TEHRAN, WASHINGTON, AND TERROR: NO AGREEMENT TO DIFFER By Dr. A. William Samii
The U.S. accuses Iran of being a state-sponsor of terrorism, and Iran levels the same accusation at the U.S. The U.S. says that Lebanese Hizballah, Hamas, and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad are terrorists, while Tehran sees them as liberation movements. This is more than a disagreement over terminology -- state-sponsors of terrorism are subject to legal sanctions. Washington has indicated its willingness to hold a dialog with Tehran about terrorism and other issues, but Tehran demands the lifting of sanctions beforehand. What is the potential for a dialog under these circumstances, and what will be the effect of Iranian officials giving aid or sanctuary to al-Qa’ida personnel who are fleeing Afghanistan?
Tehran and Washington have not held an subject of additional legal penalties and official and open bilateral dialogue for some sanctions. Washington has expressed a twenty years, and one of the biggest obstacles willingness to engage in a dialogue with to such a dialogue is Iranian support for what Tehran. Tehran has set as its precondition for the U.S. sees as terrorism. Since 1984, the any dialogue the lifting of these sanctions. U.S. government has described Iran as a state This article will contrast Iranian sponsor of terrorism. The Iranian government definitions of terrorism with the American levels the same accusation at the U.S. definitions of that phenomenon. This article Washington describes organizations that also will discuss Washington’s perspective on Tehran assists, such as Lebanese Hizballah, Tehran’s direct involvement with and support Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), for international terrorism.(3) A discussion and the Popular Front for the Liberation of about alleged Iranian involvement with al- Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC), as Qa’ida, the organization responsible for the terrorist groups. Tehran sees them as 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the liberation movements. U.S., will follow. Iran and the U.S. may The Iranian government feels obliged to continue to discuss issues of mutual interest, support these organizations. According to such as Afghanistan, Iraq, and Nagorno- Article 154 of the Iranian constitution, “while Karabakh, in multilateral fora, and they may completely refraining from any interference hold unofficial bilateral discussions in places in the internal matters of other nations, [Iran] like Cyprus and Switzerland, but supports the rightful struggle of the oppressed disagreements over the fundamental issue of people against their oppressors anywhere in terrorism militate against a more substantive the world.”(1) In the words of a former and open dialogue in the near future. Iranian president, “we support those people who are defending their rights. In Islamic DEFINITIONS OF TERRORISM countries, we stand behind the struggling and “It is time for Iran to give up terror as combatant Muslims. In other places, such as instrument of policy,” the U.S. National Palestine, we do not recognize the legitimacy Security Council senior director for of Israel.”(2) Southwest Asia, the Near East, and North American identification of any country as Africa, Zalmay Khalilzad, said in August a state sponsor of terrorism means that it must 2002 as he described the White House’s dual- be subject to certain legal penalties, and Iran’s track policy of opposing Iran's destructive and involvement with terrorism has made it the
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 53 Dr. A. William Samii unacceptable behavior while laying out a Iranian official said, “One cannot possibly vision of support for the Iranian people.(4) describe the Palestinians' martyrdom One of the problems in dealing with operations as acts of terrorism. … In fact, terrorism is the absence of a commonly they are defending their own rights by accepted definition of it. The U.S. launching such operations.”(9) Department of State concedes, "[n]o one From Tehran’s perspective, Israel is definition of terrorism has gained universal repressing the Palestinian people and Israel acceptance."(5) Nevertheless, since 1983 the invaded and occupied Lebanon. This, for State Department has used the definition of Tehran, is the definition of state terrorism. terrorism contained in Title 22 of the United The head of the Iranian legislature said that States Code, Section 2656f(d). It says that the current Palestinian uprising is "a natural, terrorism means "premeditated, politically legal, and firm reaction against the criminal motivated violence perpetrated against actions of the occupying Israelis."(10) He noncombatant targets by subnational groups added, "the world's freedom-seekers today or clandestine agents, usually intended to have hinged their hopes on this decisive influence an audience." This definition, struggle since they know that no alternative furthermore, says that a "terrorist group" is has been left for the Palestinian people except one that practices, or has any subgroups that for the resistance and fight with the practice, "international terrorism" (which is occupiers." defined as "terrorism involving citizens or the Former Iranian president Ayatollah ‘Ali- territory of more than one country"). Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani recognized the Ayatollah Muhammad ‘Ali Taskhiri of need for a universally acceptable definition of Iran’s Islamic Propagation Organization terrorism: "What is the difference between a attempted to define terrorism in 1987.