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Terrorism” Was Applied to the Vietnam War Tatiana Nigh Agnes Scott College

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Terrorism” Was Applied to the Vietnam War Tatiana Nigh Agnes Scott College The Onyx Review: The Interdisciplinary Research Journal © 2018 Center for Writing and Speaking 2018, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 105–112 Agnes Scott College Red Terrorists, or Red, White and Blue Terrorists? A Closer Look at How the Word “Terrorism” Was Applied to the Vietnam War Tatiana Nigh Agnes Scott College “Terrorism” has become a familiar term in today’s new stories, but is it being used properly? Has it ever? This paper examines elements of U.S. discourse during the Vietnam War to better understand how U.S. officials and media used the term ‘terrorist’ at the time. One excerpt of the Pentagon Papers is thoroughly examined, along with a conversation between President Lyndon B. Johnson and his national security advisor, and various media sources at the time. The review of these sources concludes that, while the term ‘terrorism’ was not legally misused in all contexts in the Pentagon Papers, there are instances in which it is misapplied by U.S. officials regarding the Vietnamese resistance. LBJ’s conversation with advisor Bundy clearly states the U.S. political agenda to label the Vietnamese as ‘terrorists’ in order to increase waning domestic support for the invasion of Vietnam. With the President's political motives in mind, this paper concludes that the U.S. intentionally painted the Vietnamese resistance as ‘terrorism’ whether or not Vietnamese actions technically fulfilled the term. Although the Pentagon Papers admit no such thing, certain actions taken by U.S. military in targeting and killing civilians for political purposes does legally constitute terrorism. Overall, U.S. officials incorrectly applied the word ‘terrorism’ to the Vietnamese resistance and omitted the word ‘terrorism’ regarding U.S. actions during the Vietnam War. This calls into further question how the word ‘terrorism’ is currently being used or omitted by U.S. officials and media today. n today’s charged political climate, the U.S. government in various descriptions of word ‘terrorism’ is loaded with meaning the Vietnamese resistance as recorded in the I and implication, largely dependent on Pentagon Papers during the Vietnam War. who is using the term. Some, like the head of For the purposes of this paper, examples from BBC Arabic, Tarik Kafala, argue that this only one document from the published heavy term is overused in media and policy Pentagon Papers will be extensively publications without a proper clarification of examined and quoted. Segments of President its contextual definition.1 Since its inception Lyndon B. Johnson’s public statements and a during the French Revolution in 1794, the transcript of a phone call between the word ‘terrorism’ has been used by various President and his National Security Advisor, governments in times of war for hundreds of McGeorge Bundy, will also be analyzed. years.2 Historical context allows Because of the wide scope of the definitions theoreticians to examine the use of the word of ‘terrorism’, various elements of terrorism ‘terrorism’ by various governments in times and differing definitions from multiple U.S. of conflict to better understand how the term government agencies are considered. While is used today. This paper argues that the word this paper finds that in many of the examined ‘terrorism’ was applied inaccurately by the contexts both the U.S. military and the 1 David Shariatmadari, “Is it Time to Stop Using the 2015/jan/27/is-it-time-to-stop-using-the-word- Word 'Terrorist'?” The Guardian, 27 Jan 2015, terrorist. https://www.theguardian.com/global/commentisfree/ 2 Ibid. The Onyx Review, 2018, 3(2) 105 T. Nigh / RED TERRORISTS, OR RED, WHITE AND BLUE TERRORISTS? A CLOSER LOOK AT HOW THE WORD “TERRORISM” WAS APPLIED TO THE VIETNAM WAR Vietnamese resistance knowingly engaged in include the targeting of noncombatants, that acts of selective and massive terror, it immediate victims are not the intended concludes that members of the Vietnamese targets, the perpetrators are not recognized resistance were more often incorrectly combatants, ‘terrorist’ actions violate the identified as terrorists by U.S. government rules of war and seek to inspire fear and officials. ideological change instead of direct goals.5 While most U.S. history texts and media Legal definitions of terrorism can differ representations do not identify the even between U.S. government agencies. Vietnamese resistance to the French Some definitions exclude a government of invasions as ‘terrorism,’ the Vietnamese being able to commit acts of terror, others resistance to the U.S. government in the require that the combatants not be affiliated 1960s and 70s was widely referred to as with any military group; some