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HEC EN Thesis Cover and Title Pages The Revolution of a Little Hero: The Sanmao Comic Strips and the Politics of Childhood in China, 1935-1962 Laura Pozzi Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Florence, 7 July 2014 I European University Institute Department of History and Civilization The Revolution of a Little Hero: The Sanmao Comic Strips and the Politics of Childhood in China, 1932-1965 Laura Pozzi Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Examining Board Prof. Stephen A. Smith, (EUI/All Souls College, University of Oxford) Prof. Dirk Moses, (EUI) Prof. Barbara Mittler, (University of Heidelberg) Prof. Harriet Evans, (University of Westminster) © Laura Pozzi, 2014 No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author III IV ABSTRACT This thesis analyses the production, content and development of cartoonist Zhang Leping's Sanmao comic strips between 1935 and 1962 in the context of the growing political and cultural significance of childhood in twentieth century China. After years of wars and dramatic political changes, Sanmao is still a recognizable visual icon in China today, and his lasting popularity makes him an interesting case-study for understanding the development of cartoon art and the political deployment of the image of the 'child' in China over the twentieth century. This thesis investigates two main problems: firstly, it aims to analyze how through his strips Zhang Leping intervened in contemporary debates about the significance and role of children in the development of the Chinese nation; secondly, it follows the transformation of fictional child-hero Sanmao from a commentator on contemporary China in the early 1930s into a sustainer of the Chinese Communist Party after 1949. While Zhang Leping's comic strips have often been considered as a product of political graphic production or as reading material for children, this thesis analyzes the content of Sanmao strips employing childhood as an analytical category in order to understand the role of children in the political and social discourses which took place in China during war and revolution. By analyzing the production of Sanmao comic strips, their relevance in the political context in which they appeared, and the factors which propelled the popularity of the little hero before and after 1949, this thesis shows how the image of Sanmao has changed over time, and how it was ultimately appropriated and reshaped by the CCP in order to fit the party's official vision of history and educational aims. V VI TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................... IX INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1 CARTOONS, COMIC STRIPS AND PICTURE-STORY BOOKS: A DEFINITION ................................................ 4 A BRIEF HISTORY OF CARTOONS AND COMIC STRIPS IN CHINA 1920s-1950s ......................................... 8 A HISTORIOGRAPHY OF CHINESE CARTOON PRODUCTION.................................................................... 12 THE HISTORY OF CHILDREN IN CHINA: A HISTORIOGRAPHY .................................................................. 19 SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 25 THESIS OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 30 1. ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY AND CHILDREN LITERAURE: THE EMERGENCE OF ZHANG LEPING'S SANMAO COMIC STRIPS (1935-1937) ............. 31 A STAR IS BORN: THE EARLY STRIPS OF SANMAO AND THE CONTEMPORARY CHINESE COMIC STRIPS 32 BEYOND THE COMIC STRIP MEDIUM: THE COMMERCIAL DIMENSION OF THE CARTOON HERO ......... 43 SANMAO AND CONTEMPORARY CHINESE CHILDREN' S LITERATURE .................................................... 53 THE CHALLENGING VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF CHILDHOOD IN SANMAO COMIC STRIPS ................. 59 NOT ONLY COMMERCIAL ART: ZHANG LEPING, LEFT-WING CINEMA AND ORPHANS. .......................... 73 A PRODUCT FOR TWO GENERATIONS .................................................................................................... 79 2. FROM ENTERTAINMENT TO PROPAGANDA: THE POLITICAL TURN OF ZHANG LEPING'S COMIC ART DURING THE SECOND SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1937-1945)................................................................................................................................... 89 ZHANG LEPING AND THE NATIONAL CARTOON PROPAGANDA CORPS ................................................. 90 COMIC STRIPS AND HUMOUR DURING THE WAR OF RESISTANCE ...................................................... 100 CHINESE CHILDREN RISE UP! : REPRESENTATIONS OF CHILDREN DURING THE WAR OF RESISTANCE 113 Children as Victims ............................................................................................................................ 121 Children as Activists .......................................................................................................................... 125 THE EMERGENCE OF ORPHANS IN WARTIME PROPAGANDA CARTOONS ........................................... 131 3. REINTERPRETING THE WAR OF RESISTANCE: HUMOUR, CHILDREN AND ANTI-WAR SENTIMENT IN SANMAO JOINS THE ARMY (1945-1946) ........................ 139 ZHANG LEPING AND CARTOON POLITICS IN SHANGHAI IN THE POST-WAR YEARS 1945-1946. .......... 140 THE ORIGIN OF SANMAO JOINS THE ARMY: ZHANG LEPING'S SKETCHES FROM THE BATTLEFIELD IN ZHEXI AND ZHUJI AFTER THE DEVASTATION ........................................................................................ 148 VII WAR AND HUMOUR IN SANMAO JOINS THE ARMY. ............................................................................ 156 REINTERPRETING THE WAR OF RESISTANCE: THE POLITICS OF HUMOUR IN SANMAO JOINS THE ARMY .............................................................................................................................................................. 171 SANMAO JOINS THE ARMY AS CHILDREN'S LITERATURE ...................................................................... 187 4. THE POLITICS OFCHILDREN' S WELFARE IN THE YEARS OF THE CIVIL WAR: THE WANDERING LIFE OF SANMAO (1947-1950) ......................................................... 201 CIVIL WAR, SHANGHAI AND THE ORIGINS OF THE WANDERING LIFE OF SANMAO ............................. 203 THE MAIN THEMES OF THE WANDERING LIFE: ECONOMIC CRISIS, WELFARE, SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND THEIR POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES ........................................................................................................ 209 Social Distress and Economic Crisis in Shanghai. .............................................................................. 211 Charity, Welfare and Anti-Imperialism ............................................................................................. 219 The Moral Collapse of Chinese Society, Growing Inequality and the Visual Rhetoric of Children's Day. .......................................................................................................................................................... 226 PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATION AND POLITICS IN THE WANDERING LIFE: THE CASE OF THE 'SANMAO LIFE EXHIBITION' ........................................................................................................................................... 239 MAKING THE MOVIE: THE CINEMATOGRAPHIC VERSION OF THE WANDERING LIFE OF SANMAO AND THE RADICALIZATION OF ZHANG LEPING'S POLITICAL THOUGHT ........................................................ 252 5. SANMAO LIBERATED: ZHANG LEPING'S WORK IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1949-1963) ............................................................................................................ 265 CULTURE UNDER COMMUNISM: CARTOONS AND LIANHUANHUA DURING THE 1950S AND EARLY 1960S..................................................................................................................................................... 267 CRITICIZING THE WANDERING LIFE, APPROPRIATING SANMAO. ......................................................... 273 ZHANG LEPING'S NEW STRIPS: THE CASE OF SANMAO STANDS UP. .................................................... 283 APPROPRIATING THE WANDERING LIFE: CENSORSHIP AND CORRECTIONS IN THE 1954 EDITION ..... 300 SANMAO IS NOT GUILTY: ZHANG LEPING' S REACTION TO THE NEW CULTURAL RULES DURING THE HUNDRED FLOWERS CAMPAIGN 1956-1957. ....................................................................................... 313 CHILDREN 'S EDUCATION AND THE CCP'S FINAL APPROPRIATION OF SANMAO ................................. 319 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................... 341 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 349 VIII ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It has always been a difficult task for me to strike the right balance between formality and sentimentality when thanking people. Yet, I will do my best to find the right words for thanking
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