Review on Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus Mykiss) Farming in Desert Underground Brackish Water in Iran

Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3(1) 21-35 2016

Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert underground brackish water in Iran

Alizadeh M.1*; Dadgar Sh.2; Hafezieh M.2

Received: May 2015 Accepted: December 2015

Abstract Inland saline aquaculture may offer an opportunity for income diversification and a potentially productive use of land that can no longer support traditional agriculture in salt-affected parts of inland production and investment levels are characteristically low. It needs to develop in a manner that both prevents the further degradation of agricultural land and provides opportunities for an alternative and sustained economic base for dependent rural communities. Most central areas of Iran are under high risk of salinization through shallow water tables. Using saline groundwater for aquaculture production is a potential adaptive use of this otherwise degraded resource. Expansion of aquaculture in these areas is limited by some factors such as shortage of suitable sites and strict environmental regulations. These limitations, together with an abundance of salt-affected land and water resources, have led to the logical progression of investigating the suitability of these resources for aquaculture. Rainbow trout, which appear to be well adapted to rapid changes in salinity, have been promoted as a potential candidate for aquaculture in these regions. By using appropriate production system well-set to climate condition, trout farming in brackish water is a profitable method to develop inland aquaculture in Iran

Keywords: Aquaculture, Inland saline water, Rainbow trout, Underground brackish water, Earth pond

Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] 1-Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute, Inland Brackish water Fish Research Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Bafgh, Iran 2-Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Tehran, Iran *Corresponding author's Email: [email protected]. 22 Alizadeh et al., Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert …

Introduction freehold. Where inland saline Secondary salinization is a major aquaculture can be successfully environmental problem in many arid integrated with salinity interception and semi-arid areas of the world, schemes, then the costs of pumping adversely affecting up to 380 million water can be shared, resulting in hectares of land, including 100 million significant savings for both enterprises hectares of arable land (Ghassemi et al., (Doupé et al., 2003). The isolation of 1995; Lambers, 2003). inland farms from pathogens and Inland saline aquaculture has the parasites may provide additional potential for positive economic, social economic benefits through reduction or and environmental outcomes from elimination of costly disease outbreaks groundwater in salt affected land. The and the production of certified disease- issues are closely interlinked. From a free seed stock. Also, the occurrence or social perspective, declines in crop severities of certain diseases that occur production on salt-affected farms in fresh water are sometimes reduced reduce income and decrease capital by increasing salinity (Altinok and value, with the result that many farmers Grizzle, 2001). are opting to leave the land, thereby Over half of the world’s aquaculture compromising the structure and production currently occurs in marine capability of rural communities or brackish coastal waters (Partridge et (Anyanwu et al., 2007). Beresford et al., 2008). Salinity can change the al., (2001)described increased incidence amount of available energy for growth of stress and depression in rural of fishes by altering the energetic cost communities as a consequence of the of ionic and osmotic regulation; economic impacts of salinization. however, the relation between salinity New, economically viable industries and growth is complex and not readily such as inland saline aquaculture could predicted (Iwama, 1996). The major capitalize upon an established criteria in selecting fish species workforce experienced in animal suitable for commercial-scale, inland husbandry and agribusiness, thus saline aquaculture are essentially the helping to maintain the fabric of rural same for any aquaculture industry. The communities. From an environmental selected species must be robust, have a perspective, inland saline aquaculture rapid rate of growth, well established Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] production is typically an adaptive hatchery techniques and good market approach to salinity and will acceptance. Rainbow trout appear to be therefore not directly remediate this well adapted to rapid changes in salinity environmental problem (Braaten and and are often directly transferred from Flaherty, 2002; Starcevich et al., 2003). fresh to oceanic waters in aquaculture Salt-affected land is significantly grow-out situations (Crespi & Lovatelli, cheaper than other land and of added 2011). Finstad et al. (1988) reported benefit is the fact that it is typically that O. mykiss (40 - 120 g) tolerated Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3 (1) 2016 23

