The Nature of Emotion Fundamental Questions 2nd Edition
Edited by Andrew S. Fox Regina C. Lapate Alexander J. Shackman Richard J. Davidson
The Nature of Emotion. Fundamental Questions.
Second Edition
Andrew S. Fox, Regina C. Lapate, Alexander J. Shackman & Richard J. Davidson DEDICATION
ǡǡ ǡǤ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Paul Ekman for his support, advice, and contributions to both editions of The Nature of Emotion.
We gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Allegra Anderson, Andy DeClercq, Kathryn DeYoung, Laura Friedman, S. Islam, Susan Jensen, Gloria Kim, Jason Smith, Melissa Stockbridge, and Do Tromp. Joan Bossert, who served as editor of both editions of the book, provided support and guidance throughout the multi-year project of writing and assembling the book.
We also want to acknowledge the seminal contributions of our distinguished colleague and contributor, Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017), who helped popularize the idea of affective neuroscience as a distinct field of scientific inquiry. Jaak passed away just before this volume went to press.
Andrew Fox, Regina Lapate, and Alexander Shackman acknowledge the unique intellectual opportunities afforded to us and to many other trainees at the University of California, San Francisco and the University of Wisconsin—Madison as part of the National Institute of Mental Health-supported Training Program in Emotion Research (T32-MH018931) and the Wisconsin Symposium on Emotion (co-led by Richard Davidson and Ned Kalin).
Andrew Fox’s work is supported by the California National Primate Center and University of California, Davis. Regina Lapate’s work is supported by the National Institutes of Health (MH113347). Alexander Shackman’s work is supported by the National Institutes of Health (DA040717, MH107444) and University of Maryland, College Park. Richard Davidson’s work is supported by the National Institutes of Health (AG051426, AT004952, HD090256, MH018931, MH043454, MH100031), Silicon Valley Community Foundation, the University of Wisconsin—Madison, and several gifts to the Center for Healthy Minds.
—A.S.F., R.C.L., A.J.S. & R.J.D. Author Contributions
R.J.D. and Paul Ekman developed the overall structure and spirit of the book. A.J.S. initiated the second edition. R.J.D. coordinated interactions with the Publisher and provided theoretical and practical guidance. The Editors collectively developed the 14 fundamental questions and recruited Contributors. A.S.F. developed a database and wrote code to track essay submissions and communicate with Contributors. A.S.F., R.C.L., and A.J.S. edited essays and wrote the afterwords. R.J.D. wrote the preface to Ekman's essay. The Editors developed the overall structure of the Epilogue. A.S.F. and A.J.S. wrote the Epilogue. The Editors revised the Epilogue. A.J.S. wrote the ancillary sections of the book, including the Introduction. A.S.F. and R.C.L. revised the ancillary sections. The Editors and Contributors proofread their respective portions of the book. AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS
Adam K. Anderson Department of Human Development Cornell University
Ralph Adolphs California Institute of Technology
Lauren Y. Atlas National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
Yair Bar-Haim School of Psychological Sciences Tel Aviv University
Lisa Feldman Barrett Department of Psychology, Northeastern University; Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School
Nick Berggren Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck University of London
Kent C. Berridge Department of Psychology University of Michigan
Jennifer Urbano Blackford Departments of Psychological Sciences and Psychiatry Vanderbilt University
D. Caroline Blanchard Pacific Biosciences Research Center ᦣ¢
Lindsay C. Bowman Center for Mind and Brain and Department of Psychology University of California, Davis
Margaret M. Bradley Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, Gainesville, FL University of Florida
Laura L. Carstensen Department of Psychology Stanford University
Julia Cataldo Harvard College
Joshua M. Carlson Department of Psychology Northern Michigan University
Luke J. Chang Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Dartmouth College
Joan Y. Chiao International Cultural Neuroscience Consortium
Gerald L. Clore Department of Psychology University of Virginia
Roshan Cools Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging Radboud University
Daniel T. Cordaro Yale University
Eveline A. Crone Leiden University
Antonio Damasio Brain and Creativity Institute University of Southern California
Hanna Damasio Brain and Creativity Institute University of Southern California
Richard J. Davidson Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, Center for Healthy Minds, University of Wisconsin—Madison,
Mauricio R. Delgado Department of Psychology Rutgers University
Nazanin Derakshan Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck University of London
Nancy Eisenberg Arizona State University
Naomi I. Eisenberger Department of Psychology University of California, Los Angeles
Paul Ekman Paul Ekman Group, LLC, San Francisco, CA USA
Phoebe C. Ellsworth University of Michigan
