' (Rogers), observes several categories of individuals with regard to innovation (Innovators-2.5%, Early adopters-13.5%, Early majority-34%, Late majority-34%, Laggards-16%) We need to stress the importance of acknowledging that change, no matter how positive or low risk, is met with apprehension by the majority of the population. The pathway to adaption is therefore incredibly important, in that change where necessary, can be a positive process that is likely to be enduring and residual (Regrarians)  Other personal pattern languages reflected in belief systems, religions etc. useful to understand the basic patterns in these and how they will affect people’s actions

Social climatei Your social and cultural climate can be as important as your physical climate and should be considered early in the design process. What is considered acceptable or normal by your neighbours, for example? If you are departing radically from their ways, you might consider how to include them or whether you would be better moving gradually. The understanding and support of those around you is often a key factor in the success or failure of a project. Refer to Holistic Management (Appendix A) as a pattern language for decision making.

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Legal climate As your social climate is something you don’t want to overlook, it is important to research relevant legal considerations as part of your design process. Local laws concerning dwellings, dams, roads and so on need to be considered. National laws regarding the sale of food have become increasing important to understand so we can design strategies to work within them.

Ownership and Integration Designing integrated, regenerative ecological system is hugely effected by the issue of land ownership. Ownership conveys individual prerogatives that can easily override many of the principles upon which permaculture is based. Thus one of the major challenges to permaculture design is developing ownership strategies for land and common resources. A good starting point is Marjory Kelly's pattern language for a generative economy. (Living Purpose/Rooted Membership/Mission controlled Governance/Stakeholder Finance/Ethical Networks)

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T12 – Mapping Skills

Course Description: Mapping skills Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to gather the information and draw a base plan. • Mapping conventions • Use of scale • Visual cues • Measuring / mapping techniques

Teaching Outline: • Map the front lawn • Mapping conventions: ◦ North ◦ Scale ◦ Naming/ signatures • North: ◦ Grid north ◦ True north ◦ Magnetic north ◦ Use a compass: ▪ Count for deviation ▪ Calculate vectors for mapping • Understand scale and convert real measurements to maps • Triangulating • Measure distance with steps/ time/ tape

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T14 - Climate Patterns

Course Description: This course explores climate patterns and key considerations when designing. The overall concept of climate is too broad and ill-defined to use in a site analysis and design. Instead we define climate on the site by identifying the three major influencing factors: precipitation, wind and radiation. We then study them independently to see how they are destructive or beneficial on a site, and how they interact and follow cyclic patterns. We will discuss the key factors for precipitation, wind and radiation. Additionally, we will look at how specific landscapes can influence climate patterns. We will discuss strategies for buffering against climate as well as strategies for leveraging local climate to our advantage. We will examine the chaotic nature of climate and how to design with consideration to the unpredictability of it. Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to demonstrate fundamental knowledge and competency of:

. Outline the broad climatic zones and their characteristics . Explain Plant Hardiness Zones and their use . Outline the patterns of wind . Outline the patterns of precipitation . Outline the patterns of frost . Explain the concept of 'brittleness' . Outline the patterns of radiation and useful strategies . Explain the effects of climate on landscape forms

Course Length: 1 session – 1.5 Hours total

Teaching Outline: . Understanding Climate . Important to understand a wide range of strategies with wide acceptance that world climate variation is increasing (more extremes including floods, droughts, temperature extremes, longer and intense periods of wind) . Chaos – climate systems are difficult to model with total accuracy. The longer the time scale we are looking at trying to predict the less accuracy we will have. . Climate Change – from the geological perspective climate will change. The notion of stopping climate change is miserably misleading and is a hope that can leave us unprepared for what the planet has in store for us regardless of our carbon emissions. . Design smartly – with the view that there is uncertainty ahead. . Choose plants and species that have a wide range of suitability and hardiness in both colder and warmer directions. . Cultivate a diversity of crops to spread the risk across frost, heat, rain and drought. . Build smart houses – passive solar and well insulated.

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. Develop good strategies for water storage and windbreaks. . Cyclic Patterns of climate variation can have both short periods and long periods . Examples: Seasons, El Nino, Ice Ages

. Local Observations . Access regional climate records and get the data to help inform your model. (rain fall, temperature, wind speed and direction, ground frost days etc.) . Local climate data is often generalised and not specific to your site. The data you can collect by examining and surveying your site will help to understand in finer detail what you need to expect at your site. . Marginal as well as thriving plants and animals can give clues to understand the microclimates you have on site and help to develop strategies for dealing with them. . Despite being in a certain climate zone, there can be periods of differing conditions which must be identified, understood and designed for. For example, even in the wet tropics there can be periods of Aridity.

. We always design for extremes, not averages: . “As designers, we are as interested in extremes as in means (averages). Such measures as “average rainfall” have very little relevance to specific sites. Of more value are data on seasonal fluctuation, dependability, intensity, and the limits of recorded ranges of any one factor. This will decide the practical limits that need to be included in the design” (Bill Mollison, PDM, p. 107) . We need to account for the extremes so seek out data on the variability of climate in your area to understand previous extremes. This will help to inform you of the likely risks you need to design for.

. Definitions of Climate Zones (Mean temperatures) . Tropical: No month below 18°C mean temperature. (True definition is Sun is directly overhead for at least one day a year, between Tropic of Capricorn and Cancer) . Sub Tropics: Coolest month warmer that 0°C, but cooler than 18°C. Design includes both tropical and temperate elements . Temperate: Coldest month cooler than 0°C. Warmest month above 10°C . Polar: Warmest month cooler than 10°C. Or in perpetual frost less than 8°C . Arid: Mean rainfall < 500mm . Desert: Rainfall < 250mm . Plant Hardiness Zones - useful tool for assessing plant’s suitability for regional climate. . “The USDA system has provided a classification of average minimum temperatures and horticulturalists from around the world have assigned plants to these zones. The classification relates to a plant's ability to handle cold temperatures. Thus, a plant that is able to tolerate a light frost is assigned to zone 9, where average minimum temperatures range from -1°C to -5°C.

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Plants adopt a range of mechanisms to help them handle cold temperatures. For example, many perennials can handle very cold winter conditions by becoming dormant and letting their top growth die off and "retreating" to the warmer soil conditions. They wait for spring warm and shoot away again. Others just lose their leaves, the woody parts of the shrub or tree being better able to withstand cold conditions than the leaves.

We use the phrase "simplest terms" above cautiously - there are many factors that will influence a plant's ability to handle cold conditions - age, shelter, aspect, terrain, soil types, waterlogging among others. Thus, Hardiness Zones provide a guide only, which must be applied with local experience and knowledge” (http://www.liddlewonder.co.nz/zones.php)

PRECIPITATION . Two main types . Falling – rain, snow, sleet, hail etc. This is the metric that is measured. . Condensation – Dew, fog etc. This is often not recorded in climate data but can be significant contributor of moisture in some areas. . Consider ways to capture and store this moisture. eg. Swales, dams, rain barrels. Or stone cairns and free standing shrubs (most efficient at 3-100cm in height to capture condensation) . Consider your TOTAL precipitation, which includes both types. . Collect your Data – Seek out more than just averages. . Seasonal Distribution- know what to expect in terms of dry and wet seasons. . Variation – Do not rely on just the “average rainfall” look through the records and seek out what the extremes look like. What does a 100yr flood look like, what about a drought?

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. Intensity – the rate of rain fall might influence design strategies. Ie. Mitigating surface flooding run off. Culverts, dams, spillways, tank and dam sizes. . Observations – what is recorded locally is often generalised and might not accurately reflect the realities of your site. Look for flood plains, alluvial fans, scaring or flotsam from floods on river banks. Look at established plants to get idea of what the conditions can support. . Relationship between radiation and precipitation . Keep in mind more grey cloudy rainy days means less sunny days for growth and warming the soil.

RADIATION . Types of radiation . Direct solar radiation – this is the one that is measured. Penetrating sun through the atmosphere. . Diffuse sky radiation – light scattered by the dust, water and pollutants in the atmosphere. This is a less significant proportion of the radiation in lower latitudes, but at the higher latitudes (38° or more) and poles diffuse light can be a significant contributor. . Properties of light . Light is reflected. i.e. Shiny surfaces, ponds, silvery leaves, whitish surfaces. . Light is absorbed. I.e. Dark surfaces, pine bark, waxy leaves, stones. . Light can be reradiated as heat. Visible light that has been absorbed by a material will be reradiated as heat. i.e. Thermal mass of earth floors or greenhouses, suntraps, stone walls. . Intensity of the direct solar radiation is generally greatest near the equator. The longer the path through the atmosphere the more of the light energy that will be absorbed or reflected. . Where the sun is directly overhead about 22% of the energy will reach the ground. At the poles this can be as little as 1%. . Slope of the surface can also reduce available energy. . North-facing slopes receive more solar energy per unit area that south-facing slopes. So more heat and more light on the north facing slopes. Good place to put a house or plants that need warmth. . South-facing slopes will also generally have less hours of direct light during a day. . Specific considerations . Again areas with greater precipitation levels will receive less radiation. . In low equatorial latitudes too much light and extreme heat can decrease photosynthesis due to light saturation and more carbon dioxide availability. Providing shade with 50-70% light penetration can increase yield for some plants. . Sunburn – some plants in the harsh hot dry seasons will do better if they are not in full sunlight.

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WIND . Of all incoming energies, “we have least control of wind in terms of storage or generation, but we can control its behaviour on site by excluding, reducing, or increasing its force, using windbreak and wind funnels to do so” (Bill Mollison, PDM, p. 121). . “When it comes to crop, winds of 8 km/h are harmless. Those of 24 km/h reduce crop production and cause weight loss in animals, and at about 32-40 km/h, sheer mechanical damage to plants exceeds all other effects; in fact, I have seen my zucchini uproot and bowl along like a tumbleweed” (Bill Mollison, PDM, p. 121). . Negative impacts of wind . Mechanical force . Ablation of surfaces from wind driven, dust, sand, salt or ice. Can easily destroy crops. . Physically injure plants – tree limbs, striping leaves and flowers, flattening. . Heat loss . Wind chill can speed heat loss to the detriment of the growing ability of the plants and condition of animals. . Wind will also speed the rate of evaporation and dry out plants and soils, as well as dehydrate animals. Especially harsh when combined with dry hot conditions. . Positive impacts of winds. . Pollination . Some species are evolved and dependent on air flow to help protect from disease. i.e. Peaches. . Moderate effects of heat in warm climates. . Local observations . Wind pruning and tree flagging can help indicate the direction and strength of winds and provide insight into design considerations to create shelter against the winds. . Nature of winds. . Not always strictly seasonal but we can observe that winds are often strongest in two directions in a region i.e. Southerlies and Northwest gales. . Onshore/offshore winds in coastal areas. . Prevailing winds through valleys.

LANDSCAPE . Continental climates mean more temperature extremes . Maritime climates buffer severe heat or cold. Large bodies of water act as thermal mass that helps maintain a steadier temperature. . Altitude effects: approximately 100m altitude = 1° Latitude. If hills and flats present, a variety of plants can be grown on site. . Valley Climates . Cold air falls by night . Warm air rises by day (soils dry, strong winds may be generated) . Note where frost is produced (hollows, flats, large clearings)

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. Determining site specific wind factors – Observe what the site tells you. . Landscape i.e. winding valleys, can influence prevailing wind direction. . Note tree flagging (direction of persistent winds.) . Set up stakes with ribbons to indicate.

. House site . On thermal belt if possible. Cool air drains to valleys below, cold montane air above, thermal belt in the middle. Thermal belt height differs in different areas . Hill and Mt country could be 1000-5000m . Lower hill slopes could be 100-200m . Desert could be 10-15m . Use light and radiation to best effect (especially in temperate and cool) . Situate house to North . House next to water source for reflection.

https://www.niwa.co.nz/climate/national-and-regional-climate-maps/hawkes-bay

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TYPES OF LANDSCAPES AND BRITTLENESS SCALE . Across the globe, the overall lay of the land is a function of the climate for the simple reason that the climatic elements are largely responsible for shaping the land. Let us look a few general landscape shapes as we move about the globe from climate to climate.

. Humid landscapes are characterised by green sweeping hills, ridges and valleys. They have been shaped by water.

. Arid landscapes are characterised by sharp angular shapes. They have been shaped by wind, large temperature fluctuations and infrequent but intense rainfall events.

. Tropical landscapes are characterised by thick dense forests over weathered soil. . Tropical rainforest – all the nutrients are up in the biomass . “In the wet tropics, heat and high rainfall would leach most mobile nutrients from soils, except for the biomass of the great variety of plants, which contain 80-90% of the available nutrients” (Mollison, PDM, p. 250)

. The Brittleness Scale . “The scale ranges from 1 to 10 with 1 being non-brittle and 10 being very brittle. The scale is not precise and is a matter of judgment rather than applying a formula. A tropical rainforest would measure 1 on the scale, and an arid desert such as the Sahara would rate a 10. . The scale reflects the distribution of humidity throughout the year, not the amount of rainfall. For this reason, it differs from an aridity index. Thus, some high rainfall environments, e.g., Zambia, with 2,000 mm annual rainfall and distinct wet and dry seasons, can be high on the brittleness scale because of the long portions of the year without rainfall. An environment with lower total rainfall distributed fairly evenly throughout the year, such as parts of England with 600 mm annually, can be low on the brittleness scale” (Wikipedia)

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CLIMATE SUMMARY – KEY POINTS . The climate of a site forms the rules of the game and will dictate key limiting factors and key themes in design . This goes not only for the physical but for the social and cultural climate . The climate is determined by precipitation, radiation, and wind, which must be observed and researched before design starts . At the most general level, climate can be differentiated into tropical, temperate, and arid. . The landform of a site and its surrounds is like the board on which the game is played . Different climates have created different landforms . It is important to assess the brittleness of a particular climate, where the more brittle, the slower dead vegetation breaks down. This has important implications for the appropriate management techniques.

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T15 - Microclimate Course Description: This course explores the effects of microclimate, and design strategies. We can use patterns in nature to influence the climate in our sites. “The summation of environmental conditions at a particular site can be affected more by local factors, rather than climatic ones.” By observing existing microclimate, and creating through design, different niches, opportunities and more favourable conditions present themselves. Make observations. Walk the property lots at different times. ASK WHY some areas are different than others. (warmer, cooler, brighter etc.)

Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to demonstrate fundamental knowledge and competency of:

. The concept of microclimates . Outline useful strategies based on: . Light . Thermal mass . Evaporation and condensation . Insulation . Humidity . Wind chill . Explain the use of suntraps Course Length: 1 session – 1.5 Hours total

Teaching Outline: Draw a sun trap – from above, and from the side, give it the north, slope and wind direction – all examples on it. . LIGHT SPECTRUM . White reflects 96% of light. More than a mirror . Black is hot because it absorbs all spectrum . Red generates heat i.e. It reflects heat, it’s cool underneath ( . Under red foliage can be 20° cooler. Red grape over a pergola. . This phenomenon is utilised by plants . Where there is extreme heat plants have silvery grey foliage (saltbush in desert, reflects up to 85% of light) . Where there are extreme cold plants use dark waxy foliage (reflects as little as 2%) . Design uses . light coloured foliage in suntrap to intensify sun. . white walls to increase light in courtyards . dark surfaces to store more heat i.e. Bare soil for early spring

THERMAL MASS . Dense Material stores and retains heat. (i.e. brick, rock, soil, water, clay) . Heat energy moves on a gradient from hot to cold until an equilibrium is achieved, therefore heat released from the storage mass to the cooler environment warming it.

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EVAPORATION & CONDENSATION . Evaporation causes heat loss locally - Mediterranean example (pond, fountain, unglazed pots with plants) . Transpiration is the same – trees regulate temperature (i.e. hot day in forest) Draw air from ferns on South side of house will have cool air. . Condensation can yield heat gain locally (as airborne moisture condenses on trees at night, air temperature rises in local vicinity.) Forested slopes above house regulate temperatures . Canopy also act as an insulating layer preventing loss to night sky radiation.

INSULATION . Material which does not readily conduct heat. Often traps air. . E.g. Trapped air layer in double glazed windows, wool, cork etc. . Design uses . Slow down heat loss at night to keep the heat of the day slowly dissipating in greenhouses.

HUMIDITY . Transpiration = moisture in the air. . Wind carries this away. . If trees are clustered, moisture remains as can’t be blown away . Therefore, windbreaks can increase humidity and reduce irrigation needs

WINDCHILL . Example of standing in snow with a t-shirt. No problem until wind blows . Example of cows in paddock. Patches in windbreak = wind tunnel

CREATING HEAT . The warmer it is the greater the amount of growth (as long as moisture available) . Microbes in compost can heat greenhouse. . Animal bodies

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SUNTRAP . Suntrap covers broad range of topics mentioned. . Light & reflection – light foliage on suntrap & water. . Thermal mass – water and earth bank . Humidity – transpiration + evaporation, protected from winds . Frost protection. . Allows the possible growth of plants from the next climate zone.

GREENHOUSES . Some Key Points . Orientate to north or within 45 degrees of north. . Higher the glazing transmissivity is, the better it is for the plants. . Don’t underestimate the value of good insulation in the walls of the greenhouse. Keep in mind insulation doesn’t stop heat loss, it just slows it down. . In lower light conditions look to plants that are adapted to growing in lower light conditions. . A hoop house may be a viable alternative in lower light conditions. . It is very important to have thermal mass in the greenhouse. Thermal mass absorbs the surplus heat during the day and radiates it back out at night. . Know what your goals are for the greenhouse. Why are you building it? . You can’t over-vent a greenhouse. . Thermal curtains can cut heat loss drastically through the glazing.

SHELTERBELTS . Designing and Establishing Multi-Use Windbreaks . Windbreaks Offer Protection from Hot, Cold and Drying Winds . Windbreaks are dense, tall plantings of trees and/or shrubs that are used to offer protection from excessive winds. Constant winds slow or prohibit plant growth, raise heating and cooling costs and cause stress or harm from exposure to livestock. . In areas where winds are consistently strong for most of the year, providing homes, livestock and gardens with protection from the wind can be one of our most critical design considerations.

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Reasons for Windbreaks: . Windbreaks can block or slow hot, drying winds in summer to protect livestock, crops or to increase human comfort levels. Summer winds can lower annual crop production by 20% or more, and can make production of wind-sensitive crops such as tomato or sweet potato difficult or impossible. . Windbreaks significantly increase orchard tree production in windy areas (this can include leguminous trees inter-planted with orchard trees—if leguminous trees are taller than orchard trees, they may also offer some frost protection before their own leaves drop); . Windbreaks can increase harvest of snowmelt in winter, since windbreaks capture snow on their leeward side, and also since a large percentage of snow cover evaporates directly to the air under windy conditions instead of melting and infiltrating into the ground; . Windbreaks provide bird and wildlife habitat, corridors and viewing areas; . Windbreaks stop or slow soil loss due to wind erosion both directly (as when winds carry soil away as dust) and indirectly (as when excessive site exposure contributes to drier, dustier conditions with poorer vegetative ground cover); . Windbreaks can be used to screen property from noise, unpleasant views and/or for privacy; . Windbreaks can lower heating costs in winter (and increase comfort) by blocking wind to lower air infiltration into house (reduction in infiltration is proportional to reduction in wind speed at the house). Cold winter winds can account for 30% or more of total heating bills (since most home heating goes toward warming infiltrated outside air), and can lower efficiency of solar collectors by more than 50%; . Windbreaks provide protection from the elements for livestock, which can suffer high weight loss or mortality in winter storms. Water needs (of both livestock and forages) are also much greater in exposed areas than in areas protected by windbreak. . Windbreak trees can, in addition to protecting other crops or animals, offer separate yields in their own right as food and/or useful tree/plant forests: . Nitrogen-fixation (especially when leguminous windbreak trees are scattered across the protected area); . fruits or nuts; . beneficial insect and wildlife habitat; . firewood; . honey; . lumber, poles or ground durable fence posts; . mulches; . supplemental livestock forages;

Planning a Functional Multi-Purpose Windbreak . To most effectively block winds, windbreaks should run as close to perpendicular to prevailing winds as possible, should be as tall as possible and reasonably dense and—in order to provide year-round protection— should be built on a framework of evergreen trees and shrubs. A practical- yet-minimal windbreak might include one zig-zagged row of tall evergreen trees such as Austrian or Ponderosa Pine and another zig-zagged row of shorter evergreen shrubs such as Juniper planted 15'- 20' to windward.

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Choosing Windbreak Trees and Plants . All species chosen should be wind-tolerant as well as wind-resistant, of course, but ironically it is also important to choose trees that do not block too much wind or turbulence may defeat the windbreak's purpose (a little air movement also discourages frosts). . Choose trees that offer their own yields independent of blocking winds (N- fixation, timber, fruits, etc.) to further increase the value of your windbreak. In general, choose trees that will add value to your property, and avoid water- hungry or aggressive trees (eg, poplar, willow, elm) that will compete with nearby crops or trees for greatest benefits. . Windward rows of windbreaks should be especially tough plants such as the junipers or—if even junipers are difficult to establish—extra-tough pioneer plants such as Chamisa, apache plume or others adapted to degraded soils and windy conditions. Use Water Collection to Support Trees . Water-collecting 'boomerangs' or swales (depending on orientation of slope) should be used wherever possible to divert runoff to the trees. Also plan on irrigating the trees for the first couple years until they are established—drip irrigation is most effective, time-efficient and water-conserving, but may be difficult to implement on the scale of a windbreak. Young Trees May Need Early Wind Protection . Wind protection may be necessary to help establish a front line of short shrubs in especially windy and degraded areas. Initial wind protection can come from hay bales, rock piles, open-topped plastic sheets tied to stakes surrounding individual trees (also holds heat and moisture), mounded earth, brush fences, strong trellis or permeable fencing—even large bunch grasses can be used to shield tiny trees until they can take hold. It is also advisable to offer trees more than a foot or two tall when planted some form of bracing, such as loosely-tied ropes to stakes on the windward side. Windbreak Spacing . Plant windbreaks at a distance from homes and outbuildings sufficient to provide protection from fire (at least 40m), but closer than 10 times the full, mature height of the windbreak (ie, you have 180m of full protection if the tallest trees are Ponderosa pines at 18m). For full protection of larger areas, space additional windbreaks at a distance of 10 to 15 times the mature height of the nearest upwind windbreak. A Basic Windbreak Starting Framework . You can create a good, basic windbreak framework with as little as two rows of evergreen trees. Start with a single or double staggered (zig-zagged) row of medium-height evergreen shrubs (such as juniper—ideal in difficult areas because it is dense, tough, wind- and drought-resistant and will establish in areas with very poor soil). . On the protected or leeward side of this first, shorter row, about 4 - 6m away, plant tall evergreen trees about 2.5m apart on centre in a single or double staggered row (increase spacing to 3-4m if using double staggered rows; can plant closer if water is plentiful, farther in drier areas).

