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An Apocrine Mechanism Delivers a Fully Immunocompetent Exocrine

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An Apocrine Mechanism Delivers a Fully Immunocompetent Exocrine www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN An apocrine mechanism delivers a fully immunocompetent exocrine secretion Denisa Beňová‑Liszeková1, Lucia Mentelová1,2, Klaudia Babišová1, Milan Beňo1, Tibor Pechan3, Bruce A. Chase4 & Robert Farkaš1* Apocrine secretion is a recently discovered widespread non‑canonical and non‑vesicular secretory mechanism whose regulation and purpose is only partly defned. Here, we demonstrate that apocrine secretion in the prepupal salivary glands (SGs) of Drosophila provides the sole source of immune‑ competent and defense‑response proteins to the exuvial fuid that lies between the metamorphosing pupae and its pupal case. Genetic ablation of its delivery from the prepupal SGs to the exuvial fuid decreases the survival of pupae to microbial challenges, and the isolated apocrine secretion has strong antimicrobial efects in “agar‑plate” tests. Thus, apocrine secretion provides an essential frst line of defense against exogenously born infection and represents a highly specialized cellular mechanism for delivering components of innate immunity at the interface between an organism and its external environment. Secretory tissues have been known for centuries—the Harderian gland was described in red deer in 16941, human sweat glands were described by Purkinje in 1833 2, and the three major distinct secretory mechanisms (merocrine, apocrine and holocrine) were delineated by Schieferdecker in 1922 3. Apocrine secretion remains the least well understood process, both in terms of its mechanism and purpose. We recently demonstrated that the salivary glands (SGs) of the holometabolous insect Drosophila use a non-vesicular transport and non-canonical secretory pathway to produce a massive apocrine secretion, and applied molecular genetic tools available in Drosophila to obtain insights into its underlying mechanism 4. Te SGs are well known for their use of exocytosis (merocrine secretion) during pupariation to release a salivary glue secretion (Sgs), a mixture of eight proteins that afxes a newly formed puparium to a substrate5. Exocytosis6–8 is a well-defned process where vesicles formed in the trans-Golgi are translocated to targeted sites on the plasma membrane. Afer they undergo nucleation, zippering, budding, and priming, the coalescence of vesicles and membrane fusion leads to the release of the Sgs-glue into the extracellular space. Unlike exocytosis, apocrine secretion releases entire pieces of the cell and does not require homotypic mem- brane fusion. Instead, apical protrusions generate cytoplasmic fragments inside a secretory lumen. Apocrine secretion is initiated about 16 h afer the exocytotic release of the Sgs-glue in still-metabolically active SGs. Confocal and transmission-electron micrography demonstrate that during its most intense phase, apocrine secretion at the apical pole of SG cells releases large cell fragments and entire organelles, including mitochondria, fragments of the ER and Golgi apparatus directly into the lumen of the SGs9. Proteomic analyses revealed that the secretion comprises thousands of microsomal, mitochondrial, ribosomal, membranous, cytoskeletal, and even nuclear and nucleolar proteins. Strikingly, the nuclear DNA itself remains intact, even though many nuclear proteins are released 9. Its purpose in the SGs and in general has remained an enigma. Here we demonstrate that it provides innate immune components into the exuvial fuid that lies between the pupa and its protective case, thereby providing the frst non-structural line of antimicrobial defense. Tis result redefnes the role of SGs during insect metamorphosis: not only do SGs frst produce the glue to afx the pupa to a substrate, they later provide the pupa with exuvial fuid that functions as an essential protective barrier. Tis result also ofers a general insight into the function of apocrine secretion in facilitating innate immunity. 1Laboratory of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84505 Bratislava, Slovakia. 