(6) He freedom fighter and aggressive terrorist.... said: "Terrorism is an act carried out to The UN has to give a description for this achieve an inhuman and corrupt (mufsid) which is acceptable to all of us and is done objective, and involving threat to security of with a majority of votes."(11) any kind, and violation of rights But so far the UN has been unable to acknowledged by religion and mankind." define terrorism. The UN General Assembly Taskhiri said the following did not constitute established a Terrorism Prevention Branch in terrorism: "acts of national resistance 1999 as part of its Office for Drug Control exercised against occupying forces, and Crime Prevention (ODCCP), and the UN colonizers and usurpers; resistance of peoples has adopted 12 conventions and protocols on against cliques imposed on them by the force terrorism. But the member states still have not of arms; rejection of dictatorships and other agreed on a definition of terrorism. A 1992 forms of despotism and efforts to undermine UN study suggested that the definition of their institutions; resistance against racial terrorism should be based on the definition of discrimination and attacks on the latter's a "war crime" – deliberate attacks on strongholds; retaliation against any aggression civilians, hostage takings, and the killing of if there is no other alternative." prisoners. In other words, an act of terrorism In October 2001, the Iranian Foreign is the peacetime equivalent of a war Minister said that there should be a distinction crime.(12) between terrorism and "nationalist, freedom- One day after the 11 September 2001 seeking struggles."(7) This may sound terrorist attacks in the U.S., the United benign, but when he referred to Palestinian Nations Security Council passed a unanimous suicide bombers six months later, the Iranian resolution that it was ready to "take all Foreign Minister said that one could not necessary steps" to respond to them. And less compare them with the individuals who flew than three weeks later (28 September) the hijacked aircraft into the World Trade Center Security Council unanimously voted for and the Pentagon. He explained, “The Resolution 1373, which obliges member difference is that the Palestinians are resisting states to criminalize fund-raising for terrorist the occupation of their land.”(8) And another acts; freeze the assets of people who have
54 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Tehran, Washington and Terror: No Agreement to Differ committed terrorist acts; and "refrain from link terrorism to the struggle of the providing any form of support, including Palestinian people in the exercise of their political or diplomatic, active or passive," to inalienable right to establish their independent terrorists.(13) Moreover, member states are state."(17) Malaysian Prime Minister obliged to "deny safe haven to those who Mahathir Muhammad had suggested that finance, plan, support, or commit terrorist suicide bombers should be condemned with acts;" and they must ensure that terrorists are all who use violence against civilians.(18) brought to justice and punished. Resolution Tehran seemed to approve of this 1373, however, does not define terrorism. resolution. Iranian Deputy Foreign Minister Iranian state radio warned that the Security Muhammad Zarif said, "It is not for us to Council’s failure to define terrorism could define international terrorism for the lead to abuse or the creation of obstacles.(14) international community. It is for us to ask the This is why "it is imperative to present a international community to start a process of precise definition of terrorism and to defining terrorism. That process has distinguish it from the honorable struggles started."(19) A horrified American newspaper that are taking place in the occupied editorialized, on the other hand, “it should not territories within the framework of the right to be hard to agree that a person who detonates legitimate defense." Iranian officials tried to himself in a pizza parlor or a discotheque build up support for their position before the filled with children, spraying scrap metal and October 2001 meeting of the 56-member nails in an effort to kill and maim as many of Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) them as possible, has done something evil that in Doha and the April 2002 OIC meeting in can only discredit and damage whatever cause Kuala Lumpur. he hopes to advance.”(20) After the first of these meetings, Tehran Since that time, the Iranian position on described the OIC communiqué as a defining terrorism has hardened. Ayatollah "practical guide for fighting against Taskhiri, who tried to define terrorism in terrorism."(15) The final communiqué 1987, fifteen years later said, "For the rejected any link between terrorism and the Palestinian people, who are subject to the right of Muslim, Arab, Palestinian, and/or Zionist oppression, the only way is the Lebanese people to pursue "self- continuation of the intifada and martyrdom determination, self-defense, sovereignty, and operations."(21) He also warned that any resistance against Israeli, and foreign, attempt to ban suicide attacks would be a occupation and aggression."(16) Israel, "grave betrayal of Islam and Palestinian moreover, was warned not to exploit the ideals."(22) Taskhiri said that the government current situation to "justify its aggression of Israel is the manifestation of state against the Palestinian people," while the UN, terrorism.