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PROPAGANDA, PUBLICITY and POLITICAL VIOLENCE: the PRESENTATION of TERRORISM in BRITAIN 1944-60

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PROPAGANDA, PUBLICITY and POLITICAL VIOLENCE: the PRESENTATION of TERRORISM in BRITAIN 1944-60 PROPAGANDA, PUBLICITY AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE: ThE PRESENTATION OF TERRORISM IN BRITAIN 1944-60 SUSAN LISA CARRUTHERS Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD. The University Of Leeds, Institute of Communications Studies May 1994 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. ThNTS ACKNOWLEI)GEMENTS INTROI)UCTI ON CIIAPILR ONE: 22 'A WORI)Y WARFARE': TERRORISM IN PALESTINE, 1944-47 The Background to the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine 22 Naming the Enemy: British Interpretations of Terrorism 30 The Irgun, L'hi and the Interpretation of Terrorism 38 l3ritish Opinion and the Palestine Problem 42 Aims and Methods of British Publicity: Propaganda by News 46 Mediating the Presentation of Terrorism 49 Defending the Security Forces 56 The Recourse to Censorship 67 The Absence of Positive Themes 70 conclusion 72 CI IAP'I'ER TWO: 78 'THE FOR(;OVrEN WAR': PROPAGANDA AND TIlE MALAYAN EMERGENCY, 1948-60 Introduction 78 The Background to the Emergency 80 Understanding the Enemy: The Interpretation of 'Terrorism' 82 The Role of Propaganda in the Malayan Emergency 100 Perceptions of the MCP's Use of Propaganda 101 Propaganda as a Tool of Q)unter-insurgency 104 The ImIx)rtance of Opinion in Britain 112 Government Relations with the News Media 121 The Role of Film and Newsreel 135 Conclusion 142 CHAPTER THREE: 144 'WORSE THAN COMMUNISTS': PROPAGANDA AND ThE MAU MAU INSURGENCY IN KENYA, 1952-60 Introduction 144 The Background to Mau Mau 147 Interpretations of Mau Mau 154 Propaganda and the Campaign Against Mau Mau 166 The Targets of Government Propaganda 168 - The United Kingdom 168 - Kenya 170 - The Empire-Commonwealth 173 - The United States 175 Propaganda Organisation 177 Propaganda Themes and Channels 185 Positive Propaganda 198 The Importance of Images 200 Defensive Propaganda 206 How Successful a Campaign? 216 CHAPTER FOUR: 221 'MISCHIEF IN THE AIR': EOKA AND THE STRUGGLE FOR ENOSIS IN CYPRUS, 1955-59 The Background to the Dispute 221 British Interpretations of EOKA Violence 225 EOKA's Explanation of their Strategy 233 The British Publicity Organisation 236 The Themes of British Propaganda 242 - The search for a Communist connection with EOKA 242 - Exposing the complicity of the Greek Government 248 - The Presentation of Makarios: Archbishop as Arch-Terrorist 253 The Presentation of EOKA's Activities 275 EOKA and the Smear Technique 281 News Management as a Response to the Smear Campaign 285 Visual Propaganda: The Importance of Images 291 Concluding Remarks 296 CONCLUSION 298 BIBLIOGRAPHY 310 ABBREVIATIONS 338 ABSTRACT ProDaganda, Publicity and Political Violence: the Presentation of Terrorism in Britain, 1944-60 Doctoral Thesis, submitted by Susan L. Carruthers, May 1994 Through a series of case studies, this thesis examines British attitudes to 'terrorism' as practised during various post-war colonial insurgencies. What did British governments and colonial officials understand by this term, as applied to the Jewish insurgents in Palestine at the end of the Mandate, the Malayan Communists, Mau Mau, and EOKA in Cyprus? The thesis focuses particularly on the way in which propaganda has been seen as a crucial component of the terrorist strategy. Consequently, in the attempt to deny insurgents publicity, and to mediate the perception of politically motivated violence held by various domestic and international audiences, British governments have used a wide variety of propaganda and news-management techniques. The thesis thus assesses the role of government propaganda in counter-insurgency. While some attention is paid to the employment of propaganda within the affected colonies themselves (as part of the 'hearts and minds' strategy), the focus is largely on government attempts to influence wider international audiences and, especially, domestic public opinion in Britain. The need to maintain public support at home for campaigns fought against 'terrorism' in the colonies has been a neglected aspect of most writings on counter- insurgency. However, a detailed examination of the files of the Colonial Office and Foreign Office information departments reveals that in each of the selected case studies, particular attention was paid to keeping domestic opinion 'on side'. Not only have various Whitehall departments and the Central Office of Information produced official publicity material on these insurgencies, but the Foreign Office's anti-communist Information Research Department has disseminated more covert material through the Trade Union movement and other channels. In addition, successive governments have sought to influence the