Jan B. Engelmann Amsterdam School of Economics University of Amsterdam
Haakon G. Engen Department of Social Neuroscience, Max-Planck-Institute of Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, UK
Dominic S. Fareri Gordon F. Derner Advanced Institute for Psychological Studies Adelphi University
Andrew S. Fox Department of Psychology and California National Primate Research Center University of California, Davis
Nathan A. Fox Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology University of Maryland
Barbara L. Fredrickson University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jonathan B. Freeman Department of Psychology New York University
Karl J. Friston The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging University College London
Matthias Gamer Department of Psychology Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg
Beatrice de Gelder Department of Cognitive Neuroscience Maastricht University
Maria Gendron Department of Psychology Northeastern University
Paul Glimcher Center for Neural Science New York University
Hill H. Goldsmith Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin–Madison
Todd A. Hare Department of Economics University of Zurich
Lasana T. Harris Department of Social and Organizational Psychology Leiden University
Catherine Hartley Department of Psychology New York University
Maciel M. Hernández Arizona State University
Aaron S. Heller Department of Psychology University of Miami
Ursula Hess Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Emma Hitchcock University of Colorado. Boulder
Candice Hogan Department of Psychology Stanford University
Quentin Huys Translational Neuromodeling Unit ETH Zürich and University of Zürich
Mateus Joffily Groupe d'Analyse et de Theorie Economique Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Lyon, France
Tom Johnstone School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences and Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics University of Reading
Eshin Jolly Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Dartmouth College
Jerome Kagan Department of Psychology Harvard University
Dacher Keltner University of California, Berkeley
Brian Knutson Department of Psychology Stanford University
Anjali Krishnan Brooklyn College of the City University of New York
Peter J. Lang Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, Gainesville, FL University of Florida
Regina C. Lapate Department of Psychology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute University of California, Berkeley
Daniel H. Lee Institute of Cognitive Science University of Colorado, Boulder
Edward P. Lemay, Jr. Department of Psychology University of Maryland
Amy Lehrner James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, New York Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Robert W. Levenson Department of Psychology and Institute of Personality and Social Research University of California, Berkeley
Wen Li Department of Psychology Florida State University
Matthew D. Lieberman University of California, Los Angeles
Verena Ly Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging Radboud University
Keren Maoz School of Psychological Sciences Tel Aviv University
Marie-France Marin Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute Department of Psychiatry University of Montreal
Jared Martin Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin--Madison
Bruce S. McEwen Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology The Rockefeller University
Katie A. McLaughlin Department of Psychology University of Washington
Andrew N. Meltzoff Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology University of Washington
Mohammed R. Milad Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston MA and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School
Elisabeth A. Murray Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory Laboratory of Neuropsychology National Institute of Mental Health
Kristin Naragon-Gainey Department of Psychology State University of New York at Buffalo
Charles A. Nelson Harvard Medical School and Boston Children’s Hospital Harvard Graduate School of Education
Paula Niedenthal Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin--Madison
Lucas R. Novak Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin--Madison
Hadas Okon-Singer Department of Psychology University of Haifa
Hanneke den Ouden Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging Radboud University
Jaak Panksepp Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience College of Veterinary Medicine Washington State University
Carolyn Parkinson Department of Psychology University of California, Los Angeles
Brandon L. Pearson University of North Carolina Neuroscience Center University of North Carolina School of Medicine
Luiz Pessoa Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, and Maryland Neuroimaging Center University of Maryland
Jennifer H. Pfeifer University of Oregon
Rosalind W. Picard MIT Media Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Justin Reber Departments of Neurology and Psychology University of Iowa
Carien M. van Reekum School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences and Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics University of Reading