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. If space and resources allow, continue extending the windbreak on the leeward side with useful plants for humans, livestock and/or wildlife. For diversity and resiliency, include a wide variety of fruit trees and berries, shrubs, wildflowers, bulbs, grasses, legumes and vines. Plan Ahead for Fire Safety . Windbreaks should be kept from at least 25 m (if uphill from house) to 40m (if downhill) from buildings for fire safety where fires are an issue. Deciduous plantings, less flammable than evergreens, can be placed between the house and the windbreak if well-spaced (1 - 2 times crown width between driplines of individual trees or shrubs). . Some Trees are more flammable than others due to their volatile oils i.e. Pine and Gums . Keep even deciduous trees and shrubs at least 6m from any buildings (if trees are closer, consider them part of the building and give them an additional 6+m from the nearest other shrubs or trees). A row of deciduous trees planted on the house side of an evergreen windbreak offers fire protection by deflecting radiation, and by burning more slowly than evergreens would. . Useful Variations for Multi-Purpose Windbreaks . Windbreak trees and/or shrubs can be planted twice as closely as their recommended mature spacing, and then thinned to every-other one after 8- 10 years. This will give a denser windbreak sooner than planting the trees at their mature spacing, and will also yield some useful product (poles, firewood, etc.) from the thinned trees. Include a Variety of Useful Trees and Plants . Useful trees and plants can be added to the basic windbreak to provide wildlife/bird habitat and viewing areas or fruits for human consumption, to enhance beauty, etc. Ideally these will include fruit trees and/or useful trees, shrubs, vines, flowers, etc. The greater the diversity (assuming mutually- harmful plants are kept apart), the greater the health and self-maintenance of the resulting windbreak will be. . Trees for poles, fence posts or tool handles can be included in windbreaks. Plant trees for fence posts and poles at several times their recommended density so that they grow tall and straight, then thin them as they become crowded (each thinning provides progressively larger posts or poles). Some trees, such as ash or locust, can be 'coppiced' (cut off near the base and allowed to re-sprout, then harvested again every few years) to provide regular crops of handles, firewood, fence posts or even small poles. Hedges are Useful Mini-Windbreaks . Hedges are basically small, dense windbreaks and can be used to advantage in confined spaces. Hedges can be formed from a variety of plants, but should be based on evergreen plants if year-round protection is desired (if the hedge is protecting an annual garden, then a deciduous hedge might be perfectly suitable). Hedges can either block or direct winds, and can be used to create protected planting areas if open toward the sun while blocking prevailing winds.

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Prepare Windbreak Areas to Harvest Water Before Planting . Shape the earth around your windbreak plantings to catch water and divert it to the root zones of the windbreak trees. These water collection areas can be 'swales' (long, shallow, level ditches dug on-contour to intercept water flowing downslope during rains or snowmelt), 'boomerangs' (shallow depressions with channels extending out across slope to collect rainwater and funnel it to the base of individual trees) or broad depressions with water- collecting canals leading in from overland flow sources or rooftops, impermeable pavements, etc. Ideally, all water flowing across your property during rains or snowmelts will be directed either into ponds or into some form of planting depression. Windbreak Care and Maintenance . Water newly-planted trees deeply and regularly for the first couple of years and thereafter as needed. Timed drip watering systems are excellent during the first couple seasons as the trees are assured of regular, deep watering with little water waste. Make sure trees are planted in or near swales or other water collection areas, and make small (10 gallon) watering dishes around the base of each new tree to facilitate efficient supplemental watering. . Maintain mulch around trees at least 2 or more inches deep. Replace mulch as needed, including a high proportion of tree leaves or needles in the mix as trees like a lot of organic matter but don't need—or like—highly-rich soil (in mature forests most nutrients are tied up in existing tree tissues). Plant spike- rooted plants (see list in Useful and Ornamental Plants) around trees to loosen deep soil and shade the topsoil's surface.

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T16 - Geographic patterns and strategies

Course Description: Permaculture design identifies some key patterns, which enable us to design very energy efficient systems. These patterns, the key to efficient energy planning, are the zone, sector and slope placement of plants, animals and structures. Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to demonstrate fundamental knowledge and competency of:

 The concept of zoning  The five zones and their characteristics  A pattern language for slope placement in a temperate humid climate  Common edge/boundary characteristics  The concept of sectors

Course Length: 1 session – 1.5 Hours total Teaching Outline:

 Outline the concept of zoning Zones are a conceptual structure (strategy) to aid placement/use of elements in an environment, based on the principle that those things that you need to visit more often should be placed closer to your 'centre'. This is usually conveyed by a series of concentric rings, starting with the home centre (zone 0) and working out. Species, elements, and strategies change between each zone. ***Golden rule – develop the nearest area first and then expand to the edges. ***When identifying more than one centre of activity the linkages must be carefully planned concerning access, water, energy supply, sewage, fencing, windbreaks etc.

 Outline the five zones and their characteristics Zone 1: ◦ Home centre (including internal home design) intense modification ◦ Soil intensely modified to suit exact requirements of crops ◦ Herbs, salad greens, frequently used fruit (lemons), and fruit and vegetables requiring frequent picking (berries, figs etc.) use of espalier and trellis and heavy pruning, fruit susceptible to bird damage, dwarf varieties, 'special needs' plants ◦ Most built structures, green houses, storage ◦ Possible continuous maintenance of mulch ◦ Possible high use of irrigation (drippers, sprinklers) ◦ integrated with high use pathways

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◦ information stored and generated by people Zone 2: ◦ Main crop cultivation ◦ Moderate to intense modification of soils (ripping, draining, fertilisers) crops chosen to suit modified soil conditions ◦ Orchard initially heavily mulched and pruned followed by moderate maintenance. ◦ Mainly grafted and selected species, dense planting ◦ Possible dependence on infrequent irrigation (drippers, sprinklers, swales) ◦ Some small animals: chickens, ducks, pigeon ◦ Multi-purpose walks: collect eggs, milk, distribute greens and scraps, cut animal forage ◦ Integrated with frequent high use pathways ◦ Information stored and generated by people

Zone 3: ◦ Connects to zone 1 and 2 for easy access ◦ May add animal forage: goats, sheep, geese, bees, dairy cows, pigs. ◦ Low to moderate modification of soils at establishment. Varieties chosen predominantly to suit innate soil conditions ◦ Any fruit or nut trees uses are hardy ◦ Use of self-forage trees, firewood and timber ◦ Possibly irrigation for start-up, but none after establishment. (swales/ other) ◦ Windbreaks, firebreaks ◦ Spot mulching, rough mulching ◦ Trees protected with cages, strip-fencing ◦ Nut tree forests

Zone 4: ◦ Long term development ◦ Little or no modification of soils, varieties chosen to suit soil conditions ◦ Little or no irrigation and fertilising ◦ Timber for building and firewood ◦ Mixed forestry systems ◦ Infrequent gathering ◦ Some introduced animals: cattle, deer, pigs ◦ Information arising from natural processes

Zone 5: ◦ Uncultivated wilderness ◦ Re-growth area ◦ Timber ◦ Infrequent gathering ◦ Hunting ◦ Information arising from natural processes

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 Outline a pattern language for slope placement in a temperate humid climate ◦ The placement of an element on slope so that the effect of gravity is taken into account to its best effect. ◦ water storage/collection (high dams, low dams, key point dams, swaling) ◦ nutrient flows (high erosion sites, accumulation sites, animal movements) ◦ cold air flows ('porridge flow, thermal inversion, cold air dams) ◦ roading (maintenance, work)

 Outline the concept of sectors The aim of sector planning is to channel external energies (wind, sun, fire) into or away from the system. By identifying patterns with directional effects we can design to counter or increase the effect of these patterns, e.g.: ◦ Wind patterns and effects on other elements (wind tender plants, environment around living space), cold winds, hot winds, seasonal and (very infrequent) cyclones, salt winds… ◦ Identifying the patterns of solar input, changing angles and sunrise/sunset positions and effect on buildings and crops, high sun gain and shading. ◦ Probable directions of fire movement (uphill, with emphasis on dry environments/ridges/usual sources) ◦ Effect of neighbours/public (noise, view, pests, pollination, etc.) ◦ Reflection of sun (water, shiny leafed plants) sun traps ◦ Flooding ◦ View

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 Outline common edge/boundary characteristics ◦ Edge = Boundary Condition: ▪ Every edge has a unique behaviour and a translation potential ▪ At the edge – 2 possible motions or particle flows:  ACROSS - In crossing a boundary ◦ surfaces may resist invaders i.e. Chemical or social ◦ nets, sieves or criteria may have to be passed by potential invaders  ALONG - In Longitudinal flows: ◦ Friction or Coriolis (spin) flows cause deflections or turbulence ◦ In nature, edges are often rich places for organisms. On an edge: ▪ particles may naturally accumulate or deposit (boundary = net or blockade) ▪ special or unique niches are available in space or time ▪ Resources of the two or more media systems are available (at or nearby). ▪ All edges have some ‘fuzzy depth’ = 3rd media formed. ◦ Edges can: ▪ Be varied by design. Increasing beneficial edge and reducing inefficient edge (pathways) ▪ Create microclimate (water, suntraps, frost protection, weed barriers) ▪ Trap resources (hedges, fences, habitat provision) ▪ Encourage / Discourage turbulence (wind, water) ▪ Provide rich habitat (human settlements situated near river mouth, sea, land and forest) ▪ Provide trade sites (nitrogen fixers, mulch plants, roadside stall)

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T17 - SUBDIVISION, ACCESS, FENCING

These are all key relationships with our physical environment that are imposed on us, or we can design into systems. In both cases the effects are not easily changed. Having an understanding of common patterns and strategies facilitates effective design.

Subdivision How land is subdivided can have a big, enduring effect on the land use patterns. A common type one error is that caused by geometrical shaping of titles in an offsite office (e.g. London). Frequently the titles don't match the topographical characteristics of the land, (primary ridges, catchments, streams) and/or the resource relationships (water sources/storage, microclimates etc.) This leads to awkward design choices. Frequently we are best to avoid these situations or consider boundary changes with our neighbours. Access Roads and tracks facilitate easy movement/ interrelationships, usually 'front loading' investment of energy to give ongoing lower energy requirements and stronger relationships. This effect will become more important as we experience increased 'power down'. Common patterns include:

 Along the contour, less energy used

 Note stock tracks and old logging tracks

 Use of ridges for sustainable height change.

 1:7 maximum desirable grade. Above this more damage to roads through loss of friction, more strain on vehicles. Particularly relevant in power down.

 Use of dams and culverts to maintain low gradients

 Use of road drains to divert water for use.

 Use of edges to facilitate harvesting (logs, firewood, fruit, observation)

 Integration with rotational grazing

 Beware of common conflict between roads and other uses (be prepared to change routes)

 Distance from town/city determines land use, zoning (energy use)

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 When purchasing of land, and its proximity to town (energy use, utilities, markets) will largely determine land use options

 Isolation will drive different choices in developing utilities, markets

 Access to internet hugely increases our access to information, markets etc, but does not override energy requirements/context Fencing As with roads, important to consider context and relationships. Common patterns include:

 Adjoining roads, good for stock movement

 Using ridges to maintain easy visual access to stock

 Using to delineate different land zones/uses

 Using in association with shelterbelts/visual barriers/fodder cropping

 Electric fencing has revolutionised grazing management possibilities (reduced cost/ added flexibility) - caveat need to ensure power and technology availability

 In extreme power down we could revert to hedgerows, live fences, more intensive management. These need to be research/learnt, and pilot projects undertaken

 Can be used as support structures for vines

 Important to match size of netting with animal management needs (esp. young stock)

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T19 – T20 - WATER AND EARTH WORKS PATTERNS AND STRATEGIES

Water = Source of all life. Without it there is no life. Water is a rare mineral, in the form of potable water, water that is safe to drink and found naturally. It is the world most critical resource. Fresh water is only 3% of all water on Earth the rest is salt water in the oceans. Of the fresh water approx.: 75% - Ice sheets and glaciers 11% - Available ground water, less than 800m 14% - Deep groundwater and aquifers 800 to 4000m - the remainder is so small it is nearly insignificant. 0.3% - Lakes and ponds at the surface 0.06% - Soil moisture and forests 0.03% - Rivers 0.035% - Atmosphere --These are the storages we can influence locally. The role of water:

 To procreate life in growing systems.

 To develop productive aquaculture systems.

 To develop hydraulic uses for energy production, pumping water, generating electricity and mechanical take-off. The idea is to use water as many times as possible before it passes through the system. Increasing life in a system increases potential yield. In particular, we can:

 Increase surface and top soil storage

 Reduce runoff

 Decrease evaporation The essential strategies are:

 Increase soil storage by increasing the carbon content. (humus, clay, bio-char)

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 Increase soil storage by rehabilitation of compressed and sealed soils, using bio- intensive/Keyline methods, including chisel ploughing for increase aeration.

 Increase the soakage to high groundwater by excavating swales. A water harvesting channel on contour with a soft mound on the lower side made from the excavated material from the channel. Water is held momentarily from running away rapidly downhill and soaks in, trees planted either side will thrive. Water eventually slowly recharges ground water. Swales can vary in size up to 6m across the channel, depending on the size and type of catchment.

 Reduce evaporation by mulching, which is an imitation of the forest floor leaf litter, preventing erosion and building up soils. This is easy to achieve in a small area, but over large area mulch trees and shrubs need to be grown to produce surplus harvestable mulch.

 Increase small surface storages in the form of dams, ponds, small ponds in gardens, and tanks at houses for freshwater supplies. Stores of Water: Dams, Tanks & Soil (swales, ripping, Increased O.M, increased root zone) Hydrology drawing - 3 pics (forest, cleared and swaled)

 Common misconception – streams below will be deprived of water

 Reality - in long term, flows more regulated and constant, like in rainforest.

Dams: Benefits Much cheaper than tanks per unit stored. Small scale very different to huge hydro or irrigation dams, as beneficial to life Give back in 3 ways

 All leak a bit adding to ground water

 Once full = 100% runoff, adding to catchment

 More dams = moderated flow downstream (less floods & droughts) Types of dams need to be well understood: Saddle dams, position on a ridge between high points with 2 dam walls and fed by diversion drains and or swales. Very high positions possible for gravity irrigation dam.

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Ridge dams positioned on a flatter spot on a ridge and fed by diversion drains and or swales. Usually a rounded crescent shape wrapped around the ridge and curved dam wall, high positions possible as a gravity irrigation dam. Valley dams are the usual dams in the landscape with the dam wall crossing a valley. They are the hardest to build and take the most maintenance. The further down a valley they are situated the bigger they usually get; the spillway always gets larger the further down the valley they are positioned because the total catchments area has increased. These dams make good life dams and edge feature dams, and can be used for flood irrigation. Key point dams the highest possible valley dam in any one valley, can be fed by diversion drains, and often connects to other key point dams at the same corresponding contour with swales. Connections to ridge point dams are possible. A key point dam is usually a high gravity irrigation dam. Contour dams positioned on shallow slopes fed by swales at the back with swale integrated spillways. These can be good aquaculture dams as they are easily shaped and can be set up to be easily drained. An ideal landscape would have 15%+ covered with dams and cater for this water with swales and ripped conditioned topsoil, then planted along swales. We should try to hold water as high as possible. A strategy of water use in landscape is the longest path over the most time with the most passive friction – builds fertility. Size of Dam Rainfall and runoff in local area Order of size in relation to catchment Placement criteria: Earth type

 Want at least 30% clay

 Tests (Jar test, Dispersity test) Grade behind the wall - Pics showing efficiency related to

 Slope

 Valley shape Downstream safety of structures and houses (key factor in larger dams) Height above use points Available catchment or diversions

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 Valley above

 Diversions, Swales, Roads Existing vegetation Government regulations

Construction: Best advice – ask around for the best local operator. Will cost a bit more but more than worth it in the long run, huge difference between operators. Construction of Small Earth Dams Top soil removal, keep it pure, not mixed with subsoil:

 Stops seepage and sheer

 At least 0.6-0.9m.

 Must hit clay (most critical factor in preventing failure)

 Best clay used to fill Siphon or base outlet pipe fitted with baffles Spillway

 Always on undisturbed soil – keep clear of compacted wall

 Determines freeboard - should be one metre lower than crest.

 Flat and wide with shallow slope.

 Size - Plan for 1 in 10 year events ◦ Can observe order of size in almost any creek, stepping up the valley sides (Usual flow; Big rain; 1-year event; 10-year event; 100-year event ◦ Observe successful dams in same catchment ◦ BOM for rainfall events Silt Trap keeps dam clear - 10% of dam size. Maintenance Spillway

 Keep clear of debris (will cause scouring)

 Trickle pipe stops small flows (causes more damage than large flows)

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Keep wall clear of trees and plants with taproot, Bamboo is great with matting roots. Keep area above dam forested 30-60m (keep clear) Fence animals out – provide gravity fed drinking troughs. Blue green algae – Bale of barley straw (enzyme which stops flowering) Sealing leaky dams - Gleying

 15-20cm layer of organic material laid on the base. ◦ Green cow manure best ◦ Mashed green plant material also OK

 Cover with plastic, cardboard or earth (can remove later)

 O.M ferments anaerobically & bacterial slime produced

 Approx. 1-2 weeks in temperate, 1 day in tropics.

 Refill once fermentation taken place.

 Permanently seals soil, sand or small gravels. Fence animals in and feed until manured and pugged. Bentonite (slippery clay powder derived from volcanic ash)

 Works on clay-loam

 5-7cm, roto-tilled and rolled

 doesn’t always work, expensive DIVERSION DRAINS

 Gently sloping trenches to guide water for storage, irrigation or drainage

 Use of flags for sheet irrigation

 Shade with trees to prevent evaporation of irrigation channels. WETLANDS – Their creation and benefits

 Catches and stores nutrients (source of wild game)

 Regulates stream flows over longer period

 Fire control, reflection, thermal mass, beauty SWALES – A perfectly level trench (on contour), designed to intercept overland water flow, holding it and allowing infiltration into soil reserves for the use of trees.

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“Forest systems are sponges and swales are sponges on contour designed to fast track forest systems” The need for trees

 Shade prevents evaporation

 Prevents waterlogging

 Prevents Salinity

 Re-humidifying airstreams

 Hold soils Size and Spacing General rules

 Ideally swale does not exceed crown width

 Sandy soil = wider and shallower

 Clay soil = narrower and deeper

 Shallower slopes = larger, further apart

 Steeper slopes = smaller, closer together. Can also be determined by:

 Average large rainfall events and runoff (Tables)

 Intended tree crop size

 Machinery width Pipes under wall can allow drainage to prevent waterlogging, not suitable on slip country. BACKFLOODING SWALE

 Swale with open end, first flows into dam

 Once dam is full, swale begins to rise

 Once swale full, overflow onto ridgeline. KEYLINE PATTERNING

 Natural flow patterns of water (valleys wet, ridges dry)

 Taking water from valleys to ridges

 Deep Ripping EROSION

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Prevention

 Slow runoff (drains or ripping leading away from gully to ridges)

 Encourage infiltration

 Permanent slope vegetation.

Rehabilitation

 Contour drains and deep rooted vegetation

 Barriers in erosion gullies, lead water out ◦ Small - bale of straw, weaved vegetation in boomerang with reeds. ◦ <3m gabions, logs ◦ Larger requires engineered dam wall ◦ Centre of wall = spillway or else sides carved out. ◦ Apron below to prevent scouring and future wall failure. Most runoff occurs from sealed surfaces like roofs and roads. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

 Drip or trickle, especially in dry land situations.

 Flood irrigation.

 Under canopy.

 Sprinklers are not efficient and build up salt in the soil in dry land situations. Components of irrigation system:

 Water source- bores, springs, soaks runoff, swales, pipelines, creeks, tanks and lakes.

 Energy source- water at head pressure, pressure pumps electric, fuel, wind, hand or animal.

 Distribution network- net and pan, pipes, channels and buckets.

 Emitters- dripline, sprinkler, controllers, hose and buckets. Irrigation rules for arid regions:

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 Irrigation under mulch to reduce salt problems and increase evaporation efficiency.

 Irrigate at dusk or at night if possible.

 Give long watering every 3 to 5 days, takes water down to the trees roots.

 Allow for leaching.

Irrigation tips

 Uniform pipe sizes and fittings means less spares are needed

 Example main line under pressure 2” Rural with 1” risers. Low pressure 19mm poly.

 Purchase good quality hose and fittings and keep uniform also– huge differences in quality

TANKS Appropriate use in cities – toilets and washing vs garden (regular use during wetter periods = greater yearly holding capacity) Tank design

 Filtering water (Gutter strategies, First flush diverter)

 Covered inlet and outlet (wire mesh, U-bend)

 Interior outlet pipe with float takes water from near surface (less anaerobic)

 Limestone or shell in water (hard water better for drinking, soft OK for washing)

 Overflow to garden or swale.

 Water level indicator

 Large completely enclosed in ground roofed tanks can be used to collect water efficiently in deserts.

PUTTING WATER TO WORK

 Story of Buffalo enclosure in Aceh.

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◦ House built for village buffalo = imported nutrients ◦ Roof-water directed first to tanks, then to floor drains to carry manure downhill (wet season strategy) ◦ Silt trap removes solids, then spills into swale ◦ Swale evenly distributes fertility around hillside for benefit of tree crops. ◦ Dry season = worm farms

 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ◦ Protection of water courses ▪ Revegetation to 30m either side ▪ Rehabilitation of erosion gullies

Earthworks are necessary and ethical where they:  Reduce our need for energy.

 Diversify our landscape for food production.

 Permanently rehabilitate damage.

 Save materials.

 Enable better land use, or help re-vegetate the earth.

Earth can be moved for productive reasons, many of them classified as landscape restitution:  To create shelter; to assist with foundations and to make areas level for floors.

 To terrace hill slopes for stable padi crop, wet terrace, or gardens.

 To raise banks or to dig ditches as defences against flood, fire, attack or wandering vegetation eaters.

 To drain or fill areas, to direct water flow or runoff.

 To create access roads to those places we commonly visit.

 To get to earth materials, ochres, clays, minerals, and fuels.

 To make holes for any number of reasons and of greatly varying sizes from fence posts to dams, wells to deeply drilled bores.

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 To create special storages and enlarge living space.

 To stop erosive forces carrying off soils.

 To prevent noise pollution.

 To permit recharge of ground waters as swales and ripping.

Earth can be moved with hand held and mechanical diggers, ditchers, augers, drills, blades, buckets, shoes, rakes, ploughs, rippers, delvers, scoops, loaders, rock cutters, draglines, excavators and dredgers. We also move earth with explosives, hydraulic jets, and as an unintentional result of erosive processes generally. Planning earthworks prior to the actual job is essential for placement, soil tests, surveying and pegging, topsoil storage and re-use planning, and preparing for plant up afterwards. Planting after earthworks needs serious planning not only for stability, but also to make the most of the opportunity of dominating the bare soil with appropriate plant regimes. We will be in a race with the volunteer weeds seeds to occupy as much space as possible first. As soon as the earthworks have finished we need to over seed with fast growing pioneer ground covers and shrubs and at the same time plant in, bulbs, divisions of clumpers, cuttings, tube pot pioneer trees and larger potted up main trees as the eventual climax layer. On steep and difficult slopes, a net and pan pattern of mini earthworks will help establish pioneers as will logs and branches pegged across the slope to hold mulch. Dam walls should not be planted with anything that has a tap root, that may penetrate the dam wall, and crack the wall if blown over or pipe the wall through when the tree dies. Bamboo and other clumpers are ideal as are willows and palms. SLOPE MEASURES Slope measurements can be made in many ways, the three most common are:  Proportions, i.e. 1:2 (always rise: run)

 Gradient = rise/run as a % i.e. 1/2 x 100% = 50%

 Angle (measured at base of slope). i.e. 45° = 1:1 or 100% Different materials have different holding capacity when cut. Some can be steep which hold well, others shallow because they are prone to collapsing. Jar test. Gravels (1:1½ or 66% or 37°) Free drained clay (1:2 or 50% or 26.5°) Sands (1:3 or 33% or 18.4°) Wet clay and silt (1:4 or 25% or 14°) When planning cuts

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 Ensure good diversion drain at top.  Concave the slope, (which will happen naturally anyway) LEVELS AND LEVELLING Practise using different levels available.  Dumpy or laser if available,  A-frame (construct and use)  Bunyip level. Levels and levelling is performed to ensure spillways work, drains run, gutters flow, buildings sit level and numerous other applications. Levelling equipment can be very sophisticated or extremely simple from a satellite positioning laser level, laser level, theodolite, transit level, hose levels, plane table to simple A-frames. Most of the survey work we need to do is measuring level and very slight grades all of which has been done in the past just using water to check level and the speed of water movement to assess gradient.