direct transfer from freshwater to rich in underground saline water 260/00 saline water without any visible resources with different salinities (5- signs of stress. Johnsson et al., (1994) 40g/l) resulted in specific climate also stated that O. mykiss were better conditions, have led to investigating the able to acclimatize to seawater during suitability of these resources for winter when water temperatures were aquaculture. Using saline groundwater lower, although not extreme. Tsintsadze for aquaculture production is a potential (1991) reported that rainbow trout had adaptive use of this otherwise degraded the highest growth rate in 15–18‰ resource. salinity (highest tested), slower growth The first experiment on trout in lower salinities, and had the lowest aquaculture in inland underground growth rate in fresh water. saline water was conducted in Inland Although some reports related to last Brackish water Fishes Research Station years are available on rainbow trout in 1995 in central area of Iran where the culture in sea water through different climate is dry-warm, involved extensive systems (Sottovia, 1983; Ford, 1984; plains rich in underground brackish Philips, 1985; Cowey, 1989; Saunders, water. Regarding to availability of 1991; Bromage et al., 1991), but no relatively cheap land in salt-affected previous record was observed on areas and also low cost construction, rainbow trout aquaculture in inland earth pond was selected as culturing underground brackish water having system. Since well adaptation of particular characteristics especially high rainbow trout to rapid changes in temperature and inconstant of salt salinity and profitability of its composition. production in state of Iran, this species promoted as potential candidate for The idea to action aquaculture in these areas. Base on Rainbow trout culture began in Iran theory of experiment, it was since 1960. This activity initially found contemplated semi-annual production little development, so only three farms system of rainbow trout in earth pond constructed until 1985. Then the during cool seasons including fall and development of rainbow trout winter. Certainly, the main criterion aquaculture entered into a new phase, specific to fish production in inland so production of trout rose from about saline waters is that the water quality Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] 500 tons in 1990 to more than 70,000 requirements for optimum performance tons in 2009. Culture of rainbow trout of a species must be matched to the has grown noticeably in the past two characteristics of an available water decades (Kalbassi et al., 2013).This source (Doupé et al., 1999). The aim of considerable production mainly the current review is to summarize the obtained from freshwater resources, science based knowledge associated while the country is located in low-rain with selected key issues relating to the region. Abundance of salt-affected land welfare of rainbow trout in inland saline 24 Alizadeh et al., Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert …

aquaculture. Perhaps due to the nature maximum number of fish that an of the aquaculture setting and the environment can support through importance of product quality, the oxygen supply and removal of behavior and needs of rainbow trout in metabolic waste and will be determined the brackish water environment and by, amongst other things, the oxygen optimization methods to increase consumption rate of the fish and their production in unit area is necessary to response to metabolic waste products

understand constructing an appropriate such as CO2 and ammonia (Ellis, 2001). trout inland brackish water aquaculture. Beyond providing for the physiological As ﬁsh welfare is a growing area of needs, fish needs sufficient space to research this is by no means a show most normal behavior with comprehensive review covering all minimal pain, stress and fear (FAWC, aquaculture ﬁsh species or indeed all 1996). Stocking density is, therefore, an situations where welfare maybe a area that illustrates both the significance concern but can be expanded as general of species differences and the existence guidelines to develop rainbow trout of a complex web of interacting factors aquaculture in inland waters. that effect fish welfare. Because of specific conditions of Stocking density desert area, stocking density of rainbow Stocking density is pivotal factor trout in brackish water earth pond affecting fish welfare in the aquaculture system is an important parameter which industry, especially where high must be evaluated to achieve more densities in confined environments are production in selected breeding system aimed at high productivity. The and its economic assessment. The best stocking density at any point in time growth performance of rainbow trout in will increase as fish grow or decrease inland brackish water earth pond following grading. Stocking density is, obtained in density 1.5 fish/m2 in 0.3 ha therefore, hard to measure in the field. earth ponds were stocked by rainbow The concept of minimum space for a trout juveniles with initial weight of fish is more complex than for terrestrial about 15g for 150 days by 5% water species as fish utilize a three- exchange rate (Nafisi et al., 1998). dimensional medium (Ellis, 2001; According to some measured FSBI, 2002; Conte, 2004). Because environmental factors it seems by Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] fishes are dependent on this medium for increasing density per earth pond area both physiological and behavioral unit, water quality will be decreased needs, the welfare concerns associated which result in low growth performance with stocking density should address and increase of feed conversion ratio. In both the carrying capacity of the such condition, it is also inevitable holding environment and the spatial and exchanging pond water more than 5%, behavioral needs of the species. while high temperature of well water Carrying capacity refers to the probably can increase pond water Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3 (1) 2016 25

