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Šiljak V, et al. Summer Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

SCIENTIFIC REVIEWS

Violeta Šiljak* Đorđe Stefanović** Elena Plakona*** Goran Kasum** 796.032.2-056.26 Nađa Avdibašić - Vukadinović**** Scientifi c review

* Faculty of Menagment, ALFAUniversity ** Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade *** EPAS High School, Edesa **** Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Tuzla

SUMMER PARALYMPIC GAMES PHENOMENON

Abstract The phenomenon of was discussed in this paper from scientifi c/theoretical and practical aspect. In order to understand the interpretation of axiological aspect of Summer Paralympic Games, we briefl y presented: occurrence and development retrospective, Paralympic movement in the world and here, taxonomy of competition skills, some past researches, as well as critical comment on the existing problems. This paper’s mission is to point to the necessity to incorporate the young into the values of Paralympic Games, to develop curiosity sense in the researchers, to involve the media and the society more, and all that for the development of Paraolympic sport. Key words: SPORT / PARALYMPIC GAMES / AXIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

INTRODUCTION

Diverse scientifi c-research and practical work excitement of the world’, is substituted by a new one of several generations of experts have led to forming – ‘Spirit in motion’. a complex and integral system of knowledge from the fi eld of Paralympic Games. Great polymorphic SUBJECT AND GOAL development of the phenomenon Paralympic Games OF THE RESEARCH in time, educational and scientifi c coherence, prob- lems in relation science/theory – practice, existing The subject of this research is studying an- socio-political ideologies etc. have infl uenced the thropological socio-historical phenomenon of PG. fact that today people in the world are educated and The function of our task was not to justify the exist- accept the values of both (OG) and ing phenomenon, it did not have a therapeutic Paralympic Games (PG). Former motto of Interna- function, but its function was to fi nd phenomena that tional paralympic Committee – ‘Enable Paralympic it would critically explore (e.g. critical thought will athletes to achieve success in sport, inspiration and help to remove negative tendencies of a sport event),

68 Correspondence to: Đorđe Stefanović, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade Blagoja Parovića 156, 11030 Belgrade, e-mail: [email protected] Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75 to clarify, analyse and put it all into the of dia- garian . He competed in shooting in lectic unity of theory and practice. 1948 and 1952. He did not have right arm. The goal of the research is to, through consid- The second competitor in equestrian events ering more aspects of PG, affect the development of was Liz Hartel, a Danish woman that was paralysed scientifi c thought from this sport area as well, which by polio and still won the silver medal. would mostly affect the interest and the improvement The fi rst organized athlete event for the per- of quality of preparation technology and the training sons with was held the same year as the conditions of persons with disabilities, as well as the OG in in 1948. improvement of the professional staff. The creator of the PG was Dr Ludwig Gutt- mann, who organized sports event for the veterans WORK METHOD of the Second World War in a place called in . Sixteen members of British Principle methods used in this work are theo- Armed Forces participated on the hospital courts (14 retic analysis method and historical method. men and 2 women). It was a public demonstration that proved that persons with body disabilities can THE VALUES practise sport. In 1952 the paraplegic from the Neth- OF PARALYMPIC GAMES erlands joined the British and from that time on they Phenomenology as a philosophic discipline meet every year at the end of August on the court of about phenomena, in our case the phenomenon of Stoke Mandeville. The number of participants grew PG, has essential meaning for sport. Sport phenom- every year (Flander 1975). enology has its primary task to discover what is es- The fi rst PG were held in 1960 in where sential, for example in the process of sport training they got their title Paralympic Games. The word par- and competition of persons with disabilities, which alympic comes from Greek word παρά-beside, for, are directly shown as phenomena. The commitment and this means that PG take place directly after OG. for studying this phenomenon is by all means a chal- In Rome, competitions were held in six disciplines: lenge for a researcher. Challenge, fi rst of all, because athletics, , , table , of the fact that the problem can be studied more pro- and . foundly, so searching for new information is a pleas- At the PG in Torino in 1976 sportsmen with ure. However, on the other hand, it is also an obliga- body joined other groups of persons with tion of the researcher to contribute to the develop- disability which enlarged the movement. That way ment of paralympic sport from scientifi c-theoretical the idea of including different types of disabilities in aspect. Polymorphic character of PG phenomenon, a this international movement was created. sports act, social politics etc. seek for constant criti- The PG are held the same year as the OG. cism, theoretic alteration (addition). This is where From the Summer Games in 1988 in , and the the sport philosophy offers wise, sensible critical Winter Games in 1992 in , they are being thoughts that are aimed towards the prosperity of the held at the same place, two weeks after the OG. PG. In order to understand the issues of scientifi c re- The PG have developed considerably in the search work better, it is necessary to become familiar period of last half a century. The number of partici- with the values of PG phenomenon through brief his- pants was constantly growing – from 400 contestants torical retrospective. from 23 countries in 6 disciplines in Rome in 1960, to over 4200 contestants from 148 countries on PG in Brief historical retrospective of in 2008, who competed in 19 disciplines. That way PG movement grew considerably. In table 1 host occurrence and development of PG countries and years of Summer PG are shown. The fi rst sportsman with disability that com- peted at the OG before the PG appeared was a Hun-