(23) EU, U.S., and Russia were urged to end the The views expressed by Ayatollah "siege" imposed on the Palestinians and "stop Hashemi-Rafsanjani during a Friday prayers the barbaric Israeli practices." The "Israeli sermon in May 2002 demonstrated the Government's state terrorism" was mentioned, difference between Iranian and American too. The OIC members expressed their views.(24) He said that whatever America readiness to define "terrorism" and act against does not like is called terrorism, and he it within the context of the UN. The added, “terror has become an instrument for conference rejected the targeting of any Arab the Americans and every day they are or Islamic state on the pretext of combating drawing up a list, saying that this or that terrorism. person supports or does not support The OIC met again in Malaysia in April terrorism.” Rafsanjani criticized the use of 2002, and its 57 members adopted a Israeli tanks in the West Bank and the Gaza resolution that specifically rejected a proposal Strip, and he said that nobody hears the to include Palestinian suicide bombers in a Palestinians’ scream, “so they let the world condemnation of terrorism. The final hear their scream by way of exploding declaration said, "We reject any attempt to themselves.” He continued, “It is very Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 55 Dr. A. William Samii dastardly to describe that [action of suicide practical action against this rare and brutal bombers] as terror, but the crimes of [Israeli aggression.”(29) Prime Minister Ariel] Sharon and Israeli Iranian support for Lebanese Hizballah, forces as peace-seeking acts.” which it helped create, is extensive. Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamene’i, Iran’s top Instrumental in the organization’s creation in political and religious leader, presented a the 1980s was Tehran’s ambassador to Syria, similar view at that time. Khamene’i said, “It ‘Ali-Akbar Mohtashami-Pur, who once said, is the zenith of honor for a man, a young “I consider the Hizballah my sons. I will person, boy or girl, to be prepared to sacrifice always protect them.”(30) Tehran provides his life in order to serve the interests of his Hizballah with money, equipment, training nation and his religion. ... martyrdom-seeking locations, and refuge from extradition, and in operations demonstrate the pinnacle of a the case of Hizballah and Hamas, “Iranian nation's honor. They demonstrate the zenith support totals tens of millions of dollars in of the epic.”(25) direct subsidies each year.”(31) Hizballah officials deny the existence of a IRANIAN SPONSORSHIP OF patron-client relationship with Tehran. TERRORISM Hizballah's deputy secretary general The State Department first identified Iran explained the relationship: "What ties us to as a state sponsor of terrorism in January Iran is a religious bond that results from a 1984. Five years later, the State Department religious reference to the rule of the high noted that that there had been a “major scholar [i.e. Vilayat-i Faqih]."(32) In decrease in international terrorism” as a response to a statement that Hizballah had number of countries reduced their support for adopted the Iranian option in the struggle it, but “Iran was a notable exception to the against Israel, he replied: "Iran is the one that trend.”(26) State sponsorship means that Iran adopted the Hizballah option in its provides terrorists with safe-haven, travel determination to liberate its land. It supports documents, arms, training, and technical the party in liberating the land and also expertise, state support or toleration, which is supports the Palestinians. Therefore, we are a "critical foundation for terrorist groups and the ones with the immediate cause and Iran their operations," and "state sponsors still supports it and we thank it for doing so." represent a key impediment to the Hizballah officials also claim that Iranian international campaign against terrorism." assistance is benign. The organization’s "Iran remained the most active state sponsor secretary-general said that Iran has been of terrorism in 2001," according to the U.S. funding martyrs' and prisoners' families, as State Department's annual Patterns of Global well as offering medical aid, through its Al- Terrorism -- 2001 report.(27) Shahid and Al-Imdad foundations.(33) The Patterns of Global Terrorism -- 2001 The public record supports the assertion report notes that Iranian support for groups that officials from all of these organizations that use violence against Israel has increased have been in frequent contact with Iranian since the outbreak of the Palestinian uprising. officials in this time frame, although an Indeed, Tehran does not apologize for or outside observer cannot be certain about the attempt to hide its support for Hizballah, content of discussions at such meetings. Hamas, or the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). Representatives from the Palestinian In September 2001 the Islamic Revolution Authority, Hizballah, Hamas, and the Guards Corps (IRGC) hosted a popular Palestinian Islamic Jihad visited Tehran or exhibition in Tehran that featured displays by met with Iranian officials in Beirut and Hizballah, Hamas, and the PIJ.(28) Iranian Damascus in July, August, September, and Supreme Leader Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamene’i October 2000. later defended these organizations by saying, The Iranian Foreign Minister met with “The only sin of Hamas, Islamic Jihad, and Hizballah Secretary General Hassan Nasrallah Hizballah of Lebanon and all other true during a March 2001 trip to Lebanon and fighters of the battle is that they have taken Syria.(34) Tehran hosted PFLP-GC head