temperature up to thermal tolerance growth and feed utilization. In various threshold of rainbow trout during ratios of dietary protein to energy (P/E) culture period. Therefore, regarding to in growing stage of rainbow trout in the type of utilized water source which brackish water medium, by increasing greatly affected by climatic conditions, energy level from 370 to 430 Kcal/l00g, it claims that low stocking density (1- weight gain (WG %), average daily 1.5fish/m2) brings about better access to growth (ADG %), protein efficiency optimal growth performance. It should ratio (PER), apparent net protein be considered by growers that perform utilization (ANPU %), specific growth this density only in cold months in rate (SGR), condition factor (CF) semi-annual production. increased and feed conversion ratio (FCR) decreased (Alizadeh, 1997). In Protein and energy requirements inland brackish water medium the best In the aquaculture industry, feeds growth performance attained in 35% represent 40–60% of the production protein level and 430kcal/100g costs. Formulated fish feeds based on digestible energy level. fish nutrition have advanced Most of published results on dramatically in recent years, which rainbow trout in different mediums promotes optimal fish growth and particularly in fresh water emphasized health. Feeding regimes should be also that protein level of 35% is the modified and developed according to optimum in growing stage in balanced regional environments (climate, energy diet. So, it can be decreased up geography, economic condition, etc). to minimum need if required energy As well as, nutritional requirements for and amino acids supplied in adjustment optimum growth of the fish seem to be (Murai, 1992; Wilson, 1994; Kaushik, affected by numerous factors such as 1997). Lever et al. (2004), reported temperature, salinity, fish age and size, specific growth rates of 1.09 and etc. (Cowey, 1976). Realization of the 1.21%/day from intensive and semi- optimum protein and energy level for intensive rainbow trout farms cultured fish would help reduce the respectively that in both systems, water costs and maximize the feed conversion temperature, salinity regimes and initial efficiency (Charles et al., 1984; size of experimented fish were the same Sampath, 1984; Chiu et al., 1987). with Alizadeh (1996). Under small- Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] Taking into consideration introduce scale experimental conditions, Okumus rainbow trout in brackish water as a and Mazlum (2002) achieved an SGR new culturing medium and also diet of 2.0 and an FCR of 1.0 in rainbow may play an important role in stress trout grown for 22 weeks in water 7 – sensitivity (Merchie et al., 1997), it is 10ppt salinity. important to recognize some basic Altinok and Grizzle (2001) dietary requirements in order to prepare demonstrated that rainbow trout grew balanced feeds leading to optimum faster in 3 and 9‰ salinities with the 26 Alizadeh et al., Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert …

highest SGR and lowest FCR than in used to good effect to provide 1% salinities. In 9‰ salinity, the emergency or supplemental oxygen, but digestibility of feed in energy terms in 3 such beneficial uses can be readily and 9% salinities is highest for rainbow overwhelmed by poor pond design or trout, so by increasing salinity management practices. Digestibility of energy in feed increased Referring to specific condition of for this species. Therefore, salinity of farms in desert area, this factor maybe 9% can be used to improve growth and needfulness in utility improvement or FCR in rainbow trout, so there is no not. Higher growth performance and noticeable difference in fresh and lower water utilization in inland earth brackish water in growth performance. pond obtained without aeration (Nafisi et al., 2002). It probably was due to Utility improvement in cultural earth higher turbidity and increasing ponds suspended particles in aeration The culturing system improvement in treatments. Soil condition in aim of increasing in production and aquaculture should be given the same economic benefit is the important goal degree of consideration as water in aquaculture systems. Some technical condition. Just as there is a condition of approaches which seemed to be equilibrium between the water and the efficient in utility amelioration of earth air, there is also a condition of ponds according to climatic condition, equilibrium between the water and the describe as bellows: soil. Water quality can be greatly affected by its interaction with the soil. Pond aeration Many of the suspended particles found Aeration, like feeds and feeding, is one in the water are derived from its contact of the most frequently discussed topics with the soil. According to Boyd (1997) in aquaculture. This is true because, at earth pond aeration caused soil any given temperature, the availability disturbance of benthic sediment and of oxygen plus nutritionally adequate consequently re-suspending them. It can food are defining factors in determining be claimed that in such circumstances the extent to which oxygen consuming especially in case of adapted water organisms such as finfish and shellfish temperature, increasing plankton thrive and grow, both in nature and in growth affects food consumption by Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] aquaculture systems. One basic fish. It also intensifies the exchange of principle of pond aquaculture is that water that can cause rising in pond natural aeration and biological and water temperature maybe more than chemical processes affecting the tolerance threshold of rainbow trout. In concentration of dissolved oxygen and the fish culturing earth ponds, where the other gases normally far exceed water is full of biological and chemical anything that can be achieved by activity, the aerators will not be so mechanical aeration. The latter can be efficient for rainbow trout farming. Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3 (1) 2016 27