69 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

Table 1 Host countries and years when Summer PG took place

No Year City Country 1. 1960. . Roma 2. 1964. Tokio 3. 1968. 4. 1972. 5. 1976. 6. 1980. Holland Stouk Mendevil GB 7. 1984. New York USA 8. 1988. Seul 9 1992. 10. 1996. USA 11. 2000. Sidney 12 2004. 13 2008. Bejing

Paralympic movement in the world 1) International sports organizations: • International Federation for Equestrian Sport International Sport Organization for the Disa- (FEI); bled (ISOD), founded in 1964, was the fi rst organi- • International Basketball zation dedicated to improving sports possibilities for Federation (IWBF); persons with disabilities. The founders of the organi- • International Tennis Federation (ITF); zation were the managing body of International Ol- • International Association for Disabled ympic Committee (IOC) for OG. In 1982 it got a new (IFDS); name – International Coordinating Committee Sports • International Organization of for for the Disabled in the World (ICC). Successful co- people with disabilities (WOVD) and operation of IOC and ICC resulted in carrying out • World Federation (WCF). Summer PG in 1988 in Seoul. 2) International sports organizations for persons ICC grew by including not small number of with disabilities: countries and sportsmen in the sports programme of • International Sports and PG competition. This body was reorganized under Recreation Association (CP-ISRA); new name – International Paralympic Committee • International Blind Sports Organization (IPC) in 1989. (IBSA); IPC is a global managing body of the Paralym- • International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (INAS-FID) and pic movement whose most important body is the As- • International Wheelchair & Amputee Sports sembly. It chooses Managing board of 15 members Federation (IWAS); who lead the organization between the meetings of 3) Representatives of regional sports organizations: the Assembly. It consists of 165 National Paralympic • African Sports Confederation of Disabled Committees (NPC). (ASCOD); Representatives of 165 countries from the fol- • European Paralympic Committee (EPC) and lowing structures are present in NPC Assembly: • Oceania Paralympic Committee (OPC).