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Ahmed Jibril in May 2001, and he met with member Khalid Mishaal, participated in a Expediency Council chairman ‘Ali-Akbar January 2002 conference in Beirut.(43) The Hashemi-Rafsanjani and Speaker of final statement of this conference noted: “The Parliament Mehdi Karrubi during that martyrdom operations that the Mujahidin trip.(35) At the end of April 2001, carry out against the Zionist enemy are representatives from Hamas, Hizballah, and legitimate operations... They represent the the PIJ, as well as representatives from the highest level of martyrdom and they are the Fatah Tanzim, Force 17, and the pro-Syrian way to win God's blessing and paradise. ... It Al-Ahbash organization, met with officials is one of the resistance's most important from the Iranian Ministry of Intelligence and strategic weapons.”(44) It also rejected the Security and the IRGC in Corfu.(36) The U.S. terrorism lists. The head of the Iranian head of the PIJ said during a June event at the Supreme Leader’s office in April 2002 told a Iranian Embassy in Beirut that Israel would Damascus meeting of Syrian, Iranian, Iraqi, be eliminated, and he warned Israelis to and Lebanese religious people that Iran’s prepare more wreaths for their dead "because policy is to "strengthen and support the front there are more martyrdom seekers among the line of resistance against the Zionist Palestinian people who are waiting for the regime."(45) right moment to change this entity to an Tehran hosted the April 2001 "Support for unbearable hell."(37) the Palestinian Intifada" conference, which An Iranian vice president met with the was attended by representatives of Hizballah, Hizballah secretary-general in November Hamas, the PIJ, and the PFLP-GC, as well as 2001.(38) The Iranian Deputy Foreign officials from several Islamic countries. Minister for Arab-African Affairs met with Iranian officials had individual meetings with the Hizballah secretary-general in December their guests – Supreme Leader Khamene’i 2001, and he affirmed Iran’s position on met with Hizballah Secretary-General Hassan terrorism: “We have always declared that we Nasrallah, while President Muhammad do not support the U.S. definition of Khatami met with Nasrallah, PIJ Secretary- terrorism. We consider resistance to the General Ramadan Abdallah Shallah, and occupation to be a legitimate right for the PFLP-GC head Ahmed Jibril.(46) The nation. Based on that, we do not accept at all Palestinian Authority, Fatah, and Fatah that Hizballah should be branded a terrorist Uprising signed off on the conference’s final organization.”(39) statement.(47) In February 2002, another Iranian vice Tehran hosted another "Support for the president reiterated his country’s support for Palestinian Intifada" conference on 2-3 June “the Lebanese resistance” when he met with 2002. Representatives of Hamas, Hizballah, the Hizballah chief in Damascus.(40) The the PIJ, and the Popular Front for the Iranian Foreign Minister met with him in Liberation of Palestine -- General Command Beirut in April 2002.(41) The Deputy- (PFLP-GC) participated in this event, as did Speaker of the Iranian parliament met with over 160 officials from Iran and 23 other Hizballah’s secretary-general during a June countries.(48) PIJ Secretary-General 2002 trip to Lebanon, and while he was in the Ramadan Abdallah Shallah, Hizballah Deputy southern part of the country he declared, “We Secretary-General Sheikh Naim Qasim, and also hope to see in the near future the victory PFLP-GC Secretary-General Ahmad Jibril of the Palestinian people's intifada, God heard a warning from conference secretary willing. The victory of the Islamic resistance Hojatoleslam ‘Ali-Akbar Mohtashami-Pur: in southern Lebanon has had a great effect on “Dissension, discord, and despondency the Palestinian people's intifada.”(42) among Islamic governments will contribute to Iranian officials also meet with the growth of that cancerous tumor, representatives of these organizations in Israel."(49) The head of the PIJ said that multilateral fora. ‘Ali-Akbar Mohtashami- "martyrdom operations" would continue, Pur, along with Hizballah’s Secretary-General adding, "We have the right to sacrifice our Hassan Nasrallah and Hamas politburo bodies for something that is more sacred than Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 57 Dr. A. William Samii our own lives and America does not have the butcher the Palestinians. I mean the right to oppose this."(50) U.S. Administration.(57) The State Department’s terrorism report that covers 2001 notes an increase in Iranian After Hizballah operatives were apprehended encouragement of Hizballah and rejectionist as they attempted to deliver Katyusha rockets Palestinian groups to coordinate their to Palestinian militants, Nasrallah reiterated planning and activities, and the report this theme: describes the January 2002 Israeli seizure in the Red Sea of a ship that was carrying 50 In principle, we believe that the least tons of weaponry in boxes bearing Iranian that can be done for the Palestinian markings.