exclude ‘terrorism’ by U.S. government officials and political assassination, other intentionally list even by American media.3 Understanding the it; some exonerate all parties during times of differing definitions of terrorism within the declared war, others mark that terrorist international community and between incidents increase during war-time. For different U.S. governmental agencies is example, in the Annual Country Reports on important in considering how the term was Terrorism, a report submitted by the U.S. used in official U.S. documents during the Department of State to Congress, a more Vietnam War. broad definition of ‘terrorism’ is used to International peace processes by the maximize the committee’s understanding of United Nations and other intergovernmental potential threats. ‘Terrorism’ is defined as organizations have been challenged by the “premeditated, politically motivated violence lack of a universally accepted definition of perpetrated against noncombatant targets by ‘terrorism.’ Extensive studies have been done subnational groups or clandestine agents.”6 on the definition of the word ‘terrorism,’ and The FBI’s definition of terrorism as outlined only some agreements and common grounds by the U.S. Department of Justice reads: have been reached. According to Schmid’s “International terrorism involves violent acts and Jongman’s study in 1988, common or acts dangerous to human life that are a themes in the various definitions of violation of the criminal laws of the United ‘terrorism’ include the use of violence or States or any state [...] These acts appear to force, the presence of political motivation, be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian fear or terror, threat, and a consideration of population, influence the policy of a the psychological effects and anticipated government by intimidation or coercion, or reactions.4 Other elements that Schmid and affect the conduct of a government by Jongman see regularly in ideas of ‘terrorism’ assassination or kidnapping.”7 This paper 3 “Pentagon Papers,” National Archives, accessed 12 6 “Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003,” U.S. October 2017, Department of State, April 2004, https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/31932 4 “Terrorism: Concepts, Causes and Conflict .pdf, xii. Resolution,” Institute for Conflict Analysis and 7 “Terrorism in the United States 1999: Thirty Years Resolution, George Mason University, Defense of Terrorism,” U.S. Department of Justice: Federal Threat Reduction Agency, (Fort Belvoir, Virginia, Bureau of Investigation, 1999, January 2003) file:///home/chronos/u- http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_ abb8be8feff15799ae86c5f8dfc92b2b776584f3/Down concepts.pdf, 6-11. loads/terror99.pdf. 5 Ibid. The Onyx Review, 2018, 3(2) 106 T. Nigh / RED TERRORISTS, OR RED, WHITE AND BLUE TERRORISTS? A CLOSER LOOK AT HOW THE WORD “TERRORISM” WAS APPLIED TO THE VIETNAM WAR considers the wide scope of the definitions of the Vietnam War.12 For the purposes of this ‘terrorism’ when evaluating its use by U.S. paper, only one document from the published government officials in the Pentagon Papers. Pentagon Papers, “Evolution of the War: Scholarly research and debate has taken Origins of the Insurgency”, will be place regarding communist intentions to extensively examined and quoted. Examples engage in acts of terror during the Vietnam of the correct use, misuse, and ambiguous use War. Hoàng Văn Chí, a Vietnamese scholar of the term “terrorism” are evident in each of and member of the French Socialist Party the documents that make up the Pentagon during the 1930’s, describes the “first wave Papers. However, it is important to note that of terror” from the communist authorities in the term ‘terrorism’ is used and misused in his work From Colonialism to Communism.8 various circumstances within even one He lists a series of “regular tortures” against document of the Pentagon Papers. North Vietnamese peasants to force Part IV. A. 5 of the Pentagon Papers, complaints against General Võ Nguyên Giáp entitled “Evolution of the War: Origins of the that began in 1953, and says that the Insurgency”, covers 1954-1960 and was communists planned to exonerate themselves organized by the Vietnam Task Force of the from these activities by hiring “hard-core Office of the Secretary of Defense.13 In this peasants who could not easily be identified 373 page document, I found that the term with the party.”9 Contrarily, William J. “terrorism” is used nine times; “terrorist(s)” Duiker, a former professor of East Asian is used fifteen times; and “terror” (as applied History at Pennsylvania State University, to politically motivated violence, not an concludes in his book Vietnam: Nation in synonym for ‘fear’) on its own or in other Revolution that the Vietnamese resistance did forms (like the word ‘terroristically’)
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