70 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

The IPC also founded the regional Paralympic Youth and Sport of the Republic of Serbia. Sport and Committees for America and Asia, which represent it Recreation Association of Montenegro and Disabled in these continents. Sports Association of Vojvodina have been existing The President of International Paralympic since 2006. Committee is from Great Britain with The Paralympic Committee of Yugoslavia was headquarters in Bon (Germany). He is also a member founded in 1999, but as the country’s name changed of IOC. so did the name of this Committee, and fi nally it got The IPC is responsible for organisation of the name of the Paralympic Committee of Serbia Summer and . It supervises (PCS) at the Assembly meeting on 5th July 2006. and coordinates the World Championships and other The PCS is a IPC.member Primary function of competitions and wants to create the possibility for this Committee is realisation of programme activities all persons with disabilities to participate in sports connected to the elite sport of persons with disabili- events. It is also responsible for the implementation ties. of legal acts for Paralympic movement. It closely co- The most important PCS body is the Assembly operates with the IOC. The IPC delegates are also that appoints the President and Secretary General. members of the IOC and they also participate in The other most important bodies are managing board, boards and commissions. Regardless of the close co- supervising board and sports commission which con- operation, the two managing boards remain separated sists of professional council and council of athletes. with separate games. Members of the Assembly are citizens asso- ciations, sports associations of persons with disabili- Paralympic Movement in Serbia ties and individuals. Clubs can attend the Assembly meetings and participate in debates, but they have no Paralympic movement was founded in Serbia right to vote. in 1944. Sport and body exercises are long known The sports represente in the PCS are the fol- as a mean of healing. After the Second World War, lowing: track and fi eld athletics, , shoot- the Fighters Organizations and War Military Inva- ing, swimming, , wheelchair basket- lids Associations were created here as well. Having ball, wheelchair dancing, cycling, global, , ski- noticed the importance of sport in enabling the disa- ing and equestrian sports. bled a quality life they started participating in inter- The PCS program implies carrying out com- national competitions as well. As the time passed, petition preparations, as well as participating on re- the conditions were made for the forming of Disa- gional international competitions for the purpose of bled Sport and Recreation Association in the repub- meeting norms for going to the PG, World and Euro- lics. Thus in 1966 the Disabled Sport and Recreation pean Championships. Association of Yugoslavia was formed. The task of this Association was to coordinate the work, to give Paralympic games professional help, to mediate in the exchange of ex- perience between the republics’ associations, to train The PG are sports planet event with the con- and affi rm the disabled, to help them integrate into testants divided into six groups according to types of normal life and life courses through body activities. disabilities: In 1988 there were 142 sports-recreational organiza- • amputee – persons who completely or partially tions in the SFRY with over 40,000 disabled persons lost at least one limb; who practised sports. When Yugoslavia disintegrate • cerebral paraplegic; the Disabled Sport and Recreation Association of • blind and visually impaired – with damaged Yugoslavia was cancelled. The Disabled Sport and eye sight, from partial damage to complete Recreation Association of Montenegro, the Sports blindness; Association of Serbia and Disabled Sports Associa- • persons with ; tion of Vojvodina were made, which were, by a new • persons with injuries of spinal chord, who Law on Sport reregistered in 1988 into Ministry of have to compete in and • persons who do not fall under any of the

71 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

abovementioned groups (les autres) – like • athletics, persons of short stature or persons suffering • shooting, from . • bowl (similar to bowling), • cycling The PG have its logo (Figure 1). It consists of • equestrian sport, three elements in red, blue and green. These are the • soccer 5 on 5, colours that are mostly represented on fl ags around • soccer 7 on 7, the world. The shape of the three elements symbol- • , izes the vision of the IOC; universe character of Para- • judo, lympic movement is embodied in round shape of the • weight lifting, logo. • , • sailing, • archery, • table tennis, • volleyball, • , • , • , • .

Brief overview of scientifi c researches Figure 1. Logo of the Paralympic Games In a prestigious world magazine Reynolds The PG Opening ceremony is the same as the et al. (1994) published the work that refers to the OG opening ceremony as set out at the 1920 OI cer- achievements of Great Britain national team on the emony in Antwerp. The ceremony begins with rais- PG in Barcelona in 1992. British team consisted of ing the host fl ag and playing the anthem. The anthem 151 sportsmen and 54 sportswomen in 15 sports in of the Paralympic Games is ‘Anthem of the Future’ total. They were supported by escort staff (86), in- and it was adopted in March 1996. The host coun- cluding about 12 from medical team. The sports- try organizes an art programme, music, dancing, by men were chosen from National championship from which it represents its culture. After that, the games 5 organizations of persons with disabilities: British participants enter the stadium, in alphabetic order. Wheelchair Sports Association, British Blind Sports, The last to enter are the sportsmen of the host coun- Athletes with Cerebral Palsy, British Amputee Sports try. At the end Paralympic torch is lit, and it is carried Association and British Association of Other Sports. by a sportsman from the host country. In this paper, the authors described organization and The closing ceremony of the PG takes place experience of medical team for support of sportsmen after all sports events. Sportsmen come out together with disabilities. The results of the research showed without national differences. Paralympic fl ag is low- that the injuries/illnesses of sportsmen were similar ered, the games are closed and the fi re is put out. The to the sport injuries of the healthy. British team took PG represent extremely signifi cant sports competi- third place on the medal chart (40 gold, 47 silver and tion in the world, which is shown by the high number 41 bronze medals). of sports disciplines and participants. There are Sum- Webster et al. (2001) questioned the infl u- mer and Winter PG. ence of sport and recreation on persons with limbs damage. They determined that the possibilities for Taxonomy of competition disciplines on persons with limb defi ciency to participate in sports Summer Paralympic Games and recreational activities have considerably grown during the last 20 years. Different factors contributed The programme of Summer PG competition to this phenomenon, including also growth of public consists of 20 disciplines: interest in sport and fi tness as well as improving con-