TYPES OF EARTHWORKS Banks:  Cheaper to construct than to step or retain.  If dished, will remain stable at greater slopes than straight cut (already created shape of post slump)  Problems occur from excess water. Ensure drainage above, divert to useful site.  Banks need to be constructed stable for control of water and soil slump. Many methods can be used to prevent slump from cuts above terraces or roads, and need careful planning, vegetation established on banks always assists stability. Benching  A flat, near contoured cut made in a slope  Roads, house sites and helpful in long term forestry every 100m on slope.  Benching a slope can be used to create roads and house sites. These are quick and easy to cut with a side casting machine, like a bulldozer or a grader on shallower slopes, the lower side becoming a good tree growing position of increased soil depth. Benches can slope slightly off the hill for drainage. In stable soils benches can slope into the hill and infiltrate water to the trees below the bench acting like a swale. Cross wall drains may need to be made every 20 to 30 meters to prevent runoff erosion. These are very useful and functional elements especially in steep country. Terracing

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 Benefits ◦ Easy crop access on slopes ◦ Easily controlled irrigation ◦ Minimal soil loss due to overland flow (stagger path ends) ◦ Potential gain in silts and nutrients in irrigation and leaf fall ◦ Becomes worthwhile at 10-18 degrees ◦ Terrace = annuals, slope between (< 2m high, 3:4 max) = perennials ◦ Terracing on country that has enough mulch materials, compost supplies and water can be very stable productive systems. The exception to this is when:  Terraces built in unstable soils and sediments.

 In areas with hydraulic pressure from water.

 Bunds not constructed stable.

 Large proportion of the landscape is terraced in annual crop with no tree mulch input to crop.

 High rainfall areas terraced and concentrating runoff.

 Trees on bunds and between, above and below terraces, should form 40 to 60% of the total landscape, creating a polyculture system creates the best sustainable results.

 Terrace construction always starts at the bottom and goes up hill, pulling topsoil down from the next terrace above, finally the surplus stockpiled topsoil of the bottom terrace is transported to the top terrace of the series.

 In the tropics terraces should occupy no more than 30% of the catchments landscape and no more than 5% in drylands.

PLANNING EARTHWORKS It’s best to plan all aspects of the earth-moving process before the machines or labourers arrive.  Make initial decision of placement of dam, swale, house site drain etc, using contour maps and plan if needed

 Test soil by auger holes, soil samples and soil pits to check if suitable for your needs (i.e. Dam needs at least 30-40% clay). Seek professional advice or do more research before deciding conclusively.

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 Peg out site using a level (laser level, dumpy level, a-frame, bunyip level)

 Plan a space to store all the TOPSOIL. Never allow it to be mixed. Remove carefully to be returned later as growing medium

 Have on hand as many seeds and plant material as is needed to immediately cover disturbed soil.

PLANTING AFTER EARTHWORKS Two main reasons we do this as soon as possible  to prevent erosion  to prevent invasion by unwanted volunteer plants Some good mixes include:  Sunflower or mixed bird seed  Parsnip, radish, daikon radish, which spike the soil  Roots of comfrey, sweet potato, turmeric, horseradish  Divisions of grasses: bamboo, pampas, lemongrass, vetiver, agave, aloes.  Cuttings that readily strike, i.e. mulberry, willow, poplar, echium  Tubed seedlings of acacia, tagasaste, eucalypt, coprosma, These plants will out compete invaders. Mark perennials with a stake so they can be easily found the next year. If very steep: logs, branches, grasses on contour collects soil, manure, detritus. Larger trees such as acacia planted at the top of the slope will drop seed and colonise.

EARTH CONSTRUCTS Making good use of soil removed from excavations (ie for ponds) Banks raised by machines can serve the following purpose:  Shelter for house and fields (deflect hot dry winds)  Plant sites for windbreaks (on crown and lee side)  Walls of houses and barns  Fireproofing (dugout with tin and 1-2’ earth on top)  Noise deflection near roads or airports (foliage doesn’t do much)  Tracks and plant sites in marshes and clay sites prone to flooding.

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 Patterns to deflect and direct wind and water to storages or energy systems.  Flood or tide control systems  Earth ramps and stands (loading ramp)  Earth walls or ha-ha fences.

MOVING OF THE EARTH Blade machines:  Levelling house sites, benching, terracing, side-cutting roads, and pushing up earth banks.  Can be mounted at the: Front (Bulldozer), Centre (Grader), or Rear (Tractor)  Ideally blade can: ◦ lift (for piling up or levelling loads) ◦ tilt (for cutting drains), & angle (for side casting on long runs)  Bulldozer ◦ Greatest use in roading and dams ◦ Can work well on steep and rocky slopes ◦ Excellent to ▪ put up, roll solid and spread earth; ▪ dig large shallow holes ▪ move small hills ▪ bench  Grader ◦ Better than bulldozer for long flat runs ◦ Good for long drains of shallow angle. 4 in 1 Bucket machine  Bobcat. is a bridging machine between blade and bucket. Excellent finishing tool. Bucket machines  Loading buckets, attached to tractors, great for use where loose material needs to be picked up and loaded to trucks (4m reach often) Can lift and tilt only, not swivel  Excavator or Swivel or Scoop bucket.

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◦ Good for moving earth short distances (limit = reach of arm before having to move). And digging trenches. ◦ Often have a blade also for levelling. ◦ Works well in ▪ Drains (building and cleaning) ▪ Marshes Auger  can be fitted to hydraulics of tractor, bobcat, excavator etc. (fence posts etc.) Compacting  carried out by tracks, rollers or buckets on machines or by compacting machine.  Compact only 15-30cm of soil at a time. Even largest machines cannot do much more than this.

EARTH RESOURCES May come across valuable resources whilst excavating Clay:  Bricks  Sealing dams and ponds  Pottery Sand:  Yellowish, have enough calcium to combat acidity.  Black can be used to generate heat  White can be used to reflect light to houses.  Sharp sand can be used in potting mix  Fat sand (containing clay for building ovens) Gravels:  Heaped up makes good roads and drains  Sharp gravel good for concrete.  19mm angular best for heat stores.  Reed bed filtration system Shingle:

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 Good under roads as a base  For drains  As a course filter Boulders:  Course Mulch  Wildlife refuge  Heat stores in walls  Gabions

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T24 - SOILS

SOIL ETHICS Soils for us/Soils for others - maintain diversity and habitat for that biodiversity Rehabilitate abused soils and maintain and enhance current 'cultivated' soils first.

SOIL FORMING PROCESSES (basis for individualism of soils)

 parent material - discuss basis for differences in texture and available minerals

 age - a basis for extent of leaching of base minerals (extent of podsolization)

 climate - another basis for extent of leaching of base minerals

 vegetation - also effects leaching, colour, structure Discuss various typical soil profiles associated with soil forming processes including podzols, peats, hill soils, meadow soils, alluvial soils, volcanic soils.

Soil Texture

Clay less than 0.002

Silt 0.002–0.05

Very fine sand 0.05–0.10

Fine sand 0.10–0.25

Medium sand 0.25–0.50

Coarse sand 0.50–1.00

Very coarse sand 1.00–2.00

Soil texture classification Soil texture triangle, showing the 12 major textural classes, and particle size scales as defined by the USDA. Soil textures are classified by the fractions of each soil separate (sand, silt, and clay) present in a soil. Classifications are typically named for the primary constituent particle size or a combination of the most abundant particles sizes, e.g. "sandy clay" or "silty clay". A fourth term, loam, is used to describe a roughly equal concentration of sand, silt, and clay, and lends to the naming of even more classifications, e.g. "clay loam" or "silt loam".

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In the United States, twelve major soil texture classifications are defined by the USDA.[1] Determining the soil textures is often aided with the use of a soil texture triangle.

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SOIL CHEMISTRY CEC is a calculated value that is an estimate of the soils ability to attract, retain, and exchange cation elements. It is reported in mill equivalents per 100 grams of soil (meq/100g). In order for a plant to absorb nutrients, the nutrients must be dissolved. When nutrients are dissolved, they are in a form called "ions". This simply means that they have electrical charges. As an example table salt is sodium chloride (NaCl), when it dissolves it becomes two ions; one of sodium (Na+) and one of chloride (Cl-). The small + and - signs with the Na and the Cl indicate the type of electrical charges associated with these ions. In this example, the sodium has a plus charge and is called a "cation". The chloride has a negative charge is called an "anion". Since, in soil chemistry "opposites attract" and "likes repel", nutrients in the ionic form can be attracted to any opposite charges present in soil. Soil is made up of many components. A significant percentage of most soil is clay. Organic matter, while a small percentage of most soil is also important for several reasons. Both of these soil fractions have a large number of negative charges on their surface, thus they attract cation elements and contribute to a higher CEC. At the same time, they also repel anion nutrients ("like" charges). Some important elements with a positive electrical charge in their plant-available form include potassium (K+), ammonium (NH4+), magnesium ( Mg++), calcium (Ca++), zinc (Zn+), manganese (Mn++), iron (Fe++), copper (Cu+) and hydrogen (H+). While hydrogen is not a nutrient, it affects the degree of acidity (pH) of the soil, so it is also important. Some other nutrients have a negative electrical charge in their plant-available form. These are called anions and include nitrate (NO3-), phosphate (H2PO4- and HPO4--), sulphate (SO4-), borate (BO3-), and molybdate (MoO4--). Phosphates are unique among the negatively charged anions, in that they are not mobile in the soil. This is because they are highly reactive, and nearly all of them will combine with other elements or compounds in the soil, other than clay and organic matter. The resulting compounds are not soluble; thus they precipitate out of soil solution. In this state, they are unavailable to plants, and form the phosphorus "reserve" in the soil. Larger CEC values indicate that a soil has a greater capacity to hold cations. Therefore, it requires higher rates of fertilizer or lime to change a high CEC soil. When a high CEC soil has good test levels, it offers a large nutrient reserve. However, when it is poor, it can take a large amount of fertilizer or lime to correct that soil test. A high CEC soil requires a higher soil cation level, or soil test, to provide adequate crop nutrition. Low CEC soils hold fewer nutrients, and will likely be subject to leaching of mobile "anion" nutrients. These soils may benefit from split applications of several nutrients. The particular CEC of a soil is neither good nor bad, but knowing it is a valuable management tool. The plant uses 84 different minerals. When any of these is missing or in short supply, or when something interferes with its proper uptake - the plant will experience deficiency. If prolonged or severe enough the symptoms of that deficiency will manifest as plant disease

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or insect problems. All disease is the result of a mineral deficiency or loss of mineral energy (plants, animals or humans) Governments and corporate leadership in agriculture have failed to address this in our industrial food supply, thus healthy eating is now dependent on eating from effective ‘philanthropic' producers. N.B. 'Organic' is an ideological term, and does not guarantee highly mineralised soil and the resultant 'healthy' plants and/or animals. Discuss further. Soil Biology Biology is complementary to mineral components of soil (bacteria, fungi, flagellates, amoebae, ciliates, nematodes, algae, worms soil animals etc. etc.) Typical soil has 5000 species good soil has 25,000 species Usually we need to inoculate to regain species on 'abused' agricultural soils. The combination of minerals and biology leads to the continuous cycle of the growth and decomposition of plants and the formation of humus. Life is a symphony between minerals and microbes. Minerals + Microbes + Foods = Life/Health Humus is the great habitat and 'sponge' able to hold nutrients and water in a form that is available to the plant. (Large component of CEC) If we focus on increasing humus content in the soil and protecting the soil (avoiding compaction, avoiding too much exposure to sun wind and rain, avoiding fertilisers and practises that are harmful to soil biology) then most soils will improve and provide healthy food .Just as we need to consciously address maintaining and adding selected minerals for 'healthy' growth, we need to maintain and add organic matter and other biological components to produce healthy food. This may include mulch, green manures, compost, aerated compost teas, worm casts, fish fertilisers, seaweed, humic acid, fungal and bacterial inoculants. SCIENTIFIC PARADIGMS Soil Chemistry/Biology/Physics Dr A.F.Beddoe, Dr Arden Anderson Reams/Albrecht/Callahan Soil Food Web/Elaine Ingham

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T25 - Bio-intensive

From the Koanga Institute Growing Soil Food and Health, Biointensive Gardening , 3-day workshop:

Learning Objectives

 why we are gardening and what are our goals

 what is Biointensive gardening

 history of BIointensive gardening

 potential of Biointensive gardening

 Bio-intensive Gardening is based upon the following 1. Deep Soil Preparation/Double Dig U-Bar 2. Composting/Nutrient Maintenance/Carbon Efficient Crops 3. High quality seeds and seedlings /planting by the moon 4. Bed preparation/composting and fertilizing/Close plant spacing 5. Watering 6. Companion Planting 7. Calorie Efficient crops 8. Planning/Rotation 9.whole system approach

* does this system fit our goals? building soil, local, efficient, low water, low cost

1. why we are gardening and what are our goals ask students, place all ideas on board. cover carbon sequestration, creating highly mineralized highly microbial soil, highly functional rhizosphere, nutrient dense food, super-efficient, small spaces, low cost, local, highly productive, low inputs, low water…. 2. what is Biointensive gardening

 Bio-intensive is a strategy based on a set of quite specific techniques, suited to those looking for a super-efficient, low input, high output system of growing food in any situation, that were developed over 1000’s of years by indigenous peoples originally who understood the patterns in nature ( Laws of Nature) and how to work with them to achieve long term regenerative results, and more recently the science of

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how the laws of nature work e.g. *Recycling deficiencies will not grow high brix food, not maintain or reclaim our health or regenerate soil

 Biointensive gardening seeks to work with the laws of nature….

 Techniques include... deep soil preparation, close plant spacing, specific bed preparation, growing carbon crops, composting, growing specific calorie crops, crop rotation and using heritage seeds 3. History of Biointensive Growing, and World situation today

 Ancient civilizations that grew soil and were great civilizations

 story of Bio-intensive growing goes back 4,000 years to China, 2,000 years to Greece, (noticed how well plants grew in landslides, loose soil allows more air, moisture, warmth, nutrients and root penetration) 1000 years ago Mayans, ... French Intensive 1700’s 1800’s in France, and the work of Rudolf Steiner, and Allan Chadwick in the 1920’s and 30’s and so…….

 Allan Chadwick... developed system in France... combination of French Intensive and Biodynamic

 John Jeavons Chadwick Student 1960’s... over 40 years of research now

 In a world where we are losing 6 lbs. of top soil for every lb. of food we eat, where we have around 33-40 years’ farmable top soil left,

 in a world where we have lost over 85% of the minerals in the soil since 1920’s, and where the nutrition in our plants is related to the minerals in the soil

 In a world of peak everything, and an age when individualism is king we are challenged to be working together to find solutions.

 In a world where human health is seriously challenged

 In a world where Gardening is a bit like eating, we have grown up thinking we can do whatever we like, we know best, and if the food is not in the garden we can always buy it.

4. potential of Biointensive gardening

 The Bio-intensive system has potential for

 67-88% reduction in water consumption

 50+%reduction in fertilizer costs

 94-99% reduction in energy costs

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 100% increase in soil fertility .. increasing humus and carbon sequestration

 200-400% increase in caloric production per unit of area

 100% increase in income per unit area Not a panacea must be used properly as a whole system… using parts of the system can destroy soil very fast

5. Bio-intensive Gardening is based upon the following (throughout this short description stay focused on how this system is efficient, and builds soil and nutrient dense) Deep Soil Preparation When laying out beds keep in mind full sun shelter water contour 1m x 1m ensures minimum mini climate Dig only when soil is evenly moist (early morning or evening which is best for less loss of soil organic matter) Too wet the soil will be compacted with loss of soil life too dry and structure will be lost also losing soil life Check by holding soil in your hand and squeeze, if it crumbles too dry if too hard to penetrate with spade or sticky, too wet Double digging *classic double dig * complete texturing double dig * U Bar Dig only when you need to… to maintain soil structure whilst growing soil health finishing bed preparation, shaping, feeding, composting,

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Compost/ Plant Nutrition/ Carbon Efficient Crops Carbon Efficient Crops Plan to plant half of your garden each season in carbon efficient crops such as mature corn, sorghum, grains, sunflowers Jerusalem artichokes, lupins, alfalfa, broadbeans cardoon, globe artichokes (e.g. 10 bed garden - 5 beds in summer in carbon crops and 5 beds in winter in carbon crops total 10 crop beds of carbon crops refer to Compost You will produce more cured compost per unit of material with which the pile is built when follow 45:1 to 60:1 mature (plants that have gone to seed and then gone brown) :immature ( green) ratios, rather than 30:1. A 60:1ratio provides far the most efficient results in terms of humus production.

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Compost Ratios

 At 60:1 the pile may heat to 57oC in first two weeks but then goes from 49oC to ambient and cures slowly

 These heaps have more efficient decomposition, less oxidization, and up to 30% more cured compost than in a 30:1pile

 They also have in the end a wider range of microbial life present

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 45:1 2-2.5parts mature; 1-part immature; 1/3-part soil

 60:1 2 ½ -3 parts mature;1/2-part immature; ¼ part soil Use composting materials higher in lignin (found in plants with tough stems that will withstand high wind) (e.g. cardoon, sorghum, sunflower, corn, mature lupines because they are the most carbon efficient decomposers) * when lignin decomposes it is transformed into complex structures that protect and store carbon, nitrogen and other structures that are then gradually released * piles built with highly ligneous materials will have greater amounts of slower releasing carbon and nitrogen in them Compost made using 45:1 ratio achieves twice the vegetable production of 301 and 60:1 twice as high again refer to Biointensive sheet #4 Making Compost: Patterns a. Size of heap… minimum size ensures you have volume to insulate the heap so that curing is possible. o minimum volume 1m x 1m x 1m o optimal 1.6 x 1.6 x 1.2 high o maximum 3m x 1.6 high and any length you like b. Immature vegetation contains metabolic carbon c. Mature vegetation structural carbon together these two kinds of carbon make 90% of the volume of the heap d. Top soil is 10% of the volume of the heap using soil increases the effectiveness of the heap.. holds temperature down, helps prevent temperature spiking and release oxidation of carbon/nitrogen and microbes. Helps hold minerals in the humus produced Making Compost: Process a. Mark the edges of your heap with bamboo or similar poles to keep the sides of the heap straight up and measurements accurate b. Ensure the ground is moist, not bogy or hard as concrete c. Use fork to loosen soil. (facilitates proper drainage/moisture levels/aeration) d. Make yourself a stick with marks up it to 1.3 m high, to use as a gauge when building the heap. This will save you measuring everything that goes on the heap in volume amounts (buckets) to get the ratios right. It is far easier to use a stick to measure the thickness of the layers going on. For a 45:1 heap mark the stick at the following distances above ground level. 10cm, then in layers of 8cm, 3cm 1cm 8cm 3cm 1cm repeated until you reach 1.2m high. For a 60:1 heap begin again with a mark 10cm above ground then in layers of 12cm, 2cm, 1cm 12, 2, 1 repeated until 1.2 m high.

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e. Place a 10cm layer of rough vegetative material eg corn stalks, sunflower stalks, parts from last heap that didn’t decompose like corn end stalks with roots on them, over the moist forked loose ground f. 5cm layer of mature vegetation then moisten when you ring with two hands 1 drop of moisture comes out no more! g. 7.5cm layer of immature vegetation and moisten h. 1 cm layer of soil and minerals moisten I. Continue until 1.2 m high Refer to Biointensive sheet #5 j. Watch moisture levels, super carefully after every layer added, moist as a wrung out sponge, a drop or two too much moisture means less air flow and anaerobic. not enough makes decomposition difficult... getting the moisture wrong could ruin the heap so take your time to get it right!! k. Cover compost in wet or hot weather l. Measure/monitor temp, moisture levels aeration, colour and smell watch heap go through two stages. heating then cooling and curing, m. Stop before stage 3 mineralization takes place. *when most of original material and ingredients unrecognizable * smell fresh and woodsy like spring water * material dark brown or black soft and crumbly Our heaps are looking very good, we kept the temperatures slightly over 50o C maximum and going through the stages compost goes through. We had to water them over the summer, to keep the moisture levels right. We will continue monitoring our heaps and keep you in touch.

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High quality seeds and seedlings /planting by the moon Open Pollinated Varieties Special seeds to save to maintain diversity include: Heirloom Varieties- handed down between generations Local Varieties – grown in one region for many generations. Often hard to find out who brought them to an area Seeds brought into country by Recent Migrants

High Brix seeds Raising high quality seedlings, depth of seed trays, seed raising mix, glue on roots, seedling spacing, watering feeding

Bed Preparation/ Composting/Fertilizing/Close Plant Spacing * Shape of bed, arc of a circle, no steep sides gives an integrity that makes big difference, or flat top with compacted sides. very specific process and steps to create * 1-2cm compost every time a bed is planted. if compost is not highly mineralized add fertilizer as well. * See seed packets or master charts in Kay’s Garden Planner, or Koanga garden Guide 2015 edition, for appropriate diagonal spacing 1. Watering Always water with hose or rose etc. pointing into the air Water falling under gravity has negative charge like rain and does far less damage to soil, more easily absorbed by plants Look for shine to know when you have put on enough water Amount of water that needs to go on s in relation to amount of carbon in the soil.