(51) Tehran denied any connection people is to provide them with with the ship, which was called the Karine A, weapons and funds. ... The or the weapons, which were destined for the Palestinians have not asked us to send Palestinian Authority. In the words of the them combat forces. All they are Iranian Defense Minister, "The Islamic asking for is support and backing, Republic of Iran has had no military relations primarily with arms. We therefore with [Palestinian Authority leader Yassir] consider it our duty as well as the Arafat, and no steps have been taken by any duty of everyone to send weapons to Iranian organization for the shipment of arms the Palestinians. ... If delivering or to the mentioned lands."(52) sending weapons to the Palestinians is Palestinian Authority leader Yassir Arafat a punishable crime by law, then we denied that there was any military cooperation are ready to be punished and to be between Tehran and the PA, saying, “I called by whatever name. (58) challenge everyone who wants to prove that I have relations with Iran,” and he denied a Tehran also is identified by the State connection with the ship.(53) By early Department as a backer of the Islamic February, however, Arafat had accepted some Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the responsibility for the arms shipment.(54) Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). Tehran There were more Palestinian denials when supports the Islamic Movement of Kurdistan allegations of a Tehran-PLO relationship (IMK), according to the State Department, appeared in the media in March 2002.(55) and recent reports from Iraqi Kurdistan The Palestinian Authority Cabinet Secretary indicate that Tehran is backing an Islamic said that the allegation "is an illusion in the group identified as the Supporters of Islam in sick Israeli mind," and he added, "This Israeli Kurdistan (Peshtiwanani Islam le Kurdistan, fabrication is a big lie. The report's reference PIK, but which also has used the names Ansar to an Iranian-Palestinian alliance is totally al-Islam and Jund al-Islam).(59) false.”(56) North African governments complain of The Hizballah leadership denied any Iranian-sponsored terrorism. Algiers accuses involvement with the Karine A affair, but it Tehran and Khartoum of supporting the said that arming the Palestinians was the right Armed Islamic Group -- which aims to thing to do. In the words of Hizballah overthrow the secular Algerian regime and Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah: replace it with an Islamic state – and the Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC) – Delivering arms to the Palestinians is which has surpassed the GIA and is perceived a legitimate action. It is also a moral as the most effective armed group inside action. In fact, the most moral action Algeria. Cairo believes that Iran, Sudan, and these days and on the face of this Afghan militant groups support Al-Gamaat earth is sending arms to the al-Islamiyya (Islamic Group) and al-Jihad Palestinians. It is a legal action. The (a.k.a. Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Jihad Group, terrorist is not the one who sends arms Islamic Jihad, Vanguards of Conquest, Talaa' to the Palestinians, but the one who al-Fateh).(60) Some of these claims about gives arms to Ariel Sharon in order to Iranian involvement in North African and
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Central Asian terrorism probably are little terrorist acts and continued to support a more than exaggerations by governments that variety of groups that use terrorism to pursue do not want to admit to homegrown domestic their goals.”(64) unrest. The pursuit of different agendas by In his August 2002 speech on U.S. policy different Iranian institutions is not a new towards Iran, the NSC’s Khalilzad described development, and attributing undesirable Iranian involvement in the June 1996 Iranian actions to the internal political conflict bombing of a U.S. Air Force housing between “hardliners” and “reformists” is not complex in al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Iran is entirely inaccurate.(65) Nevertheless, the referred to almost 40 times in the 21 June country’s leadership – both elected and 2001 indictment of 14 people for that unelected -- appears to be united on some bombing, which killed 19 American aspects of international relations. servicemen and wounded 372 other Supreme Leader Ayatollah ‘Ali Americans.(61) No Iranians are actually Khamene’i declared in January 2001 that "the indicted, but the indictment says that the essence of the Islamic state opposes the individuals responsible for this attack were Zionist regime and [Iran's] permanent stance members of Saudi Hizballah (a.k.a. Hizballah dictates that Israel should be eliminated from al-Hijaz), Hizballah was a name used by "a the region."(66) In the same month, President number of related terrorist organizations Muhammad Khatami "called for extending all operating in Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Kuwait, forms of aid and support to the valiant and Bahrain, among other places," and Palestinian intifada,"(67) and he declared that "[t]hese Hizballah organizations were Israel is "an artificial entity created under the inspired, supported, and directed by elements aegis of the international colonialism, Israel of the Iranian government." which has inflicted great damage to the The indictment states that the named Islamic Ummah [community] including the individuals were in direct contact with the Palestinian nation."