press, newsreel and television coverage of events in the disputed territories. How successful was the effort which went into official publicity work and news- management? Gauging the effectiveness of any propaganda campaign is notoriously difficult. However, by looking at the contemporary press, the output of the major newsreel companies and the files of the BBC, I have attempted to assess how far the mass communications media presented a view of terrorism which accorded with the governmental interpretation. What becomes apparent is that while it may have been fairly easy to ensure that 'terrorists' were duly condemned, and labelled as such - language forming an important part of the battle for legitimacy - government publicists have often struggled due to an absence of policy in Whitehall over the future of the colonies concerned, and on account of the behaviour of the Security Forces. Creating favourable publicity for counter-terrorist measures has been a much harder task than the denigration of terrorism itself. 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In any project of this size, gratitude is owed to more people and institutions than can be thanked individually. Those listed below deserve special credit. This thesis was completed under the auspices of the Institute of Communications Studies, University of Leeds, under the supervision of Dr. P.M. Taylor. It would not have been possible without the support of the British Academy, which granted me a major state studentship for three years. I am also indebted to the many archivists and librarians who have helped me locate the sources used in this work, particularly the staff of the Public Record Office, Kew; the Brotherton Library, University of Leeds; the British Library, both at Bloomsbury and Colindale; and the BBC Written Archives Centre, Caversham. I was fortunate in being able to view newsreel footage at a number of archives, and would especially like to thank the staff at Pathe, who freely gave their time and expertise. I would also like to thank my colleagues for their tolerance and good humour: firstly, the staff of the School of Humanities, Kingston University, where I taught during the academic year 1992-93, and secondly, my present colleagues in the Department of International Politics, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Finally, I must thank Conor McGrath, whose help has been invaluable in completing this project. 2 INTRODUCTION Terrorism was already a popular, and populist, field of research for some years before J. Bowyer Bell made the claim in 1977 that 'terror has become trendy'.' Terrorism has scarcely become less fashionable since then. A series of spectaculaT terrorist 'incidenis', the proliferation of Middle Eastern terrorist organisations, ongoing separatist campaigns such as those of the Provisional Irish Republican Army and ETA, and the high priority accorded by the Reagan and Thatcher administrations to combatting terrorism all helped ensure that terrorism remained a pertinent subject for study throughout the 1980s. Several hundred books on terrorism have now appeared in addition to countless articles, while various new 'sub-species' have been spawned: 'narco-terrorism', 'eco-terrorism', 'consumer-terrorism' and 'nuclear terrorism'. The proliferation of literature on terrorism - much of it nakedly partisan and of questionable scholarship - has resulted in the 'terrorism industry' itself becoming an object of study. Critics from the left have thus increasingly attacked a discipline which has concentrated on examining insurgent terrorism, and how to defeat it, while neglecting state, and state-sponsored, terrorism.2 Such has been the outpouring on terrorism that one might question whether there remains scope for an original contribution to knowledge in the field. Obviously, I would answer in the affirmative, though the reasons require some elaboration. In setting them out, I intend also to establish the framework for what follows. In the very broadest terms, this thesis is concerned with terrorism and propaganda. Both are contested terms. As Segaller has aptly remarked, everyone thinks they know what terrorism is until they attempt a definition. 3 Consequently, there are numerous competing J.B. Bell, 'Trends on Terror: The Analysis of Political Violence', World PoIitics, 19, iii, (April 1977), 476-488, p.476. 2 Noam Chomsky's work has expanded on this theme: see in particular, The Culture of Terrorism (London, 1988) and Necessary Illusions (London, 1989). Also E.S. Herman, The Real Terror Network (South End, 1989); E.S. Herman & G. 0' Sullivan, "Terrorism" as Ideology and Cultural Industry' and A. George, 'The Discipline of Terrorology', both in A. George (ed.), Western State Terrorism (Oxford, 1991); and P. Schlesinger, 'On the Shape and Scope of Counter-Insurgency Thought' in his collection, Media, State and Nation. Political
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