David A. Reinhard University of Virginia
Betty M. Repacholi Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology University of Washington
Edmund T. Rolls Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford UK Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry UK
Melissa A. Rosenkranz Center for Healthy Minds University of Wisconsin--Madison
Carol D. Ryff Institute on Aging & Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin--Madison
Tim V. Salomons School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics University of Reading
Disa Sauter University of Amsterdam
Anil K. Seth Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science and Department of Informatics University of Sussex
Alexander J. Shackman Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, and Maryland Neuroimaging Center University of Maryland
Rebecca L. Shiner Department of Psychology Colgate University
Tamara Sims Department of Psychology Stanford University
Peter Sokol-Hessner Department of Psychology University of Denver
Leah H. Somerville Department of Psychology Harvard University
Mirre Stallen Department of Psychology Stanford University
Melissa D. Stockbridge Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences University of Maryland
Daniel M. Stout Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System Department of Psychiatry University of California, San Diego
Marco Tamietto Department of Psychology, University of Torino, Italy; Center of Research on Psychology in Somatic diseases - CoRPS - Tilburg University, The Netherlands; and Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, UK
Alexandra Touroutoglou Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry and Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital
Jessica Tracy University of British Columbia
Daniel Tranel Departments of Neurology and Psychology University of Iowa
Kay M. Tye Picower Institute for Learning and Memory Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Agnieszka Tymula School of Economics University of Sydney
Tania Singer Department of Social Neuroscience Max-Planck-Institute of Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig
Tor D. Wager University of Colorado Boulder
Leanne Williams Stanford University School of Medicine, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center VA Palo Alto Health Care System
Adrienne Wood Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin--Madison
Jolie Wormwood Department of Psychology Northeastern University
Rachel Yehuda James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, New York Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Yuqi You Department of Psychology Florida State University
David H. Zald Departments of Psychological Sciences and Psychiatry Vanderbilt University
TABLEOFCONTENTS Dedication Introduction PrefacetoPaulEkman’sEssay Ǥ Howemotionsmightwork Question1.Whatisanemotion? ǣ Ƭ ǫ ǤƬǤ Ǥ ǣ Ǥ ǡ ǫ Ǥ Ǥ ǡ ǡ ƬǤ
ǤƬ Ǥ Question2.Howareemotions,moodandtemperamentrelated? ǣ ǡǦǤǦǡ Ǧ Ƭ Ǥ ǣ ǡǡ ǤƬǤ Ǥ ǡǤƬǤ Question3.Whatarethedimensionsandbasesforlastingindividualdifferencesinemotion? Ǥ Ǥ ǡǤ ǡǤǡ ǤƬǤ ǡ ǡǣǯ Ǥ Ǥ ƬǤ Question4.Whatistheaddedvalueofstudyingthebrainforunderstandingemotion? ǣ Ǥ Ǧ Ǥ Ǥ ƬǤ Question5.Howareemotionsorganizedinthebrain? Ǥ ǡ ǦǦ Ǥ Ǥ ǫ ǤǡƬ Ǥ ǣ Ǥ Ǥ ƬǤ Question6.Whenandinwhatwaysareemotionsadaptiveandmaladaptive? Ǥ Ǥ ǣ Ǥ ǯ Ǥ ǣ Ƭ Ǥ ƬǤ Question7.Howareemotionsregulatedbycontextandcognition? ǣ Ǥ ƬǤ ǣ Ǧ ƬǤ Ǥ ǣ ǤƬǤ ǤƬ Ǥ ǣ ǤƬ Ǥ ƬǤ Question8.Howdoemotionandcognitioninteract? ǦǡǤǡǤ ǡ ǡǤ Ƭ Ǥ Ǥ Ǧ Ǧ ǣ Ƭ ǫ ǡ ǡƬ ǣ Ƭ Ǧ Ǥǡ Ǥ Ǥ ƬǤ Question9.Howareemotionsembodiedinthesocialworld? ǣ Ƭ Ǥ ǣ Ǥǡ Ǥ Ǥ Ƭ Ǥ Ǥ ǣ ǤƬ Ǥ Ƭ Ǥ Question10.Howandwhyareemotionscommunicated? ǤƬǤ ǣ ǡǤǡ ǡƬ ȋ Ȍ ǡ ǤǡƬ ǣ Ǥ Dz dz Ƭ Ǥ Ǥ Ǧ Ǥ ǤƬǤ Question11.Howareemotionsphysicallyembodied? ǡ Ƭ ǣǦ ǤƬ Ǥ Ǥ ǫ Ǥ Ǥ ǫ Ǥ ǣ Ǥ Ǥ Ƭ Ǥ Question12.Whatistheroleofconsciousawarenessinemotion? Ǥ Ǥ ǫ Ǧ ǣ Ǥ Ƭ ǤƬǤ Question13.Howareemotionsintegratedintochoice? ǡǡ Ƭ ǤƬ Ƭ Ǧ ǤƬǤ ǫ Ƭ ǣ Ǥ Ǧǣ Ƭ ƬǦ Ǥ ƬǤ Question14.Whatdevelopsinemotionaldevelopment? ƬǤ Ǥ Ǧ Ǥ ǤƬǤ ǫ ǤƬ Ǥ ǡƬǤ Ǥ ǤƬ Ǥ Epilogue—Thenatureofemotion:Aresearchagendaforthe21stcentury Ǥ ǡǤǡ ǤƬ Ǥ References
Index Shackman, Introduction 1
Introduction to the Nature of Emotion, 2nd Edition
Alexander J. Shackman Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, and Maryland Neuroimaging Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD USA
Andrew S. Fox Department of Psychology and California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA USA
Regina C. Lapate Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA USA
Richard J. Davidson Center for Healthy Minds, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI USA
Please cite as: Shackman, A. J., Fox, A. S., Lapate, R. C., Davidson, R. J. (in press). Introduction to the second edition. In Fox, A. S., Lapate, R. C., Shackman, A. J. & Davidson, R. J. (Eds.). The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Address Correspondence to: Alexander J. Shackman ([email protected]) 3123g BPS Department of Psychology University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
Shackman, Introduction 2