In contrast, different aeration these devices have not a significant methods are widely-used in earth pond effect either on increasing production or warm water aquaculture. Aeration in decreasing required water in semi- these systems provides economical intensive earth pond system of rainbow advantages in aquaculture. Nightly trout farming by using warm-brackish Aeration to increase production of well water. In such environment with channel catfish by Hollerman and boyd this type soil bottom, it can be (1980) demonstrated that aerated ponds suggested that the aerator must work at yielded an average of 5,307 kg/hectare a depth sufficient enough that its of channel catfish and had a net oxygenating and circulating efforts can economic gain of $1,500 per hectare. treat the pond bottom soil, keeping it The unaerated ponds yielded an average oxygenated and free of deadly toxins of 1,400 kg/hectare and were an that can pollute the water and harm or obvious economic failure. Hybrid carp, kill aquatic animals, but it must do so Ctenopharyngodon idella × Aristichthys without eroding the pond bottom soil. nobilis, were stocked into 0·04 ha ponds with and without paddlewheel Reuse of earth ponds wastewater: aeration, grew at significantly greater Nutrient recycling efficiency and rates in the paddlewheel ponds economic aspects should be explicitly (Shireman et al., 1983). The average stated when reporting the efficiency of shrimp production was 2,852 kg/ha in aquaculture system. Reporting overall the aerated ponds and only 2,061 kg/ha purification results (effluent/influent) is in unaerated ponds. The net value of the not enough. Sound nutrient budgeting is shrimp crop of the aerated ponds was an important step towards improving 42 percent greater than that of the the functioning of aquaculture plants unaerated ponds (Martinez et al., 1998). (Das, 2000). So, reuse of wastewater for The net returns to land, management, aquaculture may be a proper approach and equity capital were found to be to consider multiple exploitations of 92% higher for the aerated ponds than water resources and development in they were for unaerated ponds (Abdalla aquaculture sector through using non and Romaire, 1996). Nighttime aeration drinkable water to cultivate protein for 5h enhanced the growth of tilapia in products. the treatment with 4cages/pond, and Study on some limnological Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] increased the carrying capacity in the parameters of rainbow trout brackish integrated cage-cum-pond system water earth pond proved reasonable (Yang and Kwei Lin, 2001). quality of waste water as well as water Therefore, it seems application of in pond (Mashai et al., 2003; aerators such as Force group which (Kolkovski et al., 2011; Castine et al., inject the air in the water is not suitable 2013). Taking into consideration for rainbow trout earth ponds where the importance of water in semi-arid area depth is less than 2 meters. Apparently and appropriate quality of earth ponds 28 Alizadeh et al., Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert …

wastewater, fish production in an producing high quality protein cheaply aquaculture wastewater reuse system but also, as is happening in Malaysia would be an environmental as well as and Singapore, to clean up economic occupation. eutrophicated waters through the According to Alizadeh et al. (2004), culture and harvesting of caged waste water reuse of rainbow trout planktivorous species (Yang, in press; brackish water earth ponds with aim of Awang Kechik et al., in press) and to utility improvement of farm resulted in improve conditions in acid lakes in increasing yield quantity and gross Scandinavia (Swedish Research income of farm up to 31% and 41%, Council, 1983). Thus, despite respectively. This additional yield accounting for only 5–10% of current obtained by constructing a 30m3 round inland water aquaculture production, cement tank at the end of earth pond growth in this sector is rapid. and regulating outlet flow water to them Establishing enclosure medium in by both pumping and gravity. During earth pond of rainbow trout to increase culture period in cement tank none of yield of farm performed by separating environmental factors was critical for 20% of earth pond’s space via a fixed rainbow trout. It can be claimed that net wall with 15 mm in mesh. Fish reusing wastewater of rainbow trout density in enclosure part is 7.5fish/m2 earth pond in semi-intensive method is so number of fishes in this area was as a good approach for farmers to better amount as open pond. Since there was a exploitation of possibilities and connection between pen medium with facilities in order to get more yield and free one, no signs based upon revenue. disturbance observed in measured environmental factors in this space. The Establishing enclosure medium (net percentage of harvested marketable size pen): (larger than 250g), production net Fish production from enclosures could income and total yield were also be increased through the increased significantly in enclosure implementation of a number of medium rather than open medium strategies, all of which would result in a (Alizadeh et al., 2009). better utilization of much pressurized In introduced semi-intensive resources. Cages and pens have several rainbow trout farming in large earth Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] advantages over other methods of pond, low fish density maybe led to culture. Because they use existing water dispersion of some fishes throughout bodies, require comparatively low the pond which may be result in capital outlay and use simple unequal access to food and technology, they are popular with consequently dissimilarity in final farmers, extension workers and weight. Culturing fish in the enclosed development programs. They can be part of pond is effective to remove or used not only primarily as a method for moderate these limitations in this Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3 (1) 2016 29