2Department of Genetics, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina, B-1, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia. 3Institute for Genomics, Biocomputing and Biotechnology, Mississippi State University, 2 Research Boulevard, Starkville, MS 39762, USA. 4Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6001 Dodge Street, Omaha, NE 68182-0040, USA. *email: ueenfark@ savba.sk Scientifc Reports | (2021) 11:15915 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95309-8 1 Vol.:(0123456789) www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Figure 1. (a) Laser confocal view of the prepupal SG from an 8–10 h old wild-type prepupa having an apocrine secretion in its lumen. Visualized are tumor suppressor protein p127l(2)gl (green), nuclear transcription factor BR–C (red), flamentous actin (dark blue), and DNA (light blue, Hoechst 33,258). Te light yellow signal inside the lumen refects the merging of the three proteinaceous signals. (b) Live imaging of late 3rd instar Sgs3-GFP larva. A strong GFP signal is found exclusively within the secretory granules inside the SGs. (c) When all of the Sgs-glue is not released from the SGs during pupariation, GFP signal is released into the SG lumen during apocrine secretion in the late prepupa at 8–10 h APF. (d) In the 12–13 h old prepupa (APF) the GFP signal becomes visible around the forming head capsula in the periexuvial space. (e) At the 5-h old pupa at 18 h APF, a more difuse GFP signal is spread over almost the entire pupal body, concentrated inside the periexuvial space. Tough materials secreted by an apocrine mechanism are inherently complex, some of the protein components from apocrine glands of evolutionary distant species appear to be identical4,10. Results To address what purpose apocrine secretion could serve in the Drosophila SGs afer glue secretion, we frst traced the fate of proteins it releases into the SG lumen (Fig. 1a). Anatomical examination revealed that in the late prepupa, the pair of SGs share a single common salivary duct that only connects to the foor of the pharynx. Tis connection delivers the apocrine secretion into the periexuvial cavity instead of the alimentary tract, which becomes histolyzed shortly afer pupariation. To verify release of the apocrine secretion into this space, we followed the fate of a GFP-marker strongly expressed in the late larval and prepupal salivary glands, Sgs3-GFP (Fig. 1b)11. Previously, we demonstrated that when Sgs3-GFP is strongly expressed in the late larval and prepupal SGs, the apocrine secretion exhibits GFP fuorescence and contains peptides corresponding to Sgs3 and GFP 9. Tis is because the Sgs3-GFP fusion protein is incompletely released within the Sgs-glue prior to pupariation and remains stably present in the prepupal SGs. Terefore, we selected animals with high GFP fuorescence levels and followed the fate of the fuorescent signal during and following apocrine secretion. Signal released during apocrine secretion (at 8–10 h afer puparium formation (APF)) enters the SG lumen (Fig. 1c) before being released during pupation (13 h APF) into the periexuvial space surrounding the head (Fig. 1d). Over the next several hours (15–22 h APF), it becomes almost evenly distributed over the pupa’s surface (Fig. 1e). Te signal Scientifc Reports | (2021) 11:15915 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95309-8 2 Vol:.(1234567890) www.nature.com/scientificreports/ was detectable only in the space between the old and the newly formed pupal cuticle—the space that becomes flled with the exuvial fuid. To verify GFP-Sgs3’s presence in the exuvial fuid, we isolated this fuid and characterized its proteins by MALDI-TOF/TOF proteomic analysis (M&M, Supplemental File). Several peptides corresponding to GFP were present at high coverage. We then combined MALDI-TOF/TOF and ESI–MS/MS approaches to undertake a detailed proteomic analyses on the apocrine secretion collected from the prepupal SG lumen and the pupal exuvial fuid. While many of its proteins were reported in our earlier study9, this more sensitive combination identifed numerous additional proteins, including a large constellation of proteins used in innate immunity (Supplemental Table S1). Te set of defense and immune-response proteins includes numerous antimicrobial pro- teins: cecropin A1, drosomycin, drosomycin-like 6, attacin, serpins, cathepsins, and immune-regulated catalase, functionally related components including various peptidases and peptidase inhibitors, and defense-response enzymes such as glutathione transferase. Interestingly, the proteins of the apocrine secretion and in exuvial fuid from 5- to 7-h old pupae (i.e., 18–20-h AFP, several hours afer apocrine secretion) are nearly identical (Supplemental Table S1). Tis provides direct evidence that a major function of the SG apocrine secretion is to deliver, as components of a goulash containing many other proteins and non-proteinaceous components, immune-competent and defense-response proteins directly to the site where their action will be required during metamorphosis. Comparison of the SG-apocrine-secretion proteome to that of secretions from human apocrine glands (sweat, mammary, cerumenal, lacrimal, etc.)4,12,13 reveals that the major ontological categories of proteins are highly conserved and that all of these apocrine secretions share components of an innate immune response. Terefore, apocrine secretion appears to be an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to deliver innate immune components ready to implement an immediate defense response. Te mass
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