Synergistic Planting vetch under winter brassicas flowers herbs squash beans corn lettuce carrots beetroot onions lettuce on shady side of bean trellis’s rotations natural guilds use pendulum use intuition observation

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Calorie Efficient Crops High levels of calorie per sq. m Jerusalem Artichoke, parsnip, kumara, potato, onion, garlic, salsify, scorzonera leeks

Planning/Rotation of Crops Summer: heavy feeders- pumpkins, tomatoes, peppers, greens, etc. light feeders- roots and legumes- carbon - corn carbon light - legumes- amaranth, millet, barley,

Winter light feeders- roots and legumes carbon - oats, winter grains etc. carbon- lupines tic beans, broad beans heavy feeders - all brassicas, celery, lettuce, greens

Whole System Approach critical to apply this system in all its parts, not just use parts of it, could lead to degrading soil very fast … discuss all the ways that make this system efficient Books /Resources The Sustainable Home Garden - John Jeavons How to Grow More Vegetables Than You Ever Imagined Possible - John Jeavons Koanga Garden Guide - Kay Baxter Dig It DVD Koanga Booklets * Beginner Gardener * The Art of Composting* The Koanga Garden Planner Ecology Action Booklet Grow Your Own Fertilizer

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Tools and Equipment to have ready before beginning this workshop -the proper tools will make the work easier and more productive for seedling propagation * transplanting trowel * dibber/widger * seed trays (following sizes in Books above) * seed raising mix that does not contain fungicides, does contain high quality * compost vermicast minerals and microbes for soil preparation and bed maintenance * D handled flat spade * D handled fork * hula hoe * rake * digging board * U Bar optional For compost making * finished compost (to see what we are aiming for) * fertilizer according to soil test (to raise Brix’s) * high carbon plant material (grain stalks, sunflower stalks, Jerusalem artichoke stalks, * globe artichoke stalks, oats, grain stalks, lupines sawdust etc.) * nitrogen (all weeds and green material) * plant material chosen for its accumulated minerals e.g. oats (calcium and phosphate) * seaweed (contains a full range of minor minerals enzymes and growth promotants etc.) *bone dust (burnt bones and shells) *lime (calcium carbonate) * iodine (stock iodine from Farmlands etc. ½ cup diluted through each heap) * Nature’s Garden (right minerals in right relationships in commercial form) * other possible fertilizers * thermometer

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T29 - T30 - Forest Ecology and Forest Gardening

Course Description: This course explores patterns appearing in natural and man-made forests, regarding: the physical layout of a forest and its vertical layers, wind, temperature, precipitation, fertility and nutrient cycle, succession, diversity and integration. As well this course will explore strategies and techniques based on the observed patterns used for: better wind effects, higher precipitation, more comfortable temperature, building soil, fire protection, cropping and animal farming and more. This course will focus on understanding the patterns and developing a design process. Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to demonstrate fundamental knowledge and competency of: • Describe the physical layout of a forest. • Explain the effects of trees on wind, temperature, moisture, and precipitation. • Describe the fertility/nutrient cycle and the succession in a forest ecology. • Explain the concept of diversity and integration, and give examples of man-made systems. • Outline uses and design for shelterbelts. • Outline patterns and strategies for fire control. • Outline patterns, strategies and design process for forestry, fodder and tree crops, including forest gardening. • Familiarize with the detailed resources needed for designing a forest garden. • Explaining the various ways to establish a forest garden.

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Describe the physical layout of a forest. . Forest edge, forest interior, abrupt edge.

. Vertical layers

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. Explain the effects of trees on wind, temperature, moisture, and precipitation. . Slow wind (edge trees protect the rest) . Push wind up – x20 the height of the forest . Screen dust, aerosol, salt, etc. . Moderate temperature (evaporation cool at day/ condensation warm at night, seasons, wind) . Moderate moisture of wind and in general . Increase precipitation (mostly by condensation and evaporation) . Protect the soil from rain drops . Slow and soak water flows . Increase condensation (bringing water availability to much more than precipitation)

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. Describe the fertility/nutrient cycle and the succession in a forest ecology. . Die and decompose or get eaten . Rain . 20% soil 80% atmosphere (air flows/ wind) . Pioneer plants and increasing succession . Legumes . Chop & drop . Ratio of different plants during succession . ‘The Lost Language of Plants’ pp.178 Iron Wood Guild

. Explain the concept of diversity and integration, and give examples of man-made systems. . Connect to the idea of the Iron Wood Guild . The Kazakhstan apple guild . More resilience: . Disease . Climate . Technical faults . higher productivity: . Better use of resources (nutrient, sun light, water) Networking, sharing, unlocking, and different usage . Diverse yield

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. Outline uses and design for shelterbelts. . Porous wind break: . Allow 40% of wind through (stand at right angles to check) . Filtered, Sheltered effect (Too dense = similar to dumper wave) . Ideal for crops, pasture livestock etc. . Dense windbreak: . For strong winds . Provides full protection to valuable assets (stock, house etc.), but area reduced. . Angle leading edge at 65° (ie. Small, medium, large shrubs) . General windbreak design considerations: . Situate 90° to prevailing winds . Note tree flagging (direction of persistent winds.) . Full protection to 10 x Height . Partial protection to 25 x Height . If out in the open, Length of W.B. must be at least 20 x Height . Keep stock out (create wind tunnel) . Complex net design for variable wind. . Effects: . House heating costs reduced 20-30% in moderate to severe winters. . Reduced productivity on edge (competition?), But overall production - at least 10% increase . Crops and Fruit  Blossom and fruit set 25%  Evaporation decrease (hot winds decrease)  Decrease in abrasion - leaf damage - insect attack . Livestock  Pasture production 10% increase  Shade = improved feed conversion (cows won’t ruminate over 32°C)  Cold wind protection: o Decreased energy requirements o Decreased death of new-born . Other effects  Dec pest transport  Dec spray drift  Inc predatory birds  Inc fire protection  Dec wind erosion  Inc stock feed;  Inc fertiliser and mulch

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Multiple Functional Design: e.g. mulch (casuarina), bee nectar (dogwood), sugar pods (honey locust, carob), fodder (tagasaste), pest predator habitat (dense flowering native shrubs), wildlife habitat (zone 5 planting) . Outline patterns and strategies for fire control. . Burns uphill fast, downhill slow . Protect valuable infrastructure with: . Fire breaks i.e.: Roads, Marsh, Dams, Orchards, Short grazed strips . Fire retardant species (red tipped photinia, coprosma, agapanthus) . Fly wire under house eves. . Balls for gutters and fill with water . Sprinklers from dam or tank with diesel pump (not electric) . In ironbark country (burns every 30 years) need a bunker (hole in ground with narrow entry, tin roof, 1-2’ soil covering. . Outline patterns, strategies and design process for forestry, fodder and tree crops, including forest gardening. . Alley cropping - Desired crop inter planted with compatible species for beneficial interconnection. i.e. . Wind protection . Chopped for mulch or fodder . If a legume = nitrogen source . Agroforestry: . Quote from David Holmgren - “In a low energy future, the wealth of nations will be measured by the quantity and quality of their forests. Timber will once again replace steel, concrete, aluminium, plastics, and other composite materials as fossil fuel energy decreases. This will only be possible if we grow these forests at least a generation in advance. Few realise that it will be the capacity of forests to store carbon as structural timber and fuel which may allow humanity to be sustained by renewable resources in a low energy future.” . Permaculture forestry:  Diverse planting for stability  Yield spread over time  Reduced risk of disease decimation  More options at market. . Coppicing and pollarding . Coppicing: cutting plant near ground, which then re-shoots. If for timber, manage 1 of the shoots, as for young trees. . Pollarding: same as coppice, but leaving a pole 3, 4, 6, 10m which will eventually be harvested for timber. Top section = mulch, fodder, firewood etc. in meantime. . Fodder . Mentioned in Alley cropping and windbreaks . Can be planted for:

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 Quantity o Seasonal Supplement o Drought fodder bank  Quality o High protein supplement (often ripen late summer = autumn feed low) o Small amount of green = less dry feed consumed . Examples:  Wet temperate >600mm o Tagasaste (dry leaf = 24% protein) o Willow (fast recovery from coppice) o Poplar o Honey Locuste (17% protein. 1pod/cow/day)  Dry temperate 300 – 600mm o Tagasaste o Salt bush o Mulga (Acacia aneura) o Carob o Acacia saligna . Fire wood . Anything that grows fast . Coppiced trees ideal. If not managed = many trunks at 150mm = no splitting required . Slow growing – hardwood – high temp last longer in fire / fast growing - soft wood – low temp kindling. . Orchards: . Interplant Nitrogen fixers for mulch and fertiliser. . Permanent groundcovers (comfrey, nasturtium, nz spinach) . Maximise flowering components to attract pollinators and predatory insects (umbelliferous and compositae varieties), insectivorous birds (kniphofia spp, fuschia spp, echium fastuosum, salvia spp, dense prickly native shrubs) . Pest repellent and masking strategies. . Use of animals ie geese, tethered goats, pigs, chickens, ducks . All together with forest gardens: . Layout and layers . Nutrient cycle . Diversity and integration . Guilds . Nutrient budgeting . Chop & drop . Possible yields: fruit, berries, greens, tubers, meat, eggs, fibre, honey, firewood, etc.

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. Step by step:  Wish list  Site and microclimates  Total area  Max 50% heavy feeders  Nitrogen fixers and potassium accumulators  Mineral accumulators  The rest of the wish list . Familiarize with the detailed resources needed for designing a forest garden. . Online plant database . ‘Design your own orchard’ . ‘Design your own forest garden’ . Koanga database . Tree nursery catalogues . Relevant books . Explaining the various ways to establish a forest garden. . One go: earth works, seeds, plant all layers . Section by section all at once . Bottom to top succession . Top to bottom with animals

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T34 - Growing Nutrient Dense Food

Course Description: This workshop will give you an understanding of what nutrient dense food is, and how to test your food, using a refractometer, to see how nutrient dense it is. You will learn how our food communicates with our bodies, and how the strength and clarity of that communication largely determines our health today and for our children and grandchildren tomorrow. You will then learn some key principles behind growing nutrient dense food, and how to use that understanding and information to design your best way to grow nutrient dense food using your choice of a range methods from brought fertilizer to doing it all yourself via the compost heap, and the biochar burner… and more... You will get to see how the Koanga Institute is doing this in a practical way.

Learning Objectives: Defining nutrient dense food Theory of Using a refractometer Understanding why we need nutrient dense food Understanding Weston Price’s research and findings connecting a nutrient dense diet to health Understanding the principle ‘environment determines genetic expression of Epigenetics and how our food communicates with our bodies via the junk DNA Understanding what our current situation is re nutrient dense food Understanding some key principles of Biologic Ionization, or how a healthy cell grows. Understanding Crop Health Transitions Develop appropriate ways for us to grow nutrient dense food in our own gardens, including short medium and long term solutions involving brought in fertilizer, biochar, soldier fly farming, worm farming, compost making, foliar feeding, carbon cropping, choosing specific crops to sequester needed minerals, making our own fertilizers etc.

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Define nutrient dense food

 Ask the students to do this Theory of using a refractometer • The true measure of the mineral supply coming from the soil is the sugar content of the juice of those plants. • Brix testing determine the nutritional density of most foods, and the sap of plants. Plants assemble out of water soluble minerals through photosynthesis anything from simple sugars to hormones and complex fat chains. They are the so called sap solids. • The higher the plant sugar content, the higher the previously absorbed amount of minerals, the higher the nutrient density of the tested plant. • The refractometer measures the dissolved solids in the plants sap. The unit to measure is called BRIX (One degree Brix is 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution and represents the strength of the solution as percentage by mass) • Those solids are sugars, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, proteins, hormones, and others. • When plants are grown in soil with balanced and high fertility, the BRIX reading of the plant sap and juice of the produce is significantly higher than the same plant grown in less than ideal conditions.

Why nutrient dense food

 Weston Prices work and findings… connections between diet and health o Indigenous peoples were getting 10x fat soluble vitamins and 4x minerals in their diets o Sacred food = high content of Vitamin A

 Epigenetics ‘environment determines genetic expression’ Only 3 elements of our food that we know communicate with our ‘junk’ DNA… fatty acids, vitamins and minerals The clarity and strength of that communication determines the clarity and strength of the tags that are placed on our DNA which determines how it expresses. Nutrient density of the food is determined by brix and how the food is processed

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What is our current world situation re access to nutrient dense food Connection between minerals levels in soil and mineral levels in food quality/mineral and vitamins in our diet

 Healthy environment  Healthy soil  healthy plants + healthy animals  healthy humans. Situation with seeds - hybrid seeds - enzyme blocker = unable to pick up key minerals Situation with glyphosate

 Glyphosate: is the world’s strongest antilife. It is a heavy metal that is highly reactive. It will bind to any reaction partner, in other words to every mineral around it. The connection is irreversible. Absorbing all minerals leaves plants without the energy they need to function. If no other minerals get applied, the plant dies. Dangerous is the habit of glyphosate to travel through living organisms on its journey of killing life through starvation. For plants it will travel from the soil or the leaves through the whole plant and take place in every process of metabolism happening and make itself home where ever it wants. The same happens for animals that consume glyphosate contaminated food. The implication for us is, as we are the end consumers, we uptake the accumulated sum of all the previous links in the food chain. Glyphosate ends up in our bodies as well and continuous with what it is best at: kill life.

How do we get nutrient dense food Choose our diet... follow indigenous people’s principles discovered by Weston Price…... another workshop Choose nutrient dense food sources or learn to grow them

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Understand the principles of Biologic Ionization or how a healthy cell grows Bill Mollison “It’s not good enough to be well intentioned, we must be well informed” Nourishment Home Grown Creation is the putting together of light/energy into matter. If we study this we discover how healthy cells can be built in plants, animals or humans and how to supply that healthy cell with the energy needed to sustain it on it’s frequency in a best functioning condition. Once we know that we can co operate with nature/creation through laws/patterns that build healthy productive gardens, farms and body temples! The fundamental building blocks are the basic atomic elements as described by traditional science in the Periodic Tables. These elements combine to form various molecular structures that make up all biologic life. These elements all have certain chemical, physical and electromagnetic properties. These properties are expressions of energy that are contained within the atoms of these minerals. This energy is available and exchangeable in the growth process of plants and animals (and humans!). The plant uses 84 different minerals. When any of these are missing or in short supply, or when something interferes with its proper uptake, or combining into organic plant structure, the plant will begin to experience deficiency. If the deficiency is prolonged or severe enough, the symptoms will manifest as plant disease or insect problems.

Carbon The Moisture Regulator: Humus holding minerals and water • Carbon can hold 4 x it’s weight in water. • The lower the carbon the less water can be applied at a time. • Carbon forms the basis of your soil’s mineral energy savings account. It holds onto soil nutrients until plant roots can use them both before and after bacteria work on them. Ideal level is 10% soil weight.

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Nature Follows the Line of Least Resistance The greater the mineral content in the top soil, the less the resistance in that soil and the greater likelihood the current will stay flowing in the soil. The greater the mineral content within a plant, the easier it will be for the plant t have electric current flowing in it. It will have better magnetism or attraction for more mineral energy. Therefore, the plant will draw in more electromagnetic energy and be a top quality plant in every aspect

The Importance of Calcium • Calcium is used by weight and volume more than any other mineral element. The result of all the functions of calcium is the manufacture of amino acids for the making of plant protein and human food. • Thus the more calcium that is transported into the plant, the greater the plant’s ability to attract nutrients out of the air- chiefly carbon dioxide, nitrogen, potassium and magnesium. • available calcium and available magnesium need to be in a ratio of 7:1 • Calcium is the most critical mineral, and the one that is most likely to be missing • Levels not as critical as ratio Phosphate Controls Sugar Content • Phosphate, the phosphorous-oxygen complex, is the carrier of the mineral from soil to plant, also the catalyst in the sugar making process, called photosynthesis, that takes place in the leaf of the plant. • Water and oxygen are brought together in the chloroplast during the heat of the day to make crude sugar. Phosphate is the catalyst for the process. The mineral elements carried in the phosphate, are left behind when sugar is formed. This is why the higher the sugar, the higher the mineral content. • Available phosphorous : potash ratio 1:1 garden and pasture 2:1 • Implications of not having phosphate in the soil. Minerals go into plant in nitrate form, low brix, low level carcinogenic • Phosphorous usually low, or locked up Phosphate is like the usher at the wedding

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Getting The Ratios Right! • The plant uses 84 different minerals. When any of these are missing or in short supply, or when something interferes with its proper uptake, or combining into organic plant structure, the plant will begin to experience deficiency. (Law of Minimum Justice Von….)

 If the deficiency is prolonged or severe enough, the symptoms will manifest as plant disease or insect problems Energy Release • Plants live off the energy release from the elements interacting as the elements synchronize in ionic molecular form in the soil. The interaction of the minerals within the soil solution is similar to the reaction seen when putting vinegar and baking soda together.

Understanding Crop Health Transitions Stage One • Adequate sunlight, air, water, and the right minerals in the right relationships, creates an efficient photosynthesis process where plants absorb carbon dioxide from air, water from the soil and with energy input from the sun begin producing plant sugars... Carbs! • Initially simple sugars, monosaccharides, fructose, glucose and dextrose. • As this process evolves, more complex sugar, polysaccharides, begin to develop. Cellulose, lignin, pectin, and starches which are structural and storage carbohydrates and they are produced in greater quantities as plants become healthier. • ‘Pathogens’ alternaria, fusarium and verticillum cease to be a problem at stage 1. Stage two • As photosynthetic energy increases plants begin to transfer greater quantities of sugars to root system and to the microbial community in the rhizosphere. • This will stimulate them to mineralize and release minerals and trace minerals from the plant matrix in a plant soluble form. • Plants then utilize these essential minerals as enzyme co factors which are needed to form complete carbohydrates and especially proteins • Soluble sugars, monosaccharides, when partnered with nitrogen are base materials used to form amino acids, - insect food-

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• Through the action of enzyme catalysts, these amino acids are bonded together to form peptides, from which complete proteins are formed • Stage 2 gives plants resistance to larval insects, corn earworm, cabbage loopers and leaf miners Stage Three • As photosynthetic energy efficiency increases plants develop a surplus of energy beyond that needed for basic growth and reproduction of which up to 70% is translocated to the root system • Next the plants begin to store this as surplus energy in the form of lipids (plant fats) in both vegetative and reproductive tissue. Vegetative omega 3 reproductive omega 6 • Lipids are needed to form the phosphor-lipid cell membrane. As lipid levels increase, the membrane becomes stronger and more resilient and more resistant to fungal pathogens, mildew, blight, scab, rust, fire blight and bacterial spot. • This will not happen without a functional rhizosphere Stage Four • Elevated lipid levels are then used to build complex plant protectant compounds, essential oils for protection from climate change, UV radiation, insects and herbivores. • These compounds are called terpenoides, bio- flavanoids, carotenes, tannins and they contain anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties as well as digestive (enzyme) inhibitors • Once plants reach stage 4 they become immune to insect attack, beetles etc. • Based on an article by John Kempf of Advanced Agriculture Middle field Ohio

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How do we grow Nutrient Dense food?

 So we’ve learned a few principles, perhaps some of the key ones, we’re on the journey… Time to enter a design process and use everything we know to create some sensible strategies for our situation based on an understanding of the principles involved and a knowledge of the local patterns involved It All Comes Down To The Minerals and the Microbes • The more we can hold carbon in the soil and get the minerals in the right relationships, the more potential there is for interactions for both the building up and breaking down of mineral compounds, the more microbes we can feed and the more energy there is released that is available for plant growth Step 1 Strategy * Managing and improving plant sap sugar levels Technique

• Learn to use a refractometer

• Regular times during day e.g. 1:00 after lunch

• once a week minimum

• Always rub for same length of time (around 2 minutes)

• Always pick leaves from the same place on plant and from several plants

• Note weather

• Check for sharp or blurry line

• Check again ½ - 2 hours after applying minerals

• Keep good records Step 2 Strategy * Understanding the physical properties, (the patterns) of your soil Techniques * V.S.A. soil assessment guide * Soil tests Reams (what’s available to plant roots), Bio Services, use power point and walkthrough analyzing a soil test Hill Laboratories (what’s available in the soil) • Healthy Soils

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Step 3 Strategy Create 50% air space in your soil for strong root and anaerobic microbe growth Techniques- • double digging, appropriate implements behind tractor?

Step 4 Strategy • Create ideal or as close to as possible moisture levels in soil to achieve excellent root and microbe growth Techniques: • increase humus • carbon levels • irrigation Step 5 Strategies: To achieve high levels of carbon and humus to hold water and minerals, and microbes Techniques • Composting 60:1 rather than 30:1(make a compost heap) • Biointensive • Carbon crops • Biochar

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Step 6 Strategy * Right Minerals in Right Relationships, and then up to recommended levels …. if we use low brix material to make our compost we are recycling the deficiencies... won’t grow high brix food……. Techniques (Transition/ sustaining)

* Blocking the leaks... food scraps, humanure, paper, cardboard, bones, • Mineralized Composting (refer to The Art of Composting) see examples • Burn bones shells to ash or biochar and recycle ( show then this process) • Choosing specific compost crops... oats and lupines for us, calcium/phosphate • Returning humanure, via compost, soldier fly farms • Biochar, bones, tree prunings ideal... one year’s supply from ¼ acre supplies biochar for entire site each year (make biochar. Or watch somebody else doing it) • Black Soldier Fly (check it out) • Bringing in fert. based on Reams soil tests • Learn to make our own fertilizer vi chicken scratch yard • Mineralized worm farms • Biosol, Biofert (links to recipes) see it in action if possible • Use salt water, seaweed, fish waste, milk, leaves, iodine • Harvesting biomass from some other appropriate perennial situation e.g. wetland

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Step 7 Strategies Support Strong Active Microbe populations Techniques • Getting the minerals air and moisture levels right • Compost tea (make commercial compost tea and test plants then apply test again) • Compost (make tea with own compost and test results) • Seedling inoculant (check out plant roots when grown using inoculant) • Combo12 Koanga Balance • Vermicast... (put vermicast soil test in power point) • BD 500 • BD Cow Pat Pit • Raw Milk • Molasses, fish, seaweed, Recommended reading • Nourishment Home Grown A.E. Beddoe • Growing Nutrient Dense Food K. Baxter

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T35 – T37 - ANIMALS Principles/Patterns

Usually we start with ethics and values first, however we’ve decided to bring forward the discussion on principles and patterns first, as this enables us to distinguish between ethics based on ecological principles and those based primarily on metaphysical considerations. Then if you wish to include metaphysical considerations these can get overlaid on top of what we see as the primary permaculture ethics and values.

The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers.

 Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain.  Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores.  Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.

Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

 Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers.  Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.  Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.  Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.  Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain.

As we go from level 1 to level 5, there is decreasing energy available, and decreasing biomass/numbers In between levels most energy is lost as heat.

All natural ecological systems are essentially an evolved guild of all trophic levels. In attempting to design by mimicking natural systems we are best to copy the natural template – synergistic guilding of ecological components, that finds all components both competing

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for energy and nutrients, establishing their strengths in holding their niche, and co- operating with other species that hold different niches. These evolved guilds are biologically diverse, resilient and sustainable, provided no major shocks are encountered. If there are major shocks, then usually the system is thrown into some level of chaos and then re- establishes a different equilibrium based on the new conditions.

Here are a few other principles and patterns to keep in mind

 As animals get bigger, they are less efficient at turning food into product eg rabbits convert plants into meat more efficiently than cows.  EROEI for cold blooded animals/fish is higher than for warm blooded animals (less energy required for keeping warm)  Animals are a potent source of energy in both producing products from food we can’t digest (eg grass) and also harvesting and centralizing production This is easily forgotten when we have large amounts of fossil fuels available, a condition that will decrease as the profitable availability of these decrease.  Animals adapt and evolve with specific ecologies, we need to match animal use with our particular ecology.  Like plants, animals require a full complement of minerals in their diet. When minerals are absent or unbalanced then the result is disease. Most diseases can be attributed to nutrient deficiencies and/or climate/ecological mismatch.  While we are often called upon to treat the health of individual animals, it is often most useful to focus on the productivity/health of the flock or herd rather than the individual animal. This can be addressed both through genetic selection and environment enhancement  Animals have distinct social patterns (needs), and a large part of stress free management of animals relates to understanding and having compassion for these patterns.  Zoning will have a big influence on which animals we use, and how we feed them.  Animals transfer nutrients. Can be used to accumulate nutrients for fertilising

Ethics/Values

Our major ethic is to value and respect the patterns in natural ecologies.