72 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75 sciousness about disability. One of important factors scientifi c monitoring of sportsmen preparation for is propaganda and the demand for growth in pros- wheelchair races. thetic technology and design. Advantages of partici- Burkett (2010) in his research which deals with pating in sport/recreation are numerous, whether it is technology in paralympic sport tried to answer the a musical performance, friendly golfer circle, or high question – whether it is more important to improve a level competition. They are positively related to both skill or the thing which is important for performing an individual and the society. The aim of this paper the skill? Persons with disability often depend on or- was to give insight in the summary of development thopaedic aids in order to function in everyday activi- and the range of sport/recreational possibilities that ties as well as to participate in competitions. Tech- are available to persons with limb defi ciency. nological development in sport can be in question. Brittain (2001) tried, by introducing and ex- The aim of the work was to recognize and describe plaining social aspects of disability, to move research the existing technological advance of orthopaedic focus further from medical approach. In thE paper aids that are used in Summer PG and to carry out the he tried to observe the infl uence of social perception debate about their improvement for the preparation of disability and their infl uence on practicing sports for the next PG in London in 2012. The author made for persons with disabilities at all levels. The author an overview of the reviewed literature and made his also saw the need for media coverage and to create own observations on technological development in and strengthen new views (approaches) to explain- Athens PG (2004) and in Beijing (2008). The results ing disability phenomenon that are present within the of the research showed that the existing standards of medicine. orthopaedic aids can be a limiting factor of contest- ants’ ability to perform diffi cult moving activities in their sports. Several unique technological alterations were made in prosthetics and devices on wheelchairs. Technology is important for Paralympics sportsmen and potential technological advantages of Paralym- pics sportsmen when competing against Olympic sportsmen are not clarifi ed enough. The author con- cluded that the technology has to meet the demands of certain Paralympics sportsmen in order to achieve Picture 1. Wheelchair race better results. The debate about possible increase in mechanical features of help devices must be ob- Hao et al. (2005) scientifi cally followed sports- served holistically with compensating consequences men in wheelchairs (Picture 1). They determined that that disability creates. the existing wheelchair races studies are not at the level of scientifi c research that would have practical CRITICAL COMMENT effect. The authors think that in the future researchers should deal with the problem of energy metabolism In order to properly carry out theoretic analy- space in wheelchair races more and more meticu- sis method, it was necessary to logically adjust the lously. The presentation and the results of observing gathered data about the phenomenon of Summer PG. physiological and biochemical sport indicators in this By the review of available literature it was found that work result in the change of patterns and particular in relatively shorter time period of last half a cen- studies of training methods. The acquired results of tury of the existence of the PG the development of the research best illustrate the way of training for this segment of sport is permanently present. Several wheelchair races, setting the system for monitoring factors among which we could name: consciousness and evaluation of criteria that are important to be about the importance for the development of para- adjusted to the demands of wheelchair race training. lympic personality, propaganda, technology of the That way the authors came to the conclusion that the development of artifi cial intelligence etc. infl uenced highest competition success can be achieved through this ascending course of the PG development.