Emotion is a defining feature of the human condition and, thus, it is hardly surprising that it plays a central role in contemporary scientific models of decision making, human development, interpersonal processes, personality, psychopathology, and well-being. Methods and theories developed by emotion researchers have profoundly influenced the development of the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health’s strategic plan and Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative, as well as emerging dimensional models of psychopathology (e.g., Kotov et al., 2017). Emotion researchers now occupy leadership positions in a number of scientific societies, including several focused on affect1, and are well represented among the faculty at top research universities around the world. Numerous highly cited reviews, special issues, specialty journals2, and and books—academic as well as popular—attest to the high level of interest in emotion (e.g., Anderson & Adolphs, 2014; Ashar, Chang, & Wager, 2017; Bach & Dayan, 2017; Barrett,
2017; Barrett, Lewis, & Haviland-Jones, 2016; Barsade & Knight, 2015; Davidson & Begley, 2012; Hu,
2016; LeDoux, 2015; Lerner, Li, Valdesolo, & Kassam, 2015; Niedenthal & Brauer, 2012; Okon-Singer,
Hendler, Pessoa, & Shackman, 2015; Sheppes, Suri, & Gross, 2015; Zald & Treadway, 2017).
Nearly twenty-five years ago, Paul Ekman and Richard Davidson spearheaded the first edition of The
Nature of Emotion (1994), an edited volume focused on 12 questions about the nature and origins of emotion. The book included 63 short essays, written by 23 prominent researchers and theorists, with integrative commentaries written by Ekman and Davidson. Kenrick and Funder argued that, “science best progresses through multiple and mutually critical attempts to understand the same problem” (Kenrick & Funder,
1988, p. 32) and the side-by-side responses that made up The Nature of Emotion provided a valuable
1 For example, the International Society of Research on Emotion (ISRE); Society for Affective Science (SAS); and Social & Affective Neuroscience Society (SANS).
2 Cognition and Emotion; Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience; Emotion; Emotion Review; IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing; Motivation and Emotion; and Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Shackman, Introduction 3
opportunity for sharpening constructs, identifying unspoken assumptions, and highlighting soft spots in the
evidentiary record.
But a quarter-century is a long time. The first edition of The Nature of Emotion predated several
methodological revolutions—in brain imaging, genomics, network science, and optogenetics to name a
few—that have profoundly influenced or promise to soon influence our understanding of emotion. So,
while its bright red cover can still be seen on the bookshelf in many faculty offices, the first edition is
rarely read or used for teaching anymore.
The second edition of The Nature of Emotion is designed to fill this gap and provide a definitive survey of
the current state of the affective sciences. Like the first edition, the book is organized into short chapters
focused on basic questions about the nature and origins of emotion. Many of the questions were inspired
by the first edition. A few of the original questions have been definitively answered over the past 25 years
(Can we control our emotions?) and were reframed for the new edition (How are emotions regulated by
context and cognition?). Other questions are entirely new to the second edition (What is the added value
of studying the brain for understanding emotion?). Each of the 14 questions is addressed by a collection of
experts chosen to represent a range of disciplines and methodological approaches. For many of the chapters, we invited a prominent researcher to address a question that fell outside of his or her core area of expertise, providing an important dose of outside perspective. Altogether, 118 scientists contributed
92 essays, a sizable increase over the first edition. By design, the composition of this group was more gender diverse than the first edition and included a number of early-career ‘rising stars.’ At the end of each chapter, the Editors have written an Afterword, highlighting key points of consensus and disagreement. Shackman, Introduction 4
A major goal of The Nature of Emotion is to take stock of what we have learned as students of emotion and, from that foundation, inspire the next generation of research and conceptual work. We share Ekman and Davidson’s aspiration for the first edition: “It is our hope that this volume will serve as a guide for students and researchers and help to define the research agenda for affective science” in the coming years. In the Epilogue, we have provided our own updated vision of that research agenda.
Shackman, Introduction 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (AG051426, AT004952, DA040717,
HD090256, MH018931, MH043454, MH100031, MH107444, MH113347); California National Primate
Center; University of California, Davis; University of Maryland, College Park; University of Wisconsin—
Madison; Silicon Valley Community Foundation; and several gifts to the Center for Healthy Minds Authors declare no conflicts of interest.