(68) A few months later, Iranian Embassy in Damascus or traveled the deputy speaker of parliament said, with vehicles provided by that embassy; had "Although there may be some minor close associations with military elements of differences among Iranian officials on various the Iranian government; and/or traveled to internal issues, all authorities of the country Iran for military and religious training. They share a common view regarding support for reported to Iranian officials and were directed the resistance movement of the Palestinian by an Iranian military officer.(62) Four of the nation against Israel.”(69) men on Washington’s list of most-wanted Lebanese Hizballah’s spiritual leader international terrorists, which was announced rejects allegations that there are divisions in in October 2001, are named in the the Iranian political elite regarding Tehran's indictment.(63) stand towards his organization. He said: Early U.S. reports on Iranian terrorism "Imam Khamene’i, the Supreme Leader of the noted that Tehran used its intelligence Islamic Republic, is committed to the services to facilitate and conduct terrorist resistance and is in agreement with President attacks, and intelligence officers in Iranian Khatami in this regard. Therefore, anyone embassies used the diplomatic pouch to who tries to play this game of the political convey weapons and finances to terrorist space between Khamene’i and Khatami as far groups. 1999, 2000, and 2001 reports try to as the resistance is concerned is not aware of narrow the focus, noting, “the actions of the nature of the agreement in the minds of certain state institutions in support of terrorist these two gentlemen."(70) groups made Iran the most active state sponsor of terrorism.” These state institutions IRAN AND AL-QA’IDA are identified as the Islamic Revolution Tehran makes no secret of its relationship Guards Corps (IRGC) and the Ministry of with Hizballah, Hamas, the PIJ, and the Intelligence and Security (MOIS), which are PFLP-GC, but it rejects allegations that is has “involved in the planning and execution of anything to do with al-Qa’ida, the terrorist Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 59 Dr. A. William Samii organization responsible for the 11 September Baluchistan, although he remained adamant 2001 terrorist attacks against the United that no al-Qa’ida members had entered the States. Indeed, the U.S. State Department’s country.(76) Iranian parliamentarians and Patterns of Global Terrorism -- 2001 report regional media, however, openly discussed states: “There is no evidence of Iranian the detention in Iran of al-Qa’ida sponsorship or foreknowledge of the members.(77) The Iranian Foreign Minister September 11 terrorist attacks in the United told the legislature in early-March that all of States.” Nevertheless, anonymous officials the detainees were sent to their countries of from the U.S. intelligence community and origin, and Tehran’s permanent representative intelligence community documents assert that to the UN repeated this claim later in the al-Qa’ida tried to establish a relationship with month.(78) Iran in the mid-1990s, and U.S. officials American officials continued to say, in the accuse hard-line and unaccountable elements following months, that al-Qa’ida elements within the Iranian government of facilitating were escaping Afghanistan with help from the escape from Afghanistan of al-Qa’ida Iranian officials, and Tehran continued to personnel after October 2001.(71) reject these accusations. In his 2 August 2002 Contacts between al-Qa’ida and Iran speech detailing U.S. policy towards Iran, allegedly date back to December 1995, U.S. National Security Council official according to “United States intelligence Zalmay Khalilzad said that some reports.”(72) At that time, an Egyptian named unaccountable governmental elements Mustafa Hamid (also known as Abu Walid), facilitated the terrorists’ movements through an associate of al-Qa’ida leader Usama bin Iran, possibly without the knowledge of the Ladin, visited Iran. Another bin Ladin elected officials. Khalilzad said that associate, a Tajik named Abdullah Nuri, extraditions are insufficient: “The Iranian contacted agents from Iran’s Ministry of government should follow up with its own Intelligence and Security in July 1996 and people and the international community on urged them to get in touch with bin Ladin. how many al-Qa’ida members are in Iran and These “intelligence reports” do not say if the who and how many have transited out of meeting ever occurred. Iran.”(79) U.S. officials said in January 2002 that al- Coinciding with concerns about the Qa’ida personnel had fled into Iran, and in a disappearance of al-Qa’ida personnel were television interview the next month the U.S. concerns that al-Qa’ida would establish links Secretary of Defense said that “Iran has been with other terrorist organizations. Hizballah permissive and allowed transit through their seemed a likely candidate, as it already had a country of al-Qa’ida.”(73) Tehran reacted to relationship of sorts with al-Qa’ida. During a these assertions with its usual denials and trial relating to al-Qa’ida’s 1998 bombings of accusations. President Muhammad Khatami, the U.S embassies in Nairobi and Dar es for example, said that “the borders of Iran and Salaam, a man described by the U.S. Afghanistan are totally closed and total border government as a long-time and trusted controls mean that we will never permit lieutenant of bin Ladin had testified that he terrorists or terrorist groups to cross the made the security arrangements for a meeting borders.”(74) And the Foreign Ministry between the head of Hizballah and bin Ladin spokesman said, “The recent U.S. accusations sometime in the mid- to late-1990s.(80) This against Iran are inspired and dictated by the individual testified that Hizballah gave Zionist regime.”(75) explosives training for al-Qa’ida and the Tehran eventually conceded the near Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and the Egyptians impossibility of sealing the 936 kilometer- also obtained weapons from Iran. long border, and the Iranian Minister of Anonymous “administration and Intelligence and Security acknowledged the intelligence officials” confirmed that al- arrest of many foreigners who had rushed to Qa’ida, Hamas, and Hizballah personnel had the Taliban’s aid and later, after they fled met in Lebanon in March 2002, and by late- Afghanistan, entered Iran through Pakistani June 2002, anonymous “U.S. and European