Everything has intrinsic worth. All indigenous cultures understand the need to respect the whole web of life. Our industrial culture (which has only been around for a very short time) often focuses on the exploitation of chosen components of the whole. This is a type one error that degrades the whole.

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Strategies Zones 1 and 2

In Zone One we tend to use small animals in pens or cages, and bring food to them, or let them out on a managed basis into Zone two. Important to understand their nutritional and habitat requirements, as you are wholly responsible for meeting them. (reference books)

Rabbits and guinea pigs are good example of a Zone One animal.

Chooks can thrive in Zone One and Zone Two. In some cultures goats, sheep, cows, pigs, and camels etc are kept in Zone One, with feed brought in, as well as them being led to forage in Zones 2, 3 and 4.

In all cases we are designing guilds

Strategies Zones 3 and 4

Zones Three and Four are largely about free range foraging, and management of that forage. In our ecology this is mainly about free range of sheep, goats and/or cattle, for meat or milk. Permaculture design in this situation is mainly about

 providing a wholistic food source (range of species and rooting depths)  choosing appropriate genetics  providing the structures required to manage the foraging in a wholistic manner.  Understanding the best way to manage the animals and provide their needs  Designing guilds that minimise our input of energy and use the energy outputs of the animal to do much of our ‘work’.

Strategies Zone 5

The wilderness zone. Animal productivity is largely about

 managing hunting to maintain numbers and breeding  providing food sources to facilitate hunting  managing the commons  Understanding the natural guild, and how we can manage it with the least use of energy

Some Well Known Guilds

 Chooks/forest gardens/food scraps/comfrey patches/worm farms soldier fly farm.  Cows/goats/forage trees/seed bearing trees/chooks  Cows/pigs/ nut trees/forage trees  Beef cattle/sheep/goats/forage trees  Ducks/rice/azolla/fish  Pigeons/lofts/garden fertiliser  Guinea pigs/household scraps/ garden fertilizer

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Holistic Management/Grazing

Context:

We are not livestock farmers, we are grass farmers. Maybe we are not even grass farmers, we are soil and sun farmers.

In the Industrial livestock farming model farmers take carbon from the plants and the land and release it into the atmosphere. In the process degrading their soils and the environment. How can we shift from Degradation Farming to Regenerative Farming? With Holistic Management and planned grazing we can now sequester carbon back in to the soil, enhancing the soils and regenerating the environment. In this process we are building up the fertility of the land, creating a more productive and sustainable model for raising livestock/ grass.

Patterns:

Co-evolution of large herbivores and grasslands.

In nature we see large herds of grazing animals. The pressure from predators in this evolved ecosystem modulates the behaviour of the herds.

 They are large herds– safety in numbers.  They graze in dense herds – “Stay close everyone, I heard wolves last night.”  They move frequently – “LION, EVERYONE RUN!!!!”

These herd behaviours are exactly what the grassland is asking for.

 Large herds – exert pressure on the soil and plants and stimulate regrowth, helps to break of hard caps on degraded compacted dry soils, increases seed exposure to the soil.  Dense grazing – uniform grazing of all the plants as well a uniform spread of poos and wees as fertiliser back into the soil. Some of the plant material is trampled into the soil, where the microbes are able to break it down and increase organic matter helping to build hummus. (When dead grasses are left standing they break down through an oxidation process.) The trampled plants also provide shelter for the soil by providing ground cover to protect from the sun and evaporation, absorb the impact from the rain drops that can cause compaction, slows the flow of surface water and reduces erosion.  Move frequently – No overgrazing, sufficient residuals are left behind. The residuals provide protection for the soil. Plant residuals are left long enough to provide enough sun capture for the plants to stimulate rapid regrowth.

Mother Nature is not a Monocropper.

In healthy grasslands, ranges and prairies there is a wide diversity of plant species.

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 Legumes – as nitrogen fixers.  Cold and Warm Season grasses – spread the ideal growing conditions around throughout the year.  Tall plants have deep roots, shallow plants have shallow roots – Help distribute water and nutrients and build soils structure at all levels working symbiotically with each other.  Diverse micronutrient and mineral take up – using everything in the soil and providing a balanced forage for nutritional requirements of the animals.  Wet and dry tolerant species to inhabit all the microclimates.

Face it, Humans are part of nature

Conservation and regeneration efforts which try to isolate nature from human influence tend to fail. Being non-influential is impossible anyhow, so we need to be conscious of our influence.

 Elephant culls – Savoury’s experience with trying to manage National Parks and reverse desertification from “overgrazing”. A powerful moment in the world for learning better about what management actions were actually needed. More animals, not less.  Yellowstone wolves – Ranchers hunted the local wolves to extinction. The ecology of the western states fell apart. No predator pressure changed the grazing habits of the wildlife. Now that wolves have been reintroduced through human efforts the behaviours of the large herds again are back to what the plants in the landscape need. Positive impact on the entire ecology.  Grass-fed sheep and beef in New Zealand – The expectation that it’s a natural thing for the beef or beef to just be out on the hillside munching grass and everything will work out fine. The results is a eroded landscape with much of the minerals and soil washing away to sea.

Ethics:

 Sequester Carbon – By sequestering carbon to the pastures of the planet we can help to balance against the human carbon emissions aspect of the climate equation.  Provide a path out of the “Ridiculous Agriculture Model” - Make it financially viable for Regenerative Farmers to manage and recover land. Increase their soil fertility and raise healthy livestock. In the planning for Holistic Management the needs of the wildlife are often taken into account, providing a system that supports the wider ecology.

Principles:

Where do you start? Not with the production system, but with your personal goals.

Techniques:

Relationship between the pasture and the animals:

 What is growing, what can be grown  Timing, peak nutrition at peak demand, returns up to 90% back

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 Midpoint of the growth cycle is where we aim to keep the grass  High Stock Density

Rest and Residuals:

 Dividing big land up into little paddocks.  Could use fixed fencing but that limits your ability to respond dynamically to conditions, and animal needs.  Spend a day, half a day, spend a few days.  Determining the area of your paddocks to ensure sufficient residuals left behind.  Length of the residual needs to be determined in response to the demand and the season. Varying it can be good. Long residuals encourage tall deep rooted plants. Repeated short residuals stimulate better forage in the long term.

Protection and Regeneration of the Soils

 Building fertility  Building hummus  Building minerals

Seasonality and Stocking Rates: (maybe fits above?)

 When are the nutrient needs of the stock the highest (calving)  When is the capacity of the pasture at its highest, spring and autumn? Will you have sufficient stock numbers to manage the grass at the time? (can be dealt to with timing calving, or bringing in more stock etc?  define stocking rate vs stocking density

Do a Visual Soil Analysis test

Go and look at the pastures, count out how many days of rest certain paddocks have had. Compare to River Block

Our successes. Talk about our plans. Our need to be improved.

References:

Holistic Management - Allan Savory

Management Intensive Grazing – Jim Gerrish

The Small Scale Poultry Flock – Harvey Ussery

Natural Sheep Care – Pat Coleby (and other relevant Pat Coleby books)

Any of the many Joel Salatin books

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Poultry – T36

Purpose/Context The purpose of the workshop is to: Give a broad understanding of a generic design pattern, and a management system, that can be applied to any small poultry/egg farm, providing a family or a small community with nutrient dense eggs. Ethics / Values 1. Integrated permaculture design 2. Holistic management 3. Regenerative soil management 4. Comprehensive balanced nutrients for plants and birds 5. Nurturing environment for birds and farm workers 6. High quality eggs 7. Use of on farm energy Principles 1. Chooks are omnivores, not exclusive grain feeders 2. Chickens require a low fibre high protein diet to lay well 3. Principles of Biological ionization (Beddoe) 4. High brix food required for good nutrition of chooks and people 5. Environmental needs of reliable laying hens include optimum water, warmth shelter, nutrition and light 6. Human nutrition requires optimum nutrients ( Vitamins, fats, omega 3 omega 6 (1:1) etc. 7. Environment determines genetic expression 8. Breeding. If you select for 1 characteristic you change them all 9. Principles of line breeding, must have wide enough genetics and be able to choose from wide enough base each year

Patterns (recurring characteristics) Feeding? nutrition - grain production is energy intensive - perennial and wild crops recycle a wider range of nutrients than annual crops - self feed sources require less work by us - chooks will self-select food according to their needs /desires - the higher quality food they are receiving the shorter the moult

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- comfrey is low fibre and is able to provide 60% of a chickens protein needs - wild birds (sparrows, turkeys, minors) and rats will eat a large percentage of the chickens feed if given the opportunity. Don't feed on the ground unless protected - chickens need unlimited access to clean water - poultry given humates in water will utilise their food more efficiently - laying hens need high levels of live protein to lay a lot of eggs - chickens need fresh clean water, shelter and warmth to do well

Behavioural/genetic Patterns - chooks have to be kept out of gardens - chooks hide their eggs - chooks always have a moulting period in late summer/autumn - chickens need full light to lay well - chickens can be happy in far smaller areas than ducks - chickens need to be able to scratch - bossy hens get the most food if feed troughs or access is not designed well - chickens bred in, and coming out of, industrial systems may not do well in a regenerative system - chickens provide mineral rich manure (phosphate and nitrates in particular) - chickens hatched in October will come onto the lay before winter, hatched later will not, hatched earlier also not as good - ducks need wide area of high quality pasture and wetlands to remain laying without being fed - chickens lay more eggs in their first season than following years 200-100- ?? - Chickens can reach far higher in the orchard to pick fruit and even get up into trees, with wings clipped possible to get into low branches - Light breeds require higher fencing than heavy breeds

Breed patterns

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- different breeds have different characteristics regarding management, outputs and productivity eg heavy breeds lay brown eggs, are more relaxed, better around children and strangers, lay less eggs.. light breeds lay more eggs, white eggs, more flighty and sensitive to noise. - Different breeds do best in the ecological niche they evolved in ie some do best on heavy soils, some on light, ducks in wet - Light breeds are the best Spring Summer layers (leghorns, golden campiness etc) - Heavy breeds are the best Winter layers (wyndottes, orpingtons etc) - The best chickens are raised from 2 year old hens - 1 rooster is required for every 6-8 hens - 8 hens and 2 roosters is a minimum sized flock if maintaining the breed is to be achieved - to maintain a strong line through line breeding with chickens around 80 chickens need to be hatched, from a minimum of 8 hens and the best two roosters chosen each year and the best 4 hens to replace half the laying flock. - Be aware that choosing your birds because of name of breed is not enough… need to get them from a breeder that has bred for egg production not just breed stanadrds

Health and safety - chicks hatched and reared in an environment high in healthy microbes will grow faster and healthier - chicken flocks can be devastated by ferrets, stoats and weasels - Hawks frequently attack chickens and full size hens, trees within close range help protect them - Chickens fed whole grains and sprouted grains and or other natural food do not get intestinal worms -Chickens that are fed pellets often get intestinal worms - chickens are susceptible to getting scaly leg and lice - in traditional societies WAP found eggs were regarded as sacred food

Strategies - choose breeds that have actually been bred to lay very well on a nutrient dense non industrial diet, that are good foragers, capable of finding their own food

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when it is there - buy from the best breeders, fertile eggs from best breeders - if looking for egg production choose light bodied breeds - build a house using local materials the keeps the chicken in full light, sheltered and warm - build a house that has a scratch yard, that is kept covered and dry/moist so that it grows lots of insects, microbes and fungi, and chickens can be feeding and scratching whilst shut in for egg collection - place a diatomaceous earth bath in chickens scratch yard - build a house that keeps out predators - sprout grains - nixtamalise grains - ferment grains - seaweed supplement - plant comfrey around outside of scratch yard so they self-feed, if permanently in a scratch yard - design a diet based largely on live protein plus free range - design for a diverse range of protein producing feed - maximize insect population growth by designing a forage system that creates food and environment for insects (food forests) - find a feeding system that keeps the wild birds out - measuring egg production as a basis for genetic selection - ensure clean water daily - always feed chickens in a container of some sort. That gives equal access to all chickens - selectively breed for our own condition, ecology - develop skills of observation

Techniques - use Brown Leghorns, or Legbars for maximum egg production - develop a soldier fly farm to provide soldier fly larvae to feed chickens, feed soldier fly left overs to worms fed with comfrey, rabbit manure, chicken manure, kitchen scraps , egg shells, pigeon loft manure

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- grow worms for chicken feed, using in situ inputs, soldier fly farm waste, adding minerals - have a maggot bucket system that provides fresh maggots on a daily basis through as much of the year as possible, fed with road kill, or any poultry offal etc, - plant a large comfrey patch large enough to provide 60% of chicken daily protein requirements, chop up in chicks feed - if you have free draining soil, plant alfalfa patch, and chop up in chicks feed until they eat it themselves - chop up tagasaste leaves in chicks food to train them to eat those (high protein and balanced minerals) - feed chickens minerals if food is not high brix -add iodine to water, add molasses in winter, add humates or biochar dust to water - design water container so it cannot be contaminated by manure - recycle egg shells - feed chickens 3% of their food as biochar

References: The Home Poultry Flock ...Harvey Ussery Koanga Chicken Booklet (out 2017)

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Bees – T37

Goals To establish an apiary that will produce top quality honey and wax in a way that maintains bees in a state of high health, in the most efficient and simple low cost way Brief History of Beekeeping *over many thousands of years until today in some places swarms have been collected and placed in skeps made of straw, mud, fired clay, osier, and wood. It appears that in European countries bees skeps were essentially vertical hives and in more tropical countries they were tending to be horizontal hives. Bees were killed at end of season and honey and wax collected, or in some cases honey taken and bees left * while our population was relatively small world wide compared to today, most of us lived in villages, our environment relatively strong, and we continued to have large numbers of wild bees, the skep system worked relatively well, although often barbaric ! * after second world war all around the world we find industry developing based on growing cities and consumer demand and suddenly beekeeping became part of an industrial process requiring standardization, maximum profit for maximum number of manufacturers, bee health and health of environment or people not considered important, new ‘ethics’ Warre considered Dadant (Frenchman who made foundation!) and other removable frame hives to have the following characteristics: *best hives to create business, work, profit for manufacturers *allowed use of extractors *requires more wood *bees having to constantly adjust temperature, weakens them *constant checking and adjusting of hives weakens, more chance of infection *increased hive volume disadvantage to bees *wax foundation expensive (over $1 per sheet) *wax foundation not ideal size for bees *no advantage in honey production to give foundation *bees not making own foundation weakens hive in several ways *need more bees to populate Dadant hives, takes longer to get return *more work to keep frames useable and clean *additional boxes must be added on top at right time, more work for people problems for bees

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*bees use more honey in winter *bees ceaselessly thwarted in intentions forced into over exertion, less resistance to disease and beekeeper wastes honey * around same time various beekeepers looking to find solutions, something better than skeps and better than removable framed hives with industrially produced foundation of less than ideal size, too large volume boxes…..Voirnot, de layens, Congres, Warre, others in Europe Warre set up research station 350 hives of all kinds and spent 30 years watching to see what happened, he established the patters that work for bees, same as Bill and David established natural patterns in forests and reams in Soil and ?? in grazing for soil carbon etc etc Some advantages of the Warré hive include: *Retention of nest heat and scent; better control of temperature and humidity *Comb built freestyle regarding cell-size and proportions of worker/drone cells *Far more natural conditions, thus bees much less stressed and therefore less prone to disease and excessive consumption of honey *Brood nest constantly moving down onto fresh comb *Comb renewal is automatically an intrinsic part of the annual cycle *Swarming risk reduced because lots of brood nest space always available *No costs of frames, foundation or queen excluder *No opening the hive for weekly inspections in the swarming season *The hive need only be opened in the strict sense once a year at harvest as at the spring visit boxes are added underneath without letting out hive heat or disturbing the bees *No sugar feeding, bees left adequate honey store for winter (12 kg), therefore time and cost saving *In the modified Warré hive described here, the beekeeper can observe growth of the colony through the rear window

Some criticisms that have been made of the Warré hive include (together with our response): *Limited access to brood comb for inspection. Response: bees like to work undisturbed in seclusion. *Honey stored in comb used once for brood; not relished by some. Response: forest organic honey is also obtained this way. It is the traditional way.

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No re-use of comb for the next honey crop so much nectar wasted in drawing of new comb each season. Response: the queen gets to lay on a constant supply of fresh comb. With care, new (white or yellow) fixed comb of boxes from which bees have been driven for one reason or another can be reused. *Harvesting more difficult -- no frames to remove and spin. Response: Using Warré fixed- comb cages, combs cut out can be spun tangentially in cages if desired. *Splits, artificial swarms and a whole host of other common manipulations allowed by framed beekeeping are difficult if not impossible. Response: The most essential beekeeping manipulations are possible with the Warré hive; others would be ruled out as unsustainable or bee-unfriendly. *Somewhat more difficult to administer thymol or oxalic acid Varroa treatments and possible higher risk of residues in honey. Response: Evidence from Belgium and France where Warré hives have a longer history shows that they have Varroa burdens about one- tenth that of framed hives in the same apiary. Many Warré beekeepers are managing without acaricides. If necessary, thymol could be used after the honey harvest in early autumn. The colony should not be disturbed in winter, which is when oxalic acid would normally be administered. *Possibly higher pollen count in honey; honey potentially more turbid. Response: If the honey is extracted in fixed-comb cages this is no problem. If it is extracted by mashing and draining or by pressure, comb with significant amounts of pollen can be excluded, the honey from these being used for feeding bees.

We must base our strategies and techniques on these patterns if we are to achieve our aims

Design Process Ethics: -Everything has intrinsic worth life ethic -care of earth, care of People, sharing excess

Principles: *everything is connected *take care of the whole and individual parts will be taken care of *environment determines genetic expression

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*if bees are provided with an ideal environment, they will be ideally healthy and produce honey that will be able to ideally nourish humans and other animals Patterns *brood nest temperature ideally 35oC *lowered brood nest temp affects bee wing morphology, delays transition to outside tasks, subtle influences on brain, deficiency in learning and memory, more susceptible to tracheal mites and other diseases *in nature combs are hermetically sealed to top of cavity, and fixed to walls. retains nest ecology *renewal of nest air by diffusion and active fanning by bees occurs only through openings between the combs at the bottom of the nest.. under bees control *anything done to undermine nest heat is at expense of increased activity by bees (affects bee health and cost) * hives in well insulated but breathable homes performed best *300 x 400mm frames x8 is the best volume for health of colony, swarm size, allows more honey above cluster, facilitates development of brood in Spring, ideal area to keep warm, makes bee work less, approaches most closely hives in trees * bees cross over honey with difficulty *bees always build their own comb, and choose how big the cells are, and how many drones or workers there will be * bee colonies are designed to always replace their queens with the strongest queen of many mated with the strongest male of many Strategies *Top Bar Hives both vTBH and hTBH * add honey boxes under brood boxes, rather than on top of * limit colony density to match environment, rather than maximum production only *ensure bees always make their own comb, instead of supplying foundation…….. * limit intervention as much as possible.. instead of constant intervention Techniques *width spaces between middle of top bars most closely matches that found in nature *Top bars in (vTBH) with a wax thread or line mean comb will be built uder top bars making it possible to manage our hives so that they can be inspected

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* in hTBH the wax line makes it possible to remove the frames and constantly adjust frames to divide hives or harvest honey to avoid swarming

If we operate out of Permaculture ethics, have a clear understanding of the principles, make a big ongoing effort to listen to the bees, and others who have studied bees, and begin to see how the ‘laws of nature’(patterns) in relation to bees operate, then we will be able to make intelligent choices around how to build and manage our own hives, (strategies and techniques).

Legal Situation *all hives must be registered with MAF Biosecurity so that they can be inspected for AFB etc * it is possible to get permission to inspect your own hives, they have a system for training and qualifying beekeepers …. you just have to ask

Management (strategies and techniques) 1.Apiary Site ….Colony density……..observe and mimic natural patterns! * level site for each hive, possibly slightly forward, best on recycled concrete pad * hives not connected * bee flight path not across people paths or roads etc * colony density feral with no managed 7-70 per sq kilometer, totally depending on environment * seems to be possible to have far more but may be more reasons than availability of nectar and pollen that affects density eg health * 100 hives in an apiary with 2km foraging range means 10 colonies per sq km * infestation of mites coincides with high stocking rates * in USA feral hives co adapted with varroa exist at 1 colony per sq km

2. Beekeeping procedures * Smoke, some use it some don’t, always use sparingly, always use natural substances for burning, Hessian, dried cow dung, ghee * listed on p 80 of Warre really useful for beginners

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3. Observation …learning to notice what is happening at hive entrance each day will eventually tell you just what is going on in the hive. * bees flying out with direction and purpose and pollen coming back in tells us that the queen is alive and well and laying * number of bees relates to relative strength of hive * bees forming a beard outside hive ay means either too hot in hive or getting ready to swarm

4. Spring visit in Warre hive * notice weight of boxes .. do they need feeding * clean floor * add empty box(s) *choose cold way warm way for bars * feed fast if necessary using top feeder

5. Populating hives *natural swarms, spray water to make them settle then smoke and catch in box * artifical swarm, follow instructions in Warre * buy a nuc

6. Varroa treatment ideas * epigenetics health of environment * ability to check situation without constantly disturbing bees * must keep mite fall under 30 per day to get away with ‘soft’ options for control * over 100 per day have to use chemicals to save the hive * formic acid * oxalic acid * cell size * oiled cords * drone foundation in and out

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* thymol wafers ‘Apivar Life’ * beekeepers forum ideas: 10g of thymol crystals 10 drops of tea tree oil Olive oil, say 25 ml Sunflower oil, say 50 ml One or two pieces of bees wax (walnut sized) Two or three teaspoons of fine sugar (icing sugar) Thirty 50mm (2 inch) lengths undyed garden string (eg. hemp)

The only things I measure accurately are the thymol and tea tree. The rest is a bit like my cooking; never comes out twice the same. Gently warm the oil and beeswax until the beeswax dissolves and then add the thymol crystals. Stir to dissolve these. (They smell strongly, so do not touch them with your hands.) Cool and add the tea tree (it will evaporate if the mix is too hot). Then add the sugar and stir. The mix will turn lumpy and sticky at this stage. The consistency should be that of soft butter (the spreadable from the fridge sort). Place the pieces of string in the mix and coat them thoroughly. Use enough string to soak up all the mix. This makes enough to treat 3 hives once each provided that they are not heavily 'mited'. I generally repeat after about 10 days and will do a third 10 days on again if the mite drop is still high. (The ten day timing is not crucial.) The treatment is most effective when the bees are active and the weather warm. The dosage rate is about 1/4 that of commercially available thymol treatments and much more effective in my experience. To apply, move the top bars apart enough to push two pieces of string down between each. The string, being sticky, will catch on the face of the comb. That's fine. Do this for 5 or so bars in the centre of the brood nest (10 strings in total). If the mite load is very heavy, a double dose will still be less than that in commercial treatments. Over time the bees will chew at the string and throw it out of the hive entrance or push little pieces (finely chewed) through the mesh floor (looks like brown candy floss). In addition to the direct effect of the oils on the mites, I suspect that the bees also groom each other, as they don't like the smell of either tea tree oil or thymol. In this regard, I suspect that the olive oil and sunflower oil also play a role as they contain oleic and linoleic acids which in insect terms is the smell of death and is what triggers the undertaking response in bees. The sugar is there to give the gunk some substance that the bees can get their mandibles around - I've tried it without and it is much less effective.

