Research at Mount Vernon

to the owners—not to the owned. For the final two years of her life, Martha was again a widow. Her business Martha Washington & records during this time reveal things ran relatively normally at Mount Vernon, since her dower slaves were still working the plantation and its associated industries. Widowhood at Mount Vernon Martha continued her domestic work. She purchased home improvement wares such as glass and oil. She paid Mr. Keating’s “balance due” with cash, herring, and artha Washington was an elite, slave-owning, 27-year-old George Washington in 1759. George brought whiskey. estate-managing, debt-paying widow who his own enslaved people to the marriage. According to the But a slight change did occur: as a widow, Martha had to engage in the conducted business from her home, Mount common law, once a widow remarried, the new husband agricultural side of things at Mount Vernon, which was usually George’s purview. MVernon. She managed thousands of acres and hundreds would control her one-third dower share. Since Martha’s As a widow, Martha was forced to dip into the more masculine world of industrial of enslaved people throughout her lifetime, but especially male child was still a minor, George also controlled the management. during her two periods of widowhood. Patriarchal legal two-thirds share (until Jacky reached adulthood). Thus, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington died on May 22, 1802. The remaining codes in 18th-century Virginia gave only unmarried because of feme covert laws, George came to control all one-third dower share thus returned to Daniel’s heirs, who should have been Jacky women explicit power to control property. A look at of Martha’s property. and Patsy. But since both children were dead by the time Martha died, this share Martha’s two periods of widowhood reveals how the Before states legislated what were called Married was transferred to Martha’s four grandchildren. Her death proved devastating for former Mrs. Custis, and then the former Mrs. Washington, Women’s Property Acts during the mid-nineteenth the Mount Vernon enslaved community: George’s enslaved people had intermarried exercised this power. Her experiences demonstrate how century, women fell under the common law of feme covert with the Custis-dower share enslaved people over those 40 years, and so at least these codes affected her and her family’s inheritance, and upon marriage. Feme covert or “covered woman,” meant 20 couples or families would be separated. Decades passed before the various the lives of the enslaved people she owned. that women relinquished ownership of all moveable goods divisions of black human “property” satisfied the many white Custis descendants. In 1750, at age 18, Martha Dandridge married 39-year- to their husbands. While women retained ownership of The legal, cultural, and familial experiences of white women’s widowhood old Daniel Parke Custis. Daniel came from one of the oldest any realty, their husbands managed their real estate. But, is woven throughout Mount Vernon’s history. The patriarchal legal codes and wealthiest planter families in Virginia. Daniel and if a woman remained unmarried, or became a widow, she differentiating married from unmarried women at this time absolutely mattered Martha were married for seven years. They had four chil- fell under feme sole status. While she lacked the power for every woman, as well as every man. dren together, although only two of them—a son, Jacky, and to vote or serve on a jury, she retained the same property George was able to personally control Martha’s 153 enslaved people for 40 years a daughter, Patsy—survived into early adulthood. Daniel rights as a man. So, happily remarried and once again a because of these laws. Imagine how the productivity, even landscape, of Mount Parke Custis died suddenly in 1757. His death made 25-year- “covered woman,” Martha moved into George’s Mount Vernon would be vastly different without them. And let us not forget: it was only old Martha one of the wealthiest widows in Virginia. Vernon home with her children. after the widow of George Washington’s half-brother Lawrence died that George Because Daniel died without making a will, which Martha’s beloved husband of 40 years died in received ownership of his famous Mount Vernon. would have stipulated who exactly would get which December of 1799, when the dower share reverted to Martha experienced widowhood twice. This meant she experienced two property of his, the common law of “dower share” applied Martha. George’s will stipulated that his own 12 enslaved periods of irony, since these times were full of personal sadness, yet also, legal to Martha. Martha had the legal right in her lifetime to people should be freed only after Martha died. George freedom, and an abundance of property—which meant wealth through control control, but not own, one-third of Daniel’s wealth. The stated that while he “earnestly wished” to free his over land and other human beings. other two-thirds of Daniel’s wealth was held in trust to enslaved people upon his death, he thought that would be Daniel’s heirs. Since Jacky was the only child who reached too painful for his enslaved people who had intermarried adulthood, he would inherit the two-thirds share when he and created families with the dower enslaved people, over turned 21. But in the meantime, Jacky and Patsy were still whom he had no authority. A member of the 2019–20 class of research fellows at the Fred W. Smith National minors, so Martha controlled the two-thirds share. This But Martha freed George’s 123 enslaved people early Library for the Study of George Washington, Alexi Garrett is a Ph.D. candidate in meant that Martha would control Daniel’s entire wealth— on January 1, 1801. Why? The answer is as stark as it is the Corcoran Department of History at the University of Virginia. She would like which included land, enslaved people, investments, and simple: because she was worried that they would kill her. to thank Mary Thompson and Katy Gehred for their input on this essay. cash—until she remarried. So, when her first husband George’s enslaved people knew about his will; they knew died, Martha came to control Daniel’s 17,000-some acres that once Martha was dead, they would be free. So why and almost 300 enslaved people. Having control over so not hasten Martha’s end? The enslaved people at Mount much physical and human wealth meant that Martha was Vernon and the white man and woman who owned them a desirable marriage partner for a new man. had experienced absolute dependence on each other for After a brief courtship, 28-year-old Martha married their entire lives. But generally, freedom felt threatening

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