60 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Tehran, Washington and Terror: No Agreement to Differ intelligence officials and terrorism experts” counterparts from Hizballah, Hamas, the PIJ, were claiming that Lebanese Hizballah had and the PFLP-GC in Tehran and other places, teamed up with al-Qa’ida for logistics and furthermore, it does not mean that the Iranians training.(81) This new cooperative are providing them with the means or the relationship was described as “ad hoc and encouragement to carry out terrorist activities. tactical and [involving] mid- and low-level When high-level American officials go on operatives,” and it included “coordination on record as saying that Iran is behind terrorist explosives and tactics training, money activities, however, it is fairly certain that laundering, weapons smuggling and acquiring they have convincing evidence of this. The forged documents.” An anonymous “senior same can be said about the State U.S. intelligence official” said that Iran tried Department’s annual reports on terrorism. It to limit Hizballah contacts with al-Qa’ida out is reasonable to expect the intelligence of fear of becoming a target in the war on community to protect its sources and terror, and some analysts doubted that the two methods. Who one chooses to believe – groups could have buried their long-standing Tehran or Washington – comes down to a theological differences.(82) matter of trust and patriotism. Hizballah Secretary-General Hassan This article, therefore, is more about Nasrallah denied links between his perceptions. Washington sees Iran as a state organization and al-Qa’ida. In his words, supporter of terrorism. Tehran denies this and “there is not one Hizballah member who has a levels the same accusation at Washington. connection with al-Qa’ida. There has not been After the State Department released its any relationship between Hizballah and al- Patterns of Global Terrorism -- 2001 report, Qa’ida, either in the past or now.”(83) He did the Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman said not attribute this to Sunni-Shia theological that the statements about Iranian support of differences, pointing out that Hizballah has a terrorism are "baseless and outside the scope “strong relationship” with Hamas and the of U.S. authority."(87) He said that the PIJ.(84) Nasrallah explained that Hizballah charges against Iran reflected U.S. hostility to and al-Qa’ida do not cooperate because they the Islamic republic and were meant as a work in different areas and face different whitewash of failures in U.S. foreign policy, enemies, with Hizballah focusing on “the and the Palestinians' efforts to liberate the Zionist plan and resisting the occupation... occupied territories reflect a "legitimate The priority that governs our relations, resistance." Iranian state radio commented, friendships and enmities, or closeness or "America, as the main supporter of this remoteness from anyone is the conflict with regime [Israel] is the main supporter of the Israeli enemy and the confrontation of the terrorism in the world."(88) Zionist plan.”(85) Bin Ladin’s focus has been These conflicting perceptions are not Afghanistan, Yugoslavia, Bosnia, and without costs for Iran. Identification as a state Chechnya, according to Nasrallah, “So we are sponsor of terrorism means that the U.S. talking about two different areas and battles government will impose four sets of sanctions facing two completely different enemies. This against Iran. These sanctions include a ban on was the reason why there wasn't any contact.” arms-related exports and sales, as well as (86) controls over the export of dual-use items ("goods or services that could significantly CONCLUSION enhance the terrorist-list country's military Academic observers could regard as capability or ability to support terrorism"). sloppy official American reports about Economic assistance will be prohibited, too. Iranian support for international terrorism Other restrictions include opposition to loans because they do not offer proof or evidence to from the World Bank and other international support their assertions. Statements by U.S. financial institutions, denial of tax credits to government officials who refuse to be individuals and companies who earn income identified are not entirely convincing, either. in listed countries, prohibitions on unlicensed Just because Iranian officials meet with their financial transactions with listed Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 61 Dr. A. William Samii governments, and prohibition of Defense (Bonyad-i Iran-Shenasi), which is affiliated Department contracts worth more than with Iran’s Ministry of Education and $100,000 with companies controlled by listed Training 62 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Tehran, Washington and Terror: No Agreement to Differ 2klzd.htm>. Khalilzad said in a March 13, 15. Foreign Minister Kamal Kharrazi, IRNA, 2002 speech to the American-Iranian October 11, 2001. Council’s Noruz gala that Tehran supports 16. Communiqué of the Ninth Extraordinary terrorism, and he called on Iran "to take the Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign decisive action necessary in the fight against Ministers; Doha, Qatar; (10 October 2001); terrorism." Two of the steps that Khalilzad 33. Hizballah Secretary-General Hassan Gaza Strip;” Patterns of Global Terrorism – Nasrallah during a May 25, 2001 call-in 2001, released May 21, 2002. program on Qatar's Al-Jazirah satellite 52. Minister of Defense and Armed Forces television. Logistics ‘Ali Shamkhani, cited by IRNA, 34. Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mar January 13, 2002. 20, 2001. 53. Jerusalem’s Channel 2 TV, January 16, 35. IRNA, May 2, 2001. 2002. 36. Paris' Al-Watan al-Arabi, May 11, 2001 54. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell 37. PIJ Secretary-General Ramadan Abdallah testified to the House Appropriations Shallah, cited by Beirut’s Manar Television, Committee that “He [Arafat] wrote me a letter June 5, 2001. three days ago on the Karine-A, accepting 38. Iranian Vice President for Legal and responsibility - not personal responsibility, Parliamentary Affairs Muhammad ‘AliAbtahi but as chairman of the Palestinian Authority." met with Nasrallah, according to reports from BBC, February 14, 2002, and NYT, February Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 14, 2002. This acceptance of responsibility November 9, 2001, and Beirut’s Manar appeared to be little more than a sop to the Television, November 9, 2001. U.S., because Arafat continued to deny any 39. Muhammad Sadr speaking during a responsibility for the incident in interviews meeting with Hassan Nasrallah, Beirut’s with Arabic media. In a February 16, 2002 Manar Television, December 28, 2001. interview with London’s MBC television, 40. Syrian Arab TV, February 14, 2002, and Arafat said: “It [Israel] has exploited the IRNA, February 15, 2002. [arms] ship affair. Does anybody believe that 41. Beirut’s Manar Television, April 12, the Iranians give us weapons? The Iranians 2002. have denied that. Do I need weapons? 42. Beirut’s Manar Television, June 2, 2002. As is known, I left Beirut with my weapon. I 43. Beirut’s Manar Television, January 9, also left Tripoli with my weapon. I have 2002. weapons everywhere. Why should I go and 44. Al-Safir, January 11, 2002. purchase [weapons] while I have no money?” 45. Hojatoleslam Muhammadi Golpayegani, 55. The arms shipment on the Karine A was cited by Vision of the Islamic the result of a secret alliance created by Republic of Iran, April 27, 2002. Tehran and Palestinian Authority leader 46. On Khamene’i’s meeting with Nasrallah; Yassir Arafat, according to anonymous London’s Al-Sharq al-Awsat, April 26, 2001. sources cited in The New York Times, March Khamene’i delivered the conference’s 24, 2002. Un-named “American and Israeli opening speech; Tehran Times, April 25, officials” added that since the Palestinian 2002. President Khatami’s meetings with the uprising began Tehran has provided cash heads of the PIJ, PFLP-GC, and Hizballah are bonuses to Palestinian Islamic Jihad for each described in several IRNA dispatches, April suicide bombing. 24, 2001. 56. Palestinian Authority Cabinet Secretary 47. Al-Jazirah satellite television, April 25, Ahmad Abd al-Rahman, cited by Al-Ayyam, 2001. March 25, 2002. 48. IRNA, June 2, 2002. 57. Doha’s Al-Watan March 19, 2002. 49. Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 58. London’s Al-Majallah, March 24-30, June 2, 2002. 2002. 50. PIJ Secretary-General Ramadan Abdallah 59. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Shallah, cited by Vision of the Islamic Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Republic of Iran, June 2, 2002. Containment, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 51. “In January 2002, Israeli forces boarded 1997), p. 149. PIK leader Mala Krekar visited the vessel Karine-A in the Red Sea and Iran in May 2002, Hawlati reported on May uncovered nearly 50 tons of Iranian arms, 27, 2002, and the Kurdish daily emphasized including Katyusha missiles, apparently that Iran clandestinely supports the PIK. bound for militants in the West Bank and Amidst speculation about al-Qa’ida support 64 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Tehran, Washington and Terror: No Agreement to Differ for the Kurdish Islamists, PUK commander accused Iranian hardliners of trying to use the Ramadan Dekoni said that Tehran supports perceived military threat and the creation of the PIK, the weekly Ray Gishti reported on tensions as an excuse for declaring a state of July 7, 2002. The PUK is generally reluctant emergency; Aftab-i Yazd, February 25, 2002. to discuss Tehran’s relationship with the During this state of emergency the hardliners Islamists, because of its dependence on and could stifle political debate. vulnerability to Iran. 66. Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 60. Regarding Iranian involvement in January 15, 2001. Egyptian terrorism, see Barry Rubin, Islamic 67. Khatami’s meeting with Syrian President Fundamentalism in Egyptian Politics, 2nd Bashar Assad, Damascus radio, January 25, revised edition (Palgrave Press, 2002). 2001. 61. See the statement by Attorney General 68. IRNA, January 7, 2001 John Ashcroft, 69. Muhammad Reza Khatami during a 66 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002)