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Remember that the aim is not to knock out all the mites, but to keep the numbers from spiralling out of control. I would be cautious about using the mix if I was due to be harvesting honey. Although thymol is said to break down fairly quickly in wax, I'd want to be sure of avoiding contamination of the comb. (Thymol does not dissolve in water.)

6. Direction to face hives 7. Splitting hives 8. management of horizontal hives

Fungi – T37 Typical goals

Most times we use fungi in permaculture systems is for 3 main reasons: 1. Food production 2. Filtering/ cleaning 3. Part of nutrient cycle – nutrient transportation

Principles/Patterns

3 main types of fungi relevant to our goals in permaculture:

1. Mycorrhizae - in symbiotic relationship with plant roots 2. Parasitic – lives on living plants, utilizing their nutrients and energy, usually cause death of the plant 3. Saprophytes – lives on dead matter, sometimes can act as parasitic as well

Oxygen – fungi 'breath' oxygen and releases carbon dioxide more similar to animals than to plants in that matter, fungi is actually defined as a separate kingdom in biology. Carbohydrates – most fungi consumes carbohydrates in the process of utilizing energy, fungi do no photosynthesise, and so most of its energy comes through dissolved molecules. Moisture – most fungi that is utilised in permaculture systems need high humidity and moisture in the medium it grows in for optimal growth and usually would go dormant if the environment is too dry.

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Temperature – most fungi would go dormant under 0c and is in optimum growth around room temp. Nutrients – fungi usually act as a principal decomposer in most ecosystems, and are often an integral part of making nutrients available to other species in a system.

Mycorrhizal fungi live in a symbiotic relationship with a plant, feeding it and from it. Parasitic fungi usually access nutrients and moisture from a plant or other living organism and consumes nutrients and grows in a way that can kill that organism, we usually call those pathogens or pathogenic fungi. Saprophytes live of dead matter, they consume it, decompose it, utilise it for growth, transport it to other plants Timing – seasons which affect the moisture, temperature, and light, effect the fruiting of fungi – mushrooms, different fungi fruit in different seasons, some could fruit year round in most places, some would fruit only in spring and autumn for example.

Strategies

Food production:

Not many edible mushrooms are mycorrhizal: Chanterelle, Truffles, Pine Mushroom, Matsutake, King Bolete and Morels are few common ones, usually we would be eating ones that have come from a wild environment as they are harder to grow. Some inoculate trees in labs with spores of these mushrooms, some inoculate existing orchards, some harvest seedling trees growing next to mother and mushrooms assuming that the seedlings would be inoculated, this technique has most success but is the one needing most resources and Is hard to do on large scale. Most mushroom production is done with saprophytic fungi, inoculating dead plant medium such hard wood logs, saw dust, leaf matter, mulched soil, pasture with fungi in the form of inoculated dowels, inoculated grain, direct spores.

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Harvesting of original spores on small scale is usually done by collecting spores from a fruiting mushroom using paper or glass, a mushroom can be put on paper or glass as well and let it drop the spores on the surface, the spores are then left to dry and once dried can be kept for many years. Some common varieties of saprophytic mushrooms and their preferred growing medium: 1. Shiitake - hardwood broadleaf logs, sawdust. (fruiting autumn and spring) 2. Oyster - hardwood broadleaf logs, sawdust, grain, corn cobs, straw, etc.. (fruiting year round) 3. Poplar - hardwood broadleaf logs, sawdust. (summer fruiting) 4. Field mushrooms – button - sawdust, grain, corn cobs, straw, etc.. (fruiting year round) 5. Portabella – compost. Production needs: Most mushroom productions needs similar conditions, these include: Shade – place logs/ other medium in the shade to avoid direct sun and loss of moisture. Moisture – keep medium moist 60-80% depends on medium and type of mushroom. Air flow – allow for good airflow to avoid other fungi and bacteria from taking over the medium Induce production: Change moisture level (by soaking and drying) and change in temperature to allow for optimum growth as well as to create 'stress' and a state of reproduction – fruiting.

Filtration: Some work has been done on using fungi to clean, consume, pollutants from an environment, many times oyster mushrooms have been used to clean oil spills, break down radioactive residue and more, these are deemed not edible at the end of the process, and is only a new field for further exploration. Fungi can be used in filtering farm and industrial pollutants such as excess nitrogen and phosphate if placed where water table reach near water ways.

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T39 - Seeds

A Manifesto for Seeds

By Woody Wodraska, Aurora Farm

We are seed users, seed eaters, seed growers...all of us. We have been wrapped in a world of seeds for eons, since long before agriculture was thought of. In hunger we ate the bird that ate the seeds; in happy accident we brewed the beer from spoiled and worthless seeds; in unwitting service to the plant we transported its seeds from place to place on our trouser cuffs. We slobber over ear corn and eat our Wheaties. It's in our language: We are of our parents' seed, our ancestors' seed, Adam's seed ultimately. We are born into, thrive in, die in, a seed sowing, seed garnering heritage. To deny sacred status to these capsules of memory and consciousness, these enfoldments of life we call seeds, is to court foolish disaster. We have always known this.

But...now they're messing with our seeds. The power grabbing corporations and their government flunkies propose in their arrogance to Irradiate... manipulate... defructify... genetically and spiritually violate, monopolize and further disrespect our ancient birthright, our real wealth, SEEDS. We are strong when we have seeds. They who would enslave us use as leverage the seeds we cherish, the seeds that nourish us. What we would pass on to the seventh generation as bridegift they seize as strategy. They would put a price on the priceless and sell it back to us. Do not let them delude you about their sophisticated seed bank in the high arctic. Seeds are not preserved by freezing them and locking them away from growers; they are not saved inside mountains and behind bank-vault doors. Hide your weapons of mass destruction there, or your bullion, if you will, but our seeds hold life which does not thrive in such places. If you would keep a seed forever and increase it—grow it out. Surrender it to soil and warmth and moisture; wait for the miracle of a plant; hold the hope of fruition and one seed becomes many—even millions. Then give them away.

Leave our seeds alone. Leave our seeds in the hands of the people who feed us...the family, the clan, the village group. The profession of "seedsman" was created only 130 years or so ago. Perhaps it was an aberration to try to centralize a process that had before been disbursed in clan and village gardens, homestead gardens, middens and small fields. Grandmothers and Great-uncles collected, watched over, cherished the seeds that came down to them. Grew them out with love and patience and infinite care. Grandmother's seeds... grandmother's blessing...passed from generation to generation. Reckon three generations to a century and 150 centuries in the history of agriculture and you have several hundred generations of seed gathering folk, seed saving grandcestors, passing on precious seeds to descendants. There is memory encapsulated in this line of life stretching so far back. Feelings are there too...feelings of gratitude to Gaia, of holding dear, of well wishing to the future generations, feelings of faithfulness...feminine feelings.

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The memory is right there in the seed, and in our cells, in the mitochondrial DNA passed down the feminine line. When I touch my seeds I tap the memory that is there, ancestral wisdom almost lost, beaming itself into our consciousness just when it is most needed.

John Trudell said: "It's about our D N A. Descendants Now Ancestors. We are the descendants and we are the ancestors. D N A, our DNA, our blood, our flesh and our bone, is made up of the metals and the minerals and the liquids of the earth. We are the earth. We truly, literally and figuratively are the earth. Any relationship we will ever have in this world to real power--the real power, not energy systems and other artificial means of authority-- but any relationship we will ever have to real power is our relationship to the earth." (1)

Seeds are concentrated wealth. Seeds are worth far more than we pay for them now, in the nursery or hardware store. You can pack in a suitcase ten thousand dollars worth of garden seeds in any variety you choose. The slavemasters and their propagandists would have us believe that money is power and, since they have plenty of money, that they are in control. They don't want us to have that suitcase, to be free to leave and plant elsewhere; or free to stay and plant many gardens, feed many people with real food.

If we are staunchly of the Earth, her power is ours to neutralize and transmute the evil work of the authority-mongers, those without conscience. We can do this with life enhancing actions. Repeat. Life- affirming actions can override and overwhelm the lifeless. Always the great stone temples of the arrogant become topsoil for living systems. It's something the corporations and governments fail to appreciate. Their authority rests on entropic processes—explosions, coercions, cultural lies. They cannot take into account the power of life, the connectedness of life. They would have us forget where we come from... so we can be entertained and exploited and addicted to their cheap dream, their gadgets and their ersatz food. If we are staunchly of the Earth we have access to the strength of the generations, the ancestory, to help us put life-affirming ideas and actions in the places where death-dealing had been. We can REMEMBER from where our power comes. Let us plant gardens. Let us plant trees. Let us tend cows.

Our weapons are our tools... our ammunition is our seeds... our fuel is our sacred intent to do right by the future of life on the Planet... our marching song is the thrumming of memory in our cells.

We march in concert, but we do not march en masse. Our aim is not to dominate or overpower. Rather, our aim is service. Each of us has a plot of earth to serve, our own nature spirits and devas to consult...intuition that speaks in us...we know how to surrender to the requirements of the task, of plants and soil, in order to earn our harvest. We bow to

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the task in joy and service, each individual one of us mustering pure intent, a gutsy laugh, with the power of life upholding us.

Join Wendell Berry's Mad Farmers Liberation Front. No dues. No meetings. You just have to be pissed off enough to be clever. Don't be depressed, be clever.

Let us be clear. There is no money in this, only sustenance. This passing forward of DNA on family or clan level is a matter of right livelihood, not of commerce.

And right livelihood brings joy. If I can feed myself, my family, a few others perhaps when surplus appears, then I have done something REAL.I am in touch with my power, and my delight. I am creating my part of the story.

JOY...What if the picture that's been drawn of peasant life as, "Nasty...Brutish...Short" is a cultural con job put out by the rationalists and the materialists, the ones who shortly would have something to sell us? What if life on a subsistence level has joys and satisfactions as well as challenges? What if people had time to laugh and sing? What if there were still people in the world who could catch the memory of this and show it to us?

A friend tells me about life in the Philippines, far back on the rural islands...tells how, when two rice threshers or donkey drivers meet and begin to talk, they're laughing most of the way through the conversation. There is something boisterously entertaining about what is going on in their poverty-stricken lives.

John G. Bennett wrote of an encounter in Africa: "Following a lightly trodden path, I came upon a Basuto village. All the inhabitants were out hoeing mealies. Their ages must have ranged from seven to seventy, and they were singing and hoeing to the rhythm of their own music. As they saw me they all stopped and stood straight up in surprise. Then with one accord they began to laugh. I have never heard such laughter. It was pure joy and friendship, without malice and without thought. I joined in, and we all laughed together for several minutes. I waved my hand and walked on, and they resumed their gravity and their hoeing.

"This was one of the unforgettable moments of my life. A lifetime's experience had convinced me that happiness is greatest where material prosperity is least. I had seldom seen a happy rich man, but I had seen many happy people among the poorest villagers of Asia Minor or Greece. I had seen happiness in Omdurman, but this happiness that I saw before my eyes was beyond all the others. Here was a village totally lacking even the smallest of the benefits of civilization. They had not even a plough or a cart. And yet they were the happiest people I had ever seen. They were without fear and without pride." (2)

They were without fear and without pride. The meek shall inherit the earth, for the meek remember who they are and where their power comes from.

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"Until now," said Terence Mckenna, "nobody has dropped the ball. Four times the ice has ground down from the North and four times our ancestors retreated before it. They were cold and wet and miserable. They suffered more than we have ever had to." In words to this effect McKenna honors the ancestory; our people carried on the story of humans on this Earth for all those millennia. Are we going to be the ones to drop the ball? Are we going to wimp our way to our own and the Planet's destruction?

We say "NO…enough!" That dream of the would-be controllers, that our spirit could be mined to fuel their extravaganza of wastefulness and meanwhile make ourselves complicit—by acquiring all the stuff they have to sell—that dream is bankrupt and soulless. We reject it for the fraud it is.

(1) John Trudell, on the occasion of a memorial service for Earth First! Activist Judy Bari.

(2) J G Bennett, Witness Claymont Communications

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T40 - BUILDING AND ENERGY EFFICIENT STRUCTURES General overview given in Comfort in Any Climate - Appendix E TEMPERATE Cold in winter and hot in summer (except by ocean where more moderated) Main aim:  During winter – keep cold out, keep warmth in  During summer – keep heat out, let cool evening breezes in

House proportions & window placement Layout ◦ No more than 2 rooms deep ◦ E/W axis 1.5 times longer than N/S axis ◦ E/W axis facing sun Room placement ◦ Bedrooms and those of little use to shade side ◦ Areas of high activity placed to sun side for winter warmth. (Kitchen, dining, living, study/office) Windows ◦ Eaves and windows ▪ Exclude summer sun ▪ Allow in winter sun ▪ Heat stored in thermal mass (slab floor, mud walls, water tanks) ▪ % window coverage, roughly the latitude of dwelling ◦ East side – small to allow morning sun ◦ West and Shade side – few windows ◦ Heavy floor to ceiling curtains, with pelmets, closed at night in winter ◦ Summer: ▪ Windows open at night allow house to cool, closed in morning. ▪ Exterior blinds to east and west prevent sun entry on very hot days

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Heating and Cooling ◦ Glass house on sun side (winter warmth, summer venting) ◦ Shade house at rear (draws cool air in summer, insulates against cold winds)

Insulation  Heavy insulation in ceiling keeps warm winter air in  If retrofitting, draught proofing & insulating walls & ceiling = 50% ¯ in heat costs.  Floors insulated (rigid foam 4-5cm thick)  Ground insulated to 1m in cold areas (ground acts as heat bank  Draught proofing on all doors  Double-glazed windows are better insulated

Vegetation  Deciduous trees and vines on sun side = summer shade, winter light.  Shade house at rear, mulched with sprinkler.

TROPICS – Moist air (humid) holds more heat The humid tropics are usually more prone to periodic catastrophe than temperate lands (except for fire). The only safe long-term house sites are:  Above the reach of tsunami  Sheltered from cyclone and hurricane tracks  Above valley floors subject to mud flow or volcanic ash flow  On ridge points or plateaus out of the path of rock or mud slides triggered by clear felling, torrential rain or earthquake  Inland form easily-eroded sandy beaches. Main aim  To prevent sun from striking the house  To dissipate built-up heat (humans, appliances, cooking) Hence, primary considerations are:  Shading the house  Orienting it to catch cooling breezes

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House design

 Elongated or irregular to increase surface area

 No solid, insulated walls to accumulate heat

 Often open plan style for air circulation

 Internal walls made of light material, stop short of roof to allow air flow

 Ventilation is essential: ◦ Window placement (vertical louvres act as air scoops) & air vents ◦ Shade house added to shade sided, with cross ventilation from solar chimney

 Wide verandas on all sides of house (can support vine crop) ◦ Subtropics – keep sun side open for winter warmth

 Vegetation shades house ◦ Tall canopy (palms) rather than dense branching ◦ Don’t completely surround (allows cool breeze in, prevents humidity build up)

 Heat sources detached from main structure (Hot water, stove etc.) ◦ Outdoor kitchen for summer use common

 Insect screens on all doors and windows

 Roof: ◦ Painted white or is reflective to reflect heat. ◦ Steep angle to shed water and withstand strong winds ◦ In hurricane areas, strong cross bracing and deep ground anchors necessary (bamboo groves provide flexible barrier)

 Hurricane cellar or stone-concrete core (bathroom) can be build inside or outside for emergencies. Windows and doors provided with strong wooded locks (drop in bars)

DESERT – Air is dry, doesn’t hold heat, cools down very quickly Similar to cool climate and sub tropics design (needs summer cooling & winter, or night, warmth)

Features of effective design in traditional Arid settlements:

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 Houses found in clusters in many traditional desert areas. Tall and narrow, shade each other.  Vegetation can do the same job where houses more isolated.  Cool courtyards in building interiors; narrow and tall to preserve shade  Air drawn from cool shaded areas using vents at roof level.  Evaporation strategies from water in tunnels; unglazed pots; tanks; fountains; bark mulch; Hessian ‘wicks’  Narrow East west streets maximised (shaded by tall buildings or trees); broad north- south streets minimised (aligned with winds).  Use of white painted massive walls as cool surfaces  Small windows; most light is indirect from inner courtyards  Towers; vanes and air scoops for ventilation systems  Cooking outdoors under shade trellis  Earth sheltered or underground housing, of various types  Vines on walls, over roof areas, gardens, storehouses  Roof area creatively used for drying crops, washing clothes, pigeon lofts.

Settlement siting  Most important factor is water harvest and storage  Thermal Belt ◦ Exists often 10 – 20m above peneplain ◦ Desirable because flat ground can become very cold at night  Narrow east-west wadis excellent sites (shaded, good water supply and growing conditions)

Underground and Caves

 Most desirable according to those who live in deserts.

 Ideal is in soft rock capped with calcrete or a hard impermeable layer.

 Large bore drills available in mining areas

 Hand tools and wheelbarrow will also suffice

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 Gutters built above cave, diverting water to stores

 Can include multiple rooms including cisterns for water store, fish ponds and citrus orchards (only tops of trees visible)

 Illuminated by: o Skylights (Fresnal lenses, surface mirrors, reflector mirrors and light guides illuminate corridors) o One end of house open to light (vines shade entrance)

 Good venting essential. (particularly volcanic sediments due to radon gas) Solar Chimneys

 Temperatures fluctuate about 5°C year round. Remain at about 25°C in Central Aust. Hot Caves  Entrance overhangs to catch air rising upslope

 Inner shaft on an incline to trap warm air

 Good for stock and grain store in winter Cold caves  Entrance placed in depression on hill side where cold night air pools

 Inner shaft on a decline to trap cold air

 Good for root store, books, machinery

 Sill is essential to divert water away

Earth Sheltered housing

 Where soils or stone won’t support caves o Provides benefits of underground dwelling, but avoids risk of collapse, flooding and seepage

 Construction: o Build like turkey’s nest dam above ground o Walls and roof concreted o Covered in earth o Entrance shaded with vines Surface Housing  Practical where flooding may occur and sediments unstable

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 Ultimate Cooling Device = Earth tunnel o Minimum 1m deep, 20m long, ideally slopes downhill o In tunnel: Large unglazed pots; pans of wet coke; coarse material kept drip fed

 Other cooling methods: o Internal courtyards (latticed or shaded overhead, or 2 storey building shades) o Extensive Fully enclosed vine, mulch floors, trickle irrigated (at least 30% of floor area to keep cool) Hanging ferns and house plants, fountains, & unglazed pots also help o Down draughts (prevailing wind directed through evaporative strategies mentioned above) o Induced Cross ventilation (solar chimney, air intake from shaded cool areas (10-15°C below ambient temp). o Attached shade house, garden and trellis integral to the design of the dwelling. (reduce climatic need for energy use whilst providing food)

 House design o Thermal mass to trap winter heat (edge insulated slab far more effective) o White painted exterior walls reflect heat o Long east west orientation allows winter sun entry o Glazing most useful to sun side: 100% cold areas, to 25% warm areas o External blinds on windows stop hot winter suns entering o Heavy roof insulation, with thick vines covering roof o Cool deserts – Glasshouse provides winter warmth; summer ventilation; early and late plant growth, food drying.

 Benefits of combined strategies above in third world: o Will save thousands of hectares of forest (reduced firewood need) o Reduced need for fossil fuels (financial strain) o Reduced illness due to smoky fires, cold and tiredness after cold nights Placement of Vegetation  Low westerly sun adds the most heat. o No windows placed here o Thick screens of vegetation, vines or turf banks placed here  Shade side of house – enclosed trellis built  East side – part shaded by deciduous trees or vines (can have small windows)

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 Deciduous vines on sun side prevent overheating during summer months. Home energy conservation  Solar hot water heater ◦ Grid of plastic pipe in soot-covered sand under glass ◦ Coil of pipe on a metal roof  PV cells provide electricity  Cooking from gas or firewood  Wastewater to firewood plantation (town waste supplies could supply all firewood supplies) House Water Discussed in Dryland strategies section, spouting from all roof areas to tanks.

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T41 - Appropriate Tech

Course Description: The effect of a broad range of patterns and strategies associated with energy and appropriate technologies.

Learning Objectives: At the end of this course, students should be able to demonstrate fundamental knowledge and competency of:

 Outline the key issues around energy and resource use and their sustainability

 Outline the context and best uses for hydro, wind and solar energy devices

 Explain the potential benefits of Bio-Char and outline technics for making and strategies for using it.

 Outline a range of appropriate techniques for water pumping: ram pumps, solar pumps.

 Outline a range of appropriate techniques for cooking/ heating: solar heaters and cookers, solar dehydrators, hot boxes, rocket stoves, bio digesters, gasifiers, etc.

 Outline some key issues associated with food processing and appropriate techniques, including grinding, pressing, butter churns, bottling, fermenting, storing

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Outline the key issues around energy and resource use and their sustainability . Outline the context and best uses for hydro, wind and solar energy devices . 1st- reduce use as much as possible (turn off, low wattage etc.) . Electricity is created by turning a turbine, copper wire passing a magnet creates the field, using a generator for example. Natural energies can also be used; situations are limited for each. . Hydro:

 A range of sizes available  Needs constant year round flow (excellent, cost effective option if available). . Wind:  Requires strong consistent wind.  Wind is intermittent, therefore it needs a battery system (limitations) . Solar:  Chemical process produces electricity from sun’s rays.  Stored in batteries  Requires regular observation and maintenance.  Life span 8-10 years even with careful management.  Grid interactive option available:  Main grid becomes our battery store.