73 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

Still, it is noticed that there is a series of ques- are not sick persons that need to be treated, and they tions that are not solved. Why is the existing scientif- are neither healthy because they have psycho-phys- ic/professional literature that deals with the problem ical imperfections. That is why Paralympics Move- of paralympic preparations for sports competitions ment has the goal to prove and show that people with minimally present related to the Olympic sportsmen? different disabilities can equally participate in almost Is it because PG space is not valued enough as OG all sports disciplines. space? Is it because there are not enough humane New education programmes that have been people who would be included in Paralympics sport present for 10 years now, include the programme of in various ways? Is it because it is not present enough Olympic education, members of which are students, in the media? Is it because of the state policy? Each pupils that study about , values, of countless questions demands wider space for a se- morals of games in human bonding, and joys of the rious debate and problem solving which would bring PG. That way all the children in the world are educat- improvement. ed and all accept values of both the OG and the PG. Fundamental question of coaches’ education was also discussed. Are there any specialist studies for paralympic sport? Are bio energetic abilities of CONCLUSION paralympis sportsmen the same as that of Olympic sportsmen? Will the improvement of technology of artifi cial intelligence that is being used by paralym- Body exercises and sports competition are pic sportsmen enable them to achieve better results an inseparable part of the development of mankind. than the Olympic sportsmen? Are the persons that are Along with the development of civilisation, sport (not) with disability (going to be) better coaches of grew into the game of human values. Throughout paralympic sportsmen? this development the prob- The fact is that there are some questions and ably had the main role, held for almost 1,200 years. that every day this large number becomes even larger Thanks primarily to Pierre De Coubertin, the Olym- in the connection with PG phenomenon. But, on the pic Games were renewed end raised to be an impor- other hand it is necessary to take them in considera- tant world event. Together with them, half a century tion as soon as possible, because paralympic sports- ago, the Paralympic Games were also introduced. men want improvement. It would not be recommend- They represent elite competition for sportsmen with ed to solve questions/dilemmas about some problem different types of handicaps. The aim of paralympic slowly and consequently to make them bigger. We movement is to, in a certain way, come as close as think that no one is entitled or wants to infl uence the possible to the values of the Olympic movement. stagnation or degradation of the PG space. The Paralympic Games are important phenomenon It should be recognized that the main massage in sport that is attracting more and more global at- of Paralympic movement is that disability is not an tention. Still, it could be said that it is not enough yet obstacle in equal participation in the society, sport and that much bigger involvement of the whole soci- and goals achievement. Persons with disability are ety is necessary to make progress in paralympic sport individuals with psycho physical imperfections (that by humane actions. First of all it would refer to rais- they are born with or which they obtain in life). These ing the quality of training conditions for the disabled imperfections disable them to form and realize them- sportsmen, as well as improving the staff, improving selves as fully accepted members of the society. They and modernisation of means that are being used.

74 Šiljak V, et al. Summer Paralympic Games Phenomenon PHYSICAL CULTURE 2010; 64 (2): 68-75

REFERENCES

1. Brittain, I. (2001). Perceptions of Disability 4. Hao, S., Jian-min, C., & De-ling, Z. (2005). Re- and their Impact upon Involvement in Sport for search Progress on the Scientifi c Monitoring People with Disabilities at all Levels. Archives of Wheelchair Racing Athletes. Beijing: Post- of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82(3), graduate Department, Beijing Sports University, Supplement 1, S38-S44. 100084, China. 2. Burkett, B. (2010). Technology in Paralympic 5. Reynolds, J., Stirk, A., Thomas, A., & Geary, F. sport: performance enhancement or essential for (1994). Paralympics – Barcelona 1992. Journal performance? Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, of Sports Medicine, 28, 14-17. 215-220. 6. Webster, J.B., Levy, C.E., Bryant, P.R., & Pru- 3. Flander, M. (1975). Enciklopedija fi zičke kulture sakowski, P.E. (2001). Sports and recreation for (1-2) [Enciclopedia of Physical Culture (1-2)]. persons with limb defi ciency. Archives of Physi- Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod cal Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82(3), Supple- „Miroslav Krleža“. ment 1, S38-S44.

Received 1.11.2010. Accepted 9.12.2010.

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