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 Summer – Excess produced, Winter – more consumed (can’t store that long) design to high use in summer – cooling, water pumping…  Solar panels relatively expensive, but becoming cheaper.  Explain the potential benefits of Bio-Char and outline technics for making and strategies for using it. . The background of the ‘terra preta’ soils . The combustion triangle . main ways to produce char: . In a pit . TLUD – top lit up draft . In a retort . Japanese cone . Potential uses: . Soil amendment:  Charging  Application techniques . Building material:  Insulation  Plasters . Feed supplement . Fuel

. Outline a range of appropriate techniques for water pumping: . ram pumps

. solar pumps

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. Outline a range of appropriate techniques for cooking/ heating: solar heaters and cookers, solar dehydrators, hot boxes, rocket stoves, bio digesters, gasifiers, etc. . Solar heaters: . Batch heaters: insulated box, solar shower bag . Continues heaters: copper coil collector, black plastic coil . Solar cookers: . Box cooker . Parabolic dish cooker

. Portable cooker

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. Solar dryers: (air flow rather than heat) . Under the sun – on a sheet, fly screen, the roof . Flat solar drier . Cabinet solar drier

Hot box/ hay box

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. Gasifiers . Bio digester - basic process: . Organic matter breaks down anaerobically, producing methane. . Feed must be agitated to speed up process of sludge breaking down and flow to main tank and stop scum from settling on pond surface . Needs temperature of 25-30° C . In 20 days, very high % of mass transformed into methane. 1 m3 = 2.29kg of solids . Methane is trapped (weighted cover of plastic, metal, fibreglass), stored and used for:  Running a motor for electricity  Compressed gas for cooking  Compressed gas for running machinery  Does not lose much fertiliser value

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. Outflow into field with thick straw mulch = millions of earthworms = aquaculture or chicken production/ compost material. . One family’s waste = 1 light and 1 gas ring. If you want more, get a couple of pigs. i.e. light in bedroom and 2 rings . Rocket stoves: . The J - engine . Possible applications:  Mass heaters, Water heaters, Dryers, Ovens . The fuel

Outline some key issues associated with food processing and appropriate techniques, including grinding, pressing, butter churns, bottling, fermenting, storing . Hand/ bicycle powered machinery . Bottling – use heat and air tight/ fat . Fermenting – no heat, no air tight, nutrition . Cold storage . drying

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T42 – Toilets, Grey Water and Recycling

Blackwater = sewage (water from flush toilets) Greywater = all other used water (kitchen, laundry, bath, shower) What is Wastewater??? need a new paradigm

GREY-WATER (High water flow, low solids, moderate pathogens) Regulate what goes down the sink. Only put down what is biodegradable) Reduce use where possible Direct water into deep mulches, and healthy biologically active soils, or if necessary create artificial wetlands Discuss different examples of

 bio filters (separation of solids)

 field infiltration (incorporation/treatment of nutrients, pathogens, toxins)

 constructed wetlands (incorporation/treatment of nutrients, pathogens, toxins)

BLACKWATER (Low flow, high solids, high pathogens) Possible to omit through use of compost toilets, frequently not a preferred option Discuss different examples of

 bio filters (separation of solids) - primary treatment

 secondary treatment

 field infiltration (incorporation/treatment of nutrients, pathogens, toxins) - tertiary treatment

 constructed wetlands (incorporation/treatment of nutrients, pathogens, toxins) - tertiary treatment

 legal issues

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COMPOST TOILET Turns waste product into a valuable resource. Suitable where:

 No methane system is used

 Soils do not suit septic tanks

 Places that have critical water supply problems

Main design features of dual chamber mouldering system

 One chamber breaks down while the other fills and vice-versa.

 Ventilation pipe painted black

 Vent in doors

 Material sits on shade cloth on top of reo-mesh.

 Use coarse carbon material to stop compaction. (wood shavings better than saw dust)

SEPTIC TANK OUTFLOW Systems with adequate size and double chambers provide good breakdown of solids and last for decades without 'emptying' provide toxic inputs are avoided (household cleaners, laundry additives) Creative uses: ◦ Trees planted 1-2m off both sides (all fruit and nut will benefit) ◦ In clay and clay loams, will stimulate fruit production for 20m without any other irrigation. ◦ Biogas generator followed by pond with aquatic crop (for digester) to leach field.

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T45 - URBAN STRATEGIES

Property Design Lots of opportunity for creativity and ingenuity

Growing food

 Choose plants you are certain to eat, and use regularly. Herbs if space limited

 Garden Beds - Build up where paved (any container, toilets stacked up even)

 Energy efficient design (Plant stacking and tiering of beds, minimum path)

 Fruit trees (miniature fruit trees, espalier, multi-grafted varieties, in tubs)

 Use all vertical space (hanging baskets, pots on walls, hinged trellis)

 Reflection (white walls, mirrors where tall buildings surround)

 Sprouting seeds

 Old lady’s property next door who can’t garden any more.

Animals

 Worms for composting (good solution for steady small supply of material)

 Small quiet animals preferable (ducks, bantem chickens, quail, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons, bees)

 Aquaponics (fish water circulated through baths with very productive veggies growing) Water Use Catch roof water and runoff

 Space saving tanks

 Rubble filled swales double as contour paths

 Ponds provide aquaculture opportunity, habitat and microclimate Recycling grey-water – cheap and easy solution = mulch pits Reduce by using a compost toilet Use as much as you like on home gardens (water use in heavily mulched home garden is far more efficient than industrial agriculture)

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Reducing energy consumption Grow your own food Wear a jumper Retro-fit houses o Greenhouse and shade house attached o Solar panels o Solar hot water o Insulation o Increase thermal mass (water bodies) Recycling Resources (clothing, toys, sports equipment etc.) Food wastes Autumn leaves Newspaper Lawn clippings Microclimate Hard Rubbish collections

Waste minimisation Reducing landfill

◦ Recycle all organic wastes

◦ Purchasing decisions (wholefoods, durable items)

Town Planning Opportunities Waste utilisation (sewage = biogas, composting, Utilise community spaces (street plantings, parks, gardens, industrial areas): o Fruit and nut trees o Urban woodlot (income source for council vs energy sink) Planning for pedestrian, bicycle and public transport

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Community Strategies Removing fences Community gardens. Provide opportunities for:

 Growing space for those in high rise/ commission flats (often migrants)

 Common space but individual plots and equipment commonly used

 Common space and interest where people meet (Multicultural bonding)

 Exchange of seeds, plant material, recipes etc.

 Suitable where land is scarce

 Must gain a long term lease, no less than 30 yrs. City farms. Formed when 100 or more families lobby local or state authorities. 1-80ha preferably with a building. Best Bill’s seen are in England (lots of animals) Some common activities, most income generating:

 Community garden allotments (if space allows)

 Demonstration garden and energy saving techniques

 Domestic animals for demonstration and rare breed stock (often looked after by children)

 Recycling centre for equipment and used building materials

 Gleaning operations of surplus backyard street and market garden produce.

 Plant nursery & retail sale of seeds, books, plants, tools

 Children and adult activities: seminars, demonstrations, training programs, educational outreach to develop community skills.

 Technical teams to provide home energy investigation and fitting of homes with weather stripping for doors and windows

 Information centre on food preparation, insect control, nutrition, home energy topics etc Some essentials for success Lies in an area of need (poor neighbourhoods) Large local membership Offers a wide range of social services to the area

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 Child-care (with responsibilities on the farm)

 Adult education and opportunity Funding: Many have become self-funding from sales of g & s with modest membership fees. Government grants sometimes needed in the first few years of setting up. CSA (suitable where high-rise and rental accommodation exists) Allows people connection and relationship with their food source Farmer gains income security, more control over pricing. Booklet available from Friends of the Earth City orchards (central meeting point where excess produce is dropped off and received) Organic farmer’s markets School Garden Permablitz

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T46 - BIOREGIONAL STRATEGIES

Community v Self Sufficiency

 Early self-sufficiency movement

◦ Used to be boundless books in stores, now hardly any.

◦ Many tried but few have persisted – too hard, often burnt out, had separated themselves.

◦ Bill went into the bush, built a barn, grew food and said “So what? What have I achieved”

◦ Man does not live by bread alone.

 Changing Focus = Self-reliance within broader community – Bioregionalism.

◦ Su Dennet “It’s not what we do, but how we share with others”

◦ Rather than as single entities, connect and share.

◦ Specialisation = efficiency

◦ Don’t throw the baby [productivity] out with the bathwater [unhealthy, unsustainable, polluting consumerism]. This is something the green movement is prone to. What is a bioregion? A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that (a) share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics; (b) share similar environmental conditions, and; (c) interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence. What is Bioregionalism

 An approach to political, cultural, and environmental issues based on naturally- defined regional areas.

 Area usually based on a combination of physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics.

 Cultural phenomenon — with phrases such as "the politics of place" and "terrain of consciousness" appearing in bioregionalist writings. (Acid test of a bioregion is that it is recognised as such by its inhabitants. [Many people identify with their local region or neighbourhood and know its boundaries])

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 Places emphasis on local populations, knowledge and solutions. The bioregionalist perspective opposes a homogeneous economy and consumer culture because that culture ignores a dependency on the natural world. In 1983, E.F.Schumacher published ‘Small is Beautiful’, a collection of essays in which he expressed the un-sustainability of the modern world’s consumption behaviour and the need for a new outlook to prevent otherwise inevitable environmental collapse: "Ever bigger machines, entailing ever bigger concentrations of economic power and exerting ever greater violence against the environment, do not represent progress: they are a denial of wisdom. Wisdom demands a new orientation of science and technology towards the organic, the gentle, the non-violent, the elegant and beautiful." Bioregional movement seeks to:

 Ensure that the boundaries which demarcate political regions match those which demarcate ecological, or bio-regions.

 Become familiar with the unique ecology of the bioregion.

 Eat local food where possible.

 Use local materials where possible.

 Cultivate native plans of the region.

 Live sustainably in a way that is specifically tailored to the bioregion.

In the Designer’s Manual, Bill outlined the formation and benefits of setting up a Bioregional Association whose task it is to: Assess the natural, technical, service and financial resources of the region and to identify areas where leakage of resources (water, soil, money, talent) leave the region. Develop a database of resources for the area in: A) Food and Support systems; B) Shelter & Buildings; C) Livelihoods and support services; D) Information, media, communication and research; E) Community and Security; F) Social life; G) Health services; H) Future trends; I) Transport services; M) Appendices (maps, publications of bioregion)

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To compile case histories of the categories listed above of successful strategies from the area (sold) ◦ Criteria: Practical resources (people, skills, machinery, services, biological products) essential to the functioning of a small region, and assisting the conservation of resources, regional cash flow, the survival of settlement, employment and community security (Security here means a cooperative neighbourhood and ample, sustainable resources for people) Provide critical services and links to the categories mentioned. Serve as a contact centre to other regions - trade or coordination centre.

Bioregional governance.

 Few understand the significance of what could be.

 People in governments are scared.

 Some believe we could do away with all government.

 I would argue we need some form of leadership and decision making as we evolve, but a different form of government, one that’s accountable.

◦ If local people are elected, and known by all, they are far more accountable, and have more personal interest.

◦ “If the followers will lead, the leaders will follow” Bob Phelps.

 If local watershed is the boundary for example, industry suddenly becomes far more accountable too – they are directly poisoning their own people.

Bioregionalism in terms of social change. A very sensible approach if predictions of climate change and peak oil are true Leads to regions being far more self-reliant (including some trade with other regions) We can begin to prepare the structures for this to occur o Important to recognise – people don’t change until the cost of staying the same is greater than the cost of changing (they don’t change until they have to) o Understand this and don’t beat our heads against a wall o Our role, to prepare for that time when it happens – the structures exist for it to occur smoothly and efficiently.

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Ways of encouraging bioregionalism

 Set up a Permaculture group

 Re-developing cultural identities through local festivals, etc.

 Developing local seasonal calendars

 Local food co-ops, which in particular support local farmers.

 Money and Finance ◦ Lets system ◦ Community banks

 Setting up sustainable technology field days, ◦ A platform for local businesses ◦ Set it out like David Holmgren’s Permaculture flower around the oval i.e. forestry and milling products clustered, food growers clustered, alternative technology, farm machinery etc. ◦ Retained control

 Group Marketing organization s ◦ Many grants available in rural areas to encourage enterprise. ◦ Provides a conduit for new locals to join with small enterprises. ◦ Group marketing – like branding the local area. Books on stimulating local economic activity ‘Ripples from the Zambezi’, by Enista Sirolli Passion, entrepreneurship and the revitalisation of local economy Placed an advertisement

◦ If you have a good idea, come and see me

◦ Recognised, if they had a good idea, they often didn’t have the skills.

◦ Matched the idea with a marketer and accountant.

◦ Proved a great success.

◦ Then formed co-operatives

Manford Max Neef – The barefoot economist, Chile.

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ECOVILLAGES Ecovillages are intended to be socially, economically and ecologically sustainable intentional communities. Most aim for a population of 50-150 individuals because this size is considered to be the maximum social network according to findings from sociology and anthropology. Larger ecovillages of up to 2,000 individuals may, however, exist as networks of smaller "ecomunicipalities" or subcommunities to create an ecovillage model that allows for social networks within a broader foundation of support. Ecovillage members are united by shared ecological, social or spiritual values. An ecovillage is often composed of people who have chosen an alternative to centralized power, water and sewage systems. Many see the breakdown of traditional forms of community, wasteful consumerist lifestyles, the destruction of natural habitat, urban sprawl, factory farming, and over-reliance on fossil fuels, as trends that must be changed to avert ecological disaster. They see small-scale communities with minimal ecological impact as an alternative. However, such communities often cooperate with peer villages in networks of their own.

 Intentional Communities Problems – many have tried, few have succeeded The Land

 Cheap, marginal soils, too large in area

 Insufficient capital to finish project (often unrealistic view)

 Isolated and costly to farm.

The People

 Lack of realistic objectives and often idealistic (lack of skills, underestimate hard work involved)

 No forward planning and lack of overall design everyone agrees with

 No framework for decision making

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Title and Ownership

 Ill-defined ownership

 Banks wouldn’t lend to Multiple Occupancies (MO’s)

 The initial driver leaves and the whole project falls over.

Success factors of Intentional Communities THE LAND

 Soil fertility is good and smaller in scale.

 Limits determined as to how many people the land can support

 Tending to be closer to centres

 THE PEOPLE

 Only meetings to decide on work

 Trusting people in their area of expertise

 Clear structures to deal with problems when they arise ◦ Clear structures and rules defined ◦ What people give and what they get is clearly defined. ◦ Communal dining – those who eat together stay together. ◦ Thorough screening process when introducing a new member to the community.

THE TITLE Community titles act of NSW, Cluster titles Act in Vic. Mixture of private freehold and land in common. An eco-village requires lots of inputs when starting: power, roads, access to services, purchase of materials o A good alternative is to find a small deserted town and settle around this with likeminded people. All of the services are already in place including health, fire, police, town hall, markets, electricity, post office etc.

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TRUSTS AND LEGAL STRATEGIES Trusts in the public interest – legal basis on which many churches, universities and schools, research establishments, some hospitals, public services, aid programmes, and charities rest. Usually formed, operated and staffed by people (often volunteer originally) motivated to perform a public duty, or to assist a defined or special group in need. o Name’s often include the words: church, foundation, institute, communion, school, congregation, charity, bureau, trust or even company. If set up to trade, can include any suitable business name. Business administered by a trustee Trusts formed just to conduct business and trade, giving away their profits to named beneficiaries: o If individuals: gifts taxed as private income. o If charitable trusts or churches: not only not taxable, but also tax deductible to any giver.

Many large companies set up, and to some extent fund, non-profit organisations and charitable trusts as a means to reduce taxable income, to carry out educational services, or to obtain public goodwill.

Legally, trust body consists of: o TRUSTEES who administrate.

. Wise if very active in trust affairs

. Preferably live close in one region o TRUST DEED stating the purpose of the organisation.

. States purpose of the trust

. “will” of the trust (leaving assets to an allied trust if finishing operations)

. Estimation of duration (if intended to be forever, Bill’s example “until 21 years after the death of the last descendant of Ming emperors” or some such legally indefinable period” o Registered with the public company registrar

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Good reasons to make it a private company: o Directors need to be few in number (3-4 enough, can act quickly and decisively) o Company doesn’t die, unlike its directors

Setting up a trust o Closely define the:

. Purposes of the trust

. To whom it will apply (eg. “All Australians”, “Those suffering from spina bifida”)

. Instruct a lawyer to draw up the deed and register as a company.

 Possible to buy trust deeds of other ethical org’s, reducing costs.

Benefits of a charitable trust establishing a non profit trading (business) o Helps finance its activities o Can refund costs to volunteers, pay wages, and gift profits to the charity, or any other charity o Example of Permaforest Trust (Outland tree planting business financed the Permaforest Trust, all built on tax deductions) o Koanga Institute structure o

COMMUNITY LAND TRUSTS Discuss relevance to ecovillages earlier

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MONEY AND FINANCE

The Function of Money in an Economy

 Traditional systems of bartering & accumulating wealth

 Introduction of monetary systems by the Romans

 Money as an exchange medium, not a commodity

 Max-Neef's studies of the relationship between GDP and standard of living

Strategies for developing Economic Systems that serve Communities

 Bartering your surplus production

 Local Energy Trading Systems (LETS)

 Other local currencies - vouchers, coupons, tickets

 Co-operatives: food-buying, producer & producer-consumer co-operatives, equipment-sharing

 Community savings & loans societies, eg CELT, SHARE, using revolving funds for community development

 www.solari.com > Investment circles

◦ Catherine Austin Fitts, worked for the Bush Administration, dealing with $300 billion portfolios.

◦ Left and looked at more ethical means of lending, investment etc.

◦ At the top of the website are the three questions “Who’s your farmer? Who’s your banker? Where’s your money?” She also says “If we want clean water, fresh food, sustainable infrastructure, and healthy communities, we are going to have to finance and govern these resources ourselves. We cannot invest in the stocks and bonds of large corporations, banks and governments that are harming our food, water, environment and all living things and then expect these resources to be available when we need them.”

◦ She explains the Tapeworm Economy. How the insiders drain from the outsiders (Very frank about ways US governments drain money and help their friends).

◦ By localising finance, she explains how our wealth could be building rather than draining.

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 Grameen Bank of Bangladesh: loans for the very poor to help break the poverty cycle

 Co-operative land ownership: co-housing & other forms of intentional community

 Community banks, e.g. Bendigo Bank. o Structured to invest only in local projects so that the money circulates at a local level.

 Supporting local businesses such as mail-order seed companies specialising in traditional open-pollinated seeds

 Economic Development Officers

 Every council has one but they tend to work with the ‘big end’ of town

 Ernesto Sirolli worked as one in Esperence in WA and wrote about his experience - “Ripples from the Zambezi”

 Placed an advertisement. ◦ If you have a good idea, come and see me ◦ Recognised, if they had a good idea, they often didn’t have the skills. ◦ Matched the idea with a financial institution, marketer and accountant. ◦ Proved a great success. ◦ Then formed co-operatives

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Appendix A: Holistic Management

Holistic Management is a holistic decision making tool developed by Zimbabwean game biologist Alan Savory. Holistic Management directly addresses and gives tool for navigating around common pitfalls in almost any projects, particularly where more than one individual or family is involved. Below is a pictorial then text summary of HM.

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Summary of Holistic Management Holistic Management decision making applies equally to individuals, families, communities, organizations, businesses, government agencies - anyone or any group that needs to make a decision. Here are the steps involved in managing holistically:

Identify The Whole

 A group of decision makers agree to use holistic management in their business, community, family, government agency, etc.

 They identify anyone else whose decisions will affect the entity that they are managing and invite them to become part of the process. This includes owners, administrative assistants, volunteers, laborers, agency heads, elected officials, and so forth.

 Next, they identify all the resources available to this group of decision-makers including physical resources and financial assets. They identify as a resource, anyone who will be affected by the decisions -- clients, suppliers, family members, community organizations, homeowners, farmers, etc.

Articulate the Whole’s Holistic Context The holistic context is then articulated and has three aspects – quality of life statements, modes of production, and future resource base. 1. The group produces quality of life statements. What are essential components of the quality of life desired by the group? There may be two, there may be 20, depending on the situation. These quality of life statements are written in present tense, active voice. Here is an example for a family: “We are healthy and strong” 2. They then create a list of what needs to happen in order to meet each quality of life need, or the relevant modes of production. In other words, how do we produce this desired quality of life? Continuing with our family example, two of the various means of making “we are healthy and strong” true is: “We eat a diverse diet of organic, nutrient dense food” and “We drink clean, mineralized, alive water” 3. Finally, the group articulates the resource base required to enable the modes of production, and thereby the quality of life to continue into the future. For the two modes of production above, the future resource base might be:

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“The soil our food grows in is fertile, balanced, and improving” and “the catchments our water comes from are forested and clean.” The best way of seeing how all this comes together is to note what happens if one of these resource bases is degraded over time. If the soil providing the family’s food gets less fertile and less balanced each year, at some point it will no longer enable to production of organic nutrient dense food, which in turn will compromise the ability of being healthy and strong. The quality of life statements depends on the modes of production, and the modes of production depend on their resource bases.

Testing Once the holistic context is established, future decisions will be tested by whether they are in line with the holistic context and whether they strengthen or weaken the future resource base. These are some questions that can help with this step:

 Are we addressing the (or a) cause of the problem and mot just a symptom?

 Will the solution address the most vulnerable biological, social or economic piece of the whole?

 Are we getting the biggest bang for our buck or which course of action will contribute the most to achieving the quality of life statements in your holistic context relative to the energy invested?

 Are we weighing expenditure of time and energy against output of money -- which will best help us accomplish the quality of life statements in our holistic context?

 Will the decision be beneficial to our resource base in the future?

 Will the decision help us meet the quality of life goals stated in our holistic context? See an excellent very short youtube clip of Allan Savory talking about Holistic Management here: http://youtu.be/kQGy0vxeL_k

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Appendix B: Summary of Pattern Language

TOWNS The language begins with patterns that define towns and communities. These patterns can never be designed or built in one fell swoop - but patient piecemeal growth, designed in such a way that every individual act is always helping to create or generate these larger global patterns, will, slowly and surely, over the years, make a community that has these global patterns in it.

First, one all-important comment about the region as a whole: 1. INDEPENDENT REGIONS

Within each region work toward those regional policies which will protect the land

and mark the limits of the cities: 2. THE DISTRIBUTION OF TOWNS 3. CITY COUNTRY FINGERS 4. AGRICULTURAL VALLEYS

5. LACE OF COUNTRY STREETS 6. COUNTRY TOWNS 7. THE COUNTRYSIDE

Through city policies, encourage the piecemeal formation of those major structures

which define the city: 8. MOSAIC OF SUBCULTURES 9. SCATTERED WORK

10. MAGIC OF THE CITY 11. LOCAL TRANSPORT AREAS

Build up these larger city patterns from the grass roots, through action essentially controlled by two levels of self-governing communities, which exist as physically identifiable places: 12. COMMUNITY OF 7000 13. SUBCULTURE BOUNDARY

14. IDENTIFIABLE NEIGHBORHOOD 15. NEIGHBORHOOD BOUNDARY

Connect communities to one another by encouraging the growth of the following

networks:

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16. WEB OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 17. RING ROADS 18. NETWORK OF LEARNING 19. WEB OF SHOPPING 20. MINI-BUSES

Establish community and neighbourhood policy to control the character of the local

environment according to the following fundamental principles: 21. FOUR-STORY LIMIT 22. NINE PER CENT PARKING 23. PARALLEL ROADS 24. SACRED SITES 25. ACCESS TO WATER 26. LIFE CYCLE 27. MEN AND WOMEN

Both in the neighbourhoods and the communities, and in between them, in the

boundaries, encourage the formation of local centres: 28. ECCENTRIC NUCLEUS 29. DENSITY RINGS 30. ACTIVITY NODES 31. PROMENADE 32. SHOPPING STREET 33. NIGHT LIFE 34. INTERCHANGE

Around these centres, provide for the growth of housing in the form of clusters, based on face-to-face human groups: 35. HOUSEHOLD MIX 36. DEGREES OF PUBLICNESS 37. HOUSE CLUSTER

38. ROW HOUSES 39. HOUSING HILL 40. OLD PEOPLE EVERYWHERE

Between the house clusters, around the centers, and especially in the boundaries between neighborhoods, encourage the formation of work communities:

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41. WORK COMMUNITY 42. INDUSTRIAL RIBBON 43. UNIVERSITY AS A MARKETPLACE 44. LOCAL TOWN HALL

45. NECKLACE OF COMMUNITY PROJECTS 46. MARKET OF MANY SHOPS 47. HEALTH CENTER 48. HOUSING IN BETWEEN Between the house clusters and work communities, allow the local road and path

network to grow informally, piecemeal: 49. LOOPED LOCAL ROADS 50. T JUNCTIONS 51. GREEN STREETS 52. NETWORK OF PATHS AND CARS 53. MAIN GATEWAYS 54. ROAD CROSSING 55. RAISED WALK 56. BIKE PATHS AND RACKS 57. CHILDREN IN THE CITY In the communities and neighborhoods, provide public open land where people

can relax, rub shoulders and renew themselves: 58. CARNIVAL 59. QUIET BACKS 60. ACCESSIBLE GREEN 61. SMALL PUBLIC SQUARES 62. HIGH PLACES 63. DANCING IN THE STREET 64. POOLS AND STREAMS 65. BIRTH PLACES 66. HOLY GROUND In each house cluster and work community, provide the smaller bits of common

land, to provide for local versions of the same needs: 67. COMMON LAND 68. CONNECTED PLAY 69. PUBLIC OUTDOOR ROOM 70. GRAVE SITES

71. STILL WATER 72. LOCAL SPORTS 73. ADVENTURE PLAYGROUND 74. ANIMALS

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Within the framework of the common land, the clusters, and the work communities encourage transformation of the smallest independent social institutions: the families, workgroups, and gathering places. The family, in all its forms: 75. THE FAMILY 76. HOUSE FOR A SMALL FAMILY 77. HOUSE FOR A COUPLE 78. HOUSE FOR ONE PERSON 79. YOUR OWN HOME The workgroups, including all kinds of workshops and offices and even children's

learning groups: 80. SELF-GOVERNING WORKSHOPS AND OFFICES

81. SMALL SERVICES WITHOUT RED TAPE The first group of patterns helps to lay out the overall: 82. OFFICE CONNECTIONS 83. MASTER AND APPRENTICES 84. TEENAGE SOCIETY 85. SHOPFRONT SCHOOLS 86. CHILDREN'S HOME 87. INDIVIDUALLY OWNED SHOPS 88. STREET CAFE 89. CORNER GROCERY 90. BEER HALL 91. TRAVELER'S INN 92. BUS STOP 93. FOOD STANDS 94. SLEEPING IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS This completes the global patterns which define a town or a part of the community. We now start that part of the language which gives shape to groups of buildings, and individual buildings, on the land, in three dimensions. These are the patterns which can be "designed" or "built"- the patterns which define the individual

buildings and the space between buildings; where we are dealing for the first time with Patterns that are under the control of individuals or small groups of individuals, who are able to build the patterns all at once:

Arrangement of a group of buildings: the height and number of these buildings, the

entrances to the site, main parking areas and lines of movement through the complex: 95. BUILDING COMPLEX 96. NUMBER OF STORIES

97. SHIELDED PARKING 98. CIRCULATION REALMS

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The local shops and gathering places: 99. MAIN BUILDING 100. PEDESTRIAN STREET 101. BUILDING THOROUGHFARE 102. FAMILY OF ENTRANCES 103. SMALL PARKING LOTS Fix the position of individual buildings on the site, within the complex, one by one, according to the nature of the site, the trees, the sun: this is one of the most important moments in the language: 104. SITE REPAIR 105. SOUTH FACING OUTDOORS 106. POSITIVE OUTDOOR SPACE

107. WINGS OF LIGHT 108. CONNECTED BUILDINGS 109. LONG THIN HOUSE Within the buildings' wings, lay out the entrances, the gardens, courtyards, roofs, and terraces: shape both the volume of the buildings and the volume of the space

between the buildings at the same time-remembering that indoor space and outdoor space, Yin and Yang, must always get their shape together: 110. MAIN ENTRANCE 111. HALF-HIDDEN GARDEN 112. ENTRANCE TRANSITION 113. CAR CONNECTION 114. HIERARCHY OF OPEN SPACE 115. COURTYARDS WHICH LIVE 116. CASCADE OF ROOFS 117. SHELTERING ROOF 118. ROOF GARDEN When the major parts of buildings and the outdoor areas have been given their rough shape, it is the right time to give more detailed attention to the paths and squares between the buildings: 119. ARCADES 120. PATHS AND GOALS 121. PATH SHAPE 122. BUILDING FRONTS

123. PEDESTRIAN DENSITY 124. ACTIVITY POCKETS 125. STAIR SEATS 126. SOMETHING ROUGHLY IN THE MIDDLE

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Now, with the paths fixed, we come back to the buildings: within the various wings of any one building, work out the fundamental gradients of space, and decide how the movement will connect the spaces in the gradients: 127. INTIMACY GRADIENT 128. INDOOR SUNLIGHT 129. COMMON AREAS AT THE HEART 130. ENTRANCE ROOM 131. THE FLOW THROUGH ROOMS 132. SHORT PASSAGES 133. STAIRCASE AS A STAGE 134. ZEN VIEW 135. TAPESTRY OF LIGHT AND DARK Within the framework of the wings and their internal gradients of space and

movement, define the most important areas and rooms. First, for a house: 136. COUPLE'S REALM 137. CHILDREN'S REALM

138. SLEEPING TO THE EAST 139. FARMHOUSE KITCHEN Prepare to knit the inside of the building to the outside, by treating the edge

between the two as a place in its own right, and making human details there: 140. PRIVATE TERRACE ON THE STREET 141. A ROOM OF ONE'S OWN 142. SEQUENCE OF SITTING SPACES

143. BED CLUSTER 144. BATHING ROOM 145. BULK STORAGE Then the same for offices, workshops, and public buildings: 146. FLEXIBLE OFFICE SPACE 147. COMMUNAL EATING 148. SMALL WORK GROUPS 149. RECEPTION WELCOMES YOU 150. A PLACE TO WAIT Decide on the arrangement of the gardens, and the places in the gardens: 151. SMALL MEETING ROOMS

152. HALF-PRIVATE OFFICE Add those small outbuildings which must be slightly independent from the main

structure, and put in the access from the upper stories to the street and gardens:

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I 53. ROOMS TO RENT 154. TEENAGER'S COTTAGE 155. OLD AGE COTTAGE 156. SETTLED WORK 157. HOME WORKSHOP 158. OPEN STAIRS 159. LIGHT ON TWO SIDES OF EVERY ROOM 160. BUILDING EDGE 161. SUNNY PLACE 162. NORTH FACE 163. OUTDOOR ROOM 164. STREET WINDOWS 165. OPENING TO THE STREET

166. GALLERY SURROUND 167. SIX-FOOT BALCONY 168. CONNECTION TO THE EARTH 169. TERRACED SLOPE 170. FRUIT TREES 171. TREE PLACES 172. GARDEN GROWING WILD 173. GARDEN WALL 174. TRELLISED WALK 175. GREENHOUSE 176. GARDEN SEAT 177. VEGETABLE GARDEN 178. COMPOST Go back to the inside of the building and attach the necessary minor rooms and

alcoves to complete the main rooms: 179. ALCOVES 180. WINDOW PLACE 181. THE FIRE 182. EATING ATMOSPHERE 183. WORKSPACE ENCLOSURE 184. COOKING LAYOUT 185. SITTING CIRCLE 186. COMMUNAL SLEEPING 187. MARRIAGE BED 188. BED ALCOVE 189. DRESSING ROOM Fine tune the shape and size of rooms and alcoves to make them precise and

buildable:

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190. CEILING HEIGHT VARIETY 191. THE SHAPE OF INDOOR SPACE 192. WINDOWS OVERLOOKING LIFE 193. HALF-OPEN WALL 194. INTERIOR WINDOWS 195. STAIRCASE VOLUME 196. CORNER DOORS Give all the walls some depth, wherever there are to be alcoves, windows, shelves,

closets, or seats: 197. THICK WALLS 198. CLOSETS BETWEEN ROOMS 199. SUNNY COUNTER 200. OPEN SHELVES

201. WAIST-HIGH SHELF 202. BUILT-IN SEATS 203. CHILD CAVES 204. SECRET PLACE CONSTRUCTION At this stage, you have a complete design for an individual building. If you have followed the patterns given, you have a scheme of spaces, either marked on the ground, with stakes, or on a piece of paper, accurate to the nearest foot or so.

You know the height of rooms, the rough size and position of windows and doors, and you know roughly how the roofs I of the building, and the gardens are laid out:

The next, and last part of the language tells how to make a buildable building directly from this rough scheme of spaces, and tells you how to build it in detail:

Before you lay out structural details, establish a philosophy of structure which will

let the structure grow directly from your plans and your conception of the buildings: 205. STRUCTURE FOLLOWS SOCIAL SPACES 206. EFFICIENT STRUCTURE

207. GOOD MATERIALS 208. GRADUAL STIFFENING Within this philosophy of structure, on the basis of the plans which you have made, work out the complete structural layout; this is the last thing you do on paper, before you actually start to build: 209. ROOF LAYOUT 210. FLOOR AND CEILING LAYOUT 211. THICKENING THE OUTER WALLS 212. COLUMNS AT THE CORNERS 213. FINAL COLUMN DISTRIBUTION

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Put stakes in the ground to mark the columns on the site, and start erecting the

main frame of the building according to the layout of these stakes: 214. ROOT FOUNDATIONS 215. GROUND FLOOR SLAB 216. BOX COLUMNS 217. PERIMETER BEAMS 218. WALL MEMBRANES 219. FLOOR-CEILING VAULTS 220. ROOF VAULTS Within the main frame of the building, fix the exact positions for openings-the

doors and windows-and frame these openings: 221. NATURAL DOORS AND WINDOWS 222. LOW SILL 223. DEEP REVEALS 224. LOW DOORWAY 225. FRAMES AS THICKENED EDGES As you build the main frame and its openings, put in the following subsidiary

patterns where they are appropriate: 226. COLUMN PLACE 227. COLUMN CONNECTION 228. STAIR.VAULT 229. DUCT SPACE- 230. RADIANT HEAT 231. DORMER WINDOWS 232. ROOF CAPS Put in the surfaces and indoor details: 233. FLOOR SURFACE 234. LAPPED OUTSIDE WALLS 235. SOFT INSIDE WALLS 236. WINDOWS WHICH OPEN WIDE

237. SOLID DOORS WITH GLASS 238. FILTERED LIGHT 239. SMALL PANES 240. HALF-INCH TRIM Build outdoor details to finish the outdoors as fully as the indoor spaces:

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241. SEAT SPOTS 242. FRONT DOOR BENCH 243. SITTING WALL 244. CANVAS ROOFS

245. RAISED FLOWERS 246. CLIMBING PLANTS 247. PAVING WITH CRACKS BETWEEN THE STONES 248. SOFT TILE AND BRICK Complete the building with ornament and light and color and your own things: 249. ORNAMENT 250. WARM COLORS 251. DIFFERENT CHAIRS 252. POOLS OF LIGHT 5 253. THINGS FROM YOUR LIFE

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Appendix C: Plant Hardiness Zones

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Appendix D: SEED SAVING Why Save Seed?  Increasing concern over loss of genetic diversity  Large companies have taken over majority of family owned seed businesses and produce fewer uniform varieties.  95% of staple food crops are hybrid. *  Agricultural practises have changed to larger acreages  Drought and wars have prevented heritage from continuing  Scientists are not interested in venturing into remote areas to collect rare varieties for gene banks, nor are they interested in those of limited commercial value.  There is a loss of essential characteristics when many seeds are grown out from gene banks as they are done so under different conditions.  The Green Revolution introduced so called high yield pest and disease resistant seeds but over time did not compare to the performance of traditional varieties Hybridisation  The crossing of two genetically different varieties. It aims to merge the good traits of each into one plant. This hybrid vigour is reduced in subsequent generations so seed does not stay true to form. E.g. May cross early maturing and high yielding traits. Genetic Modification (GM)  Taking useful gene/s and incorporating them into another plant.  Speeds the process of selective breeding with instant results  Used for genetic resistance to herbicides/pesticides so higher concentrations can be used Open Pollinated Varieties Special seeds to save to maintain diversity include: Heirloom Varieties- handed down between generations Local Varieties – grown in one region for many generations. hard to find out who brought them to an area. Seeds brought into country by Recent Migrants Pollination Occurs where the male parts of the flower is deposited on the female parts of the flower (complete flowers). Normally one flower has both parts. Exceptions are Cucurbit family (melons, pumpkins, cucumbers) where there are separate male and female flowers on the same plant; or asparagus and kiwi where there are male and female plants.

Self-pollination-occurs on some complete flowers where the male and female parts are so close that only the slightest wind is needed for them to brush (lettuce, tomato, okra). In peas and beans pollination occurs before the flower is even open.

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Cross pollination- needs an external agent eg wind (spinach, silverbeet, corn so plant closely in block) or insects (brassicas, carrots, onions) to create fertile seeds. Particularly important to rogue out plants that are not true to form before flowering.

Natural cross pollination –can occur between plants even when they are self- pollinating (insects naturally transfer it) and can cause crossing between different varieties e.g. chillies and capsicum.

Hand pollination- suitable for cucurbit family to control parentage. They will cross pollinate between species e.g. Butternut pumpkin with Queensland Blue Pumpkin. Choose flowers the night before they open and tie with twisty. In morning cut male flower, remove petals and rub onto female flower. Close female flower again until it withers.

Keeping Purity There are several strategies to collect seed from plants that cross pollinate between varieties, thus maintaining their pure strain (ask class-write on board). Grow them apart: different distances applicable (bees travel 4km from hive). Hedges, barriers and buildings deflect insect flight paths. Grow them at different times: grow plants that cross in different seasons, particularly effective for crops that flower all at the same time (mid, early, late season). Bag flower heads: Only for self-pollinating plants. Cover blossoms with a paper bag or tights to exclude insects or pollen in the air. Remove once fruit is set. Cage plants: Particularly suitable for plants that flower over a long period of time eg. Chillies and eggplant. Those that need cross pollination will need to be pollinated by hand. Cage plants on alternate days: If two varieties are flowering at the same time and need pollinating by insects

Selecting and Collecting Rouging: Pull out plants with undesirable characteristics before flowering time. Look for strongest plants with good characteristics (survived bad weather, are pest free, slow to bolt, early corn cobs etc.) Tagging: Tie a ribbon around plants or pods that are for collection so that members of the household don’t pick them. Note characteristics e.g. Early maturing. Variation: Aim for a fair degree of variation which is essential for the crop to adapt to change. Self-pollinated varieties have less variation (inbreeders). It is recommended that half a dozen plants of cucurbit family are kept. Corn, sunflowers and onion should keep as many as possible to keep characteristics e.g. multi-coloured corn. Timing: Pick after dew has evaporated (10am)

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Cleaning, Drying and Storing The chaff and stems of seed heads can harbour insects that may attack stored seed Wet cleaning: for plants with seeds in their moist flesh (tomatoes and cucurbits). Scoop seeds into water and rub vigorously. Put in sieve and rinse with water. Dry on a labelled plate or greaseproof paper. Dry cleaning: (beans, sweetcorn, lettuce, carrot, onion, beet). Leave plant to produce dry seeds on bush. Then roll, crush, winnow or sieve (activity) Drying: Hang in paper bags in gentle breeze, spread out on newspaper, put in bowl on windowsill. Bite large seeds. Storing: Larger seeds tend to last longer than small. Look up storage life in Seed Savers table generally between 1 & 5 years. Seeds last if stored in dark, cool (5c), stable conditions free of moisture. Place in paper bags/dark jars/black film canisters in dark rat proof cupboard/metal box and store on South side of house or in dry cellar or fridge (if electricity is constant). Ensure no moisture in air – use silicon bags separated from seeds by cotton wool. Only store seeds on a dry day. Weevils: affect bean and corn seeds. Once dry place in freezer for 2 days before storage (don’t open container before it is at room temp) or coat with a thin layer of edible oil. Labelling: Important

Seed Saving Networks www.koanga.org.nz

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Appendix E: Comfort in Any Climate

Introduction This is a brief summary of Comfort in Any Climate by Michael Reynolds. In a very simple way it sets out (conceptually) how we set out to design houses that are self- regulating in terms of a “comfortable” temperature. How this is done varys for different climates. “Heating, cooling and lighting the worlds built structures sucks up roughly one third of the massive flows of energy used by modern society” There are two “limitless” sources of temperature available for our need for a comfortable temperature. The subsurface earth is a source of cool temperature, and the sun is a source of warm temperature. Most “conventional” shelters ignore both of these sources

Thermodynamic Principles An ideal wall has thermal mass on the inside to capture the desired temperature, and insulation on the outside to protect this temperature from change. At a certain depth below the surface, the temperature of the earth is stable at approx. 15 degrees centigrade. (this depth will vary according to climate) Increases in temperature of a dwelling, are brought about by our relationship to the sun. Decreases in temperature are brought about by our relationship to the subsurface cool mass. If cooling is the primary focus, we need to increase the north/south axis of our buildings, if heating is the primary focus, increase the northern glazing, and decrease the north/south axis of our buildings. The use of mass to store, and subsequently radiate temperature is most significantly effective in relation to the height of the human. Mass overhead is expensive and not necessary, insulation only is needed overhead.

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Climate Variations and Patterned Responses (Important: the following notes are for the Northern Hemisphere, please change as appropriate for the Southern Hemisphere)

Climate Spaces Glazing Earth Insulation Ventilation Extreme Cold Small, low Vertical Earth around all Floor walls and Northern latitude ceilings Insulated at night surfaces, roof Wet Climate maximum heat storage Extreme Cold, Small, low Sloped, insulated Deep into earth Insulated ceiling High Altitude ceilings at night walls and to frost Southern line Altitude, Semi- arid Hot and humid Small to medium Glazing vertical Earth bermed to None under floor summers, mild Ceiling up to 10ft (minimise solar have good to connect with and wet Winters, gain) plus thermal mass cool earth plus southern overhang for use of latitude, low summer underground altitude, high cooling tubes water table Hot and dry Medium size with Glazing vertical Buried to connect None under floor summers, mild higher ceilings if (minimise solar with cool earth to connect with winters, southern desired gain) plus cool earth plus latitude, overhang for use of moderate summer underground altitude, deep cooling tubes water table Tropical High ceilings for Very little if any Dig in deep to Insulate from maximising air catching sun connect with cool warm earth movement earth Deep underground cooling tubes

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APPENDIX F - SOIL TEXTURING BY HAND – Key

Using a moist sample of the soil, assess the soil texture using the following key. Question Ans. 1 Does the soil feel or sound noticeably sandy? YES Go To Q.2 NO Go To Q.6 2 Does the soil lack all cohesion? YES SAND NO Go To Q.3 3 Is it difficult to roll the soil into a ball? YES LOAMY SAND NO Go To Q.4 4 Does the soil feel smooth and silky as well as sandy? YES SANDY SILT LOAM NO Go To Q.5 5 Does the soil mold to form a strong ball which smears without taking a polish? YES SANDY CLAY LOAM NO SANDY LOAM 6 Does the soil mold to form an easily deformed ball and feel smooth and silky? YES SILT LOAM NO Go To Q.7 7 Does the soil mold to form a strong ball which smears without taking a polish? YES Go To Q.8 NO Go To Q.10 8 Is the soil also sandy? YES SANDY CLAY LOAM NO Go To Q.9 9 Is the soil also smooth and silky? YES SILTY CLAY LOAM NO CLAY LOAM 10 Does the soil mold like plastic, polish and feel very sticky when wetter? YES Go To Q.11 NO Start again unless organic 11 Is the soil also sandy? YES SANDY CLAY NO Go To Q.12 12 Is the soil also smooth and buttery? YES SILTY CLAY NO CLAY

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Appendix G: Client Questioner

Client Interview Sheet

These questions will help you to understand the needs and resources of a group that you are working with, or you can use it to ask yourself important questions about your wants, needs and resources. Not all the questions will be relevant, you decide. There may be other questions you need – add them! 1. Client name 2. Address 3. Property size 4. Number of people on site (typical/average) 5. Groups that use the site 6. Client wants and needs – articulate goals 7. Priorities for the site 8. Physical challenges that need to be considered (blind, wheelchairs, etc.) 9. Occupations & skills 10. Lifestyle/ethos of group 11. Eating habits 12. Age ranges 13. Financial situation (vis-a-vis the design) 14. On site resources 15. Site tenure (owned freehold, leasehold, rented) 16. Restrictions on land use (tenancy agreements, covenants etc.) 17. Potential catastrophes (vandalism, flooding etc.) 18. Plans and drawings 19. Level/type of crop required 20. Existing energy efficiency measures, and energy usage 21. Privacy (views, difficult neighbours, respecting other people’s privacy 22. where site is overlooking others) 23. Water catchment (quality and amount) 24. Water general 25. Soils 26. Erosion 27. Aspect 28. Names & addresses of supportive groups and people (councillors, Voluntary service support etc.) 29. Utilities

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Appendix H: Forest Garden Database

quick reference chart showing the most appropriate trees to grow in our forest gardens to ensure wide range of minerals are accumulated and recycled and or gathered to use in vegetable gardens and compost.

nitrogen calcium magnesium phosphate potash willow leaves and bark * oak leaves * casuarina * birches * mullein * comfrey ** * * ** plantain * cleavers * horsetail * * * linden ** ** maples * dogwoods ** lupines * * * oats * * alfalfa * ** ** ** ** tagasaste * tree lupine * tree medick * lespedeza * acacia pravssima * A. retinoides * a. cultriformis * Siberian Pea Tree * Maakia amurensis * Alnus rubra aurea * Alnus glutinosa * Alnus rubra * viburnum spp. * laburnum spp. *

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Appendix J: A Pattern Language for Extractive vs Generative ownership

EXTRACTIVE GENERATIVE Kotare Village - Kotare Community Land OWNERSHIP OWNERSHIP Trust

1. Financial Purpose: 1. Living Purpose: 1. Living Purpose: “to create a living maximizing profits in creating the conditions model of life affirming community that is short term for life over long term meeting people’s needs, in a process that is regenerative of their environment and their social relationships.”

2. Absentee 2. Rooted Membership: 2. Rooted Membership: Members are Membership: ownership in human residents in Kotare Village and Board of ownership hands Koanga Institute disconnected from life of enterprise

3. Governance by 3. Mission-Controlled 3. Mission-Controlled Governance: Markets: control by Governance: control by controlled by the KCLT Constitution (with capital markets on those dedicated to purpose as above) managed by those autopilot social mission dedicated to its purpose, elected by the members

4. Casino Finance: 4. Stakeholder 4. Stakeholder Finance: financed by the capital as master Finance: capital as members, benefiting from the assets friend developed from their investment

5. Commodity 5. Ethical Networks: 5. Ethical Networks: integrated with Networks: trading collective support for Koanga Institute, Kotare Village focused solely on ecological and social Incorporated and Kotare Commons (all price and profits norms organisations that fit this chart very well) developing relationships with more like minded organisations

From ‘Owning our future’ Marjorie Kelly.

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