system. Therefore, through pen culture ovary of rainbow trout is different in of rainbow trout in 0.5ha earth ponds brackish and fresh water, so process of and likely larger ones, utility and gonadic development of rainbow trout production of farm can be improved is faster in brackish water (Falahati considerately. Marvast, et al., 2001). According to Albrektsen and Torrissen (1988), Maturation brackish water environment is Growth and development of animals are particularly favorable for pre-grown affected by inner and outer factors such generating in waters with higher as genetic (Glebe and Saunders, 1986; temperatures. It was also proved that in Ritter et al., 1989), biologic (Chadwick different light regimes, during the stage et al., 1986) and environmental before making the yolk and yolk with conditions. In despite of determinant internal origin, it affected by role of genetic and biological factors on environmental factors, but which with growth rate and correlation between external origin was under internal high growth rates and underage biological rhythms (Bon et al., 1997). maturation (Thorpe, 1986), water sexual ripening and artificial quality among the outer factors, is the propagation of two years old rainbow most important and it seems the salinity trout that had reared in brackish water effects on growth, gonad development in salinity about 14g/l from initial and maturation of fishes. About weight of 20g, indicated maturity 80% rainbow trout, there are many reports on of fishes in which 55% were female and circulating of gonadic growth and 45% were male. Fertilized eggs were maturation in fresh water, while a few incubated in fresh water with a desired in brackish or saline water. result of 92% hatching. The larvae in Regarding to rapid growth and weight of 250mg were able to direct maturation of rainbow trout in semi- move in brackish water without any intensive brackish water earth pond unusual behavior or mortality system, it probably seems that salinity (Alizadeh, 2008). Therefore, it can be plays an effective role in growth and claimed that the salinity as a factor gonad development in rainbow trout. along with other environmental, genetic Somatic and gonadic development of and biological factors, accelerate the one-year old rainbow trout with initial growth of reproductive material in a Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] weight of 250g was compared in fresh variety of male and female rainbow and brackish water for 180 days. trout. Somatic growth of rainbow trout along with culture period until sexual ripening Cocclustions is about 20% higher in brackish water Inland brackish and saline waters have than fresh water. It was also high potentialities for aquaculture. demonstrated that needful time for Rainbow trout is a euryhaline fish and passing any sexual stage of testis and base on studies this is a very important 30 Alizadeh et al., Review on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in desert …

species for development of inland saline fat and energy in brackish water are not aquaculture. Salty underground waters particular different with fresh water and according to the geographic conditions the best growth performance attained by differ in composition and salts of water diet in level of 35% crud protein and as well as temperature at the time of 20.6% crud fat. In other words, pumping. Despite the resistance of trout common commercial feed fed trout to salinity, water temperature has a have a high efficiency in the brackish determining and main role in how to water conditions. exploit water for culture. Some It was also proved that the somatic investigations conducted on potential of and gonadic growth in brackish water is rainbow trout for inland saline higher than fresh water. Thus, aquaculture based on the use of importance of these water resources for underground saline and warm water pre-grown generating and meat which is mostly in areas with low production in the event of water altitude and hot climate. The results temperature management is offer the right acceptable solution to the considerable. Also inland saline exploitation of these water sources for aquaculture can be considered as the trout culture based on the construction intermediate environment for creating of 0.25ha earth ponds and culture in pre-grown generating herds of trout. cold months in semi-annual production. Overall benefits and consequences Semi-intensive system (1.5fish/m2) and of researches can be summarized as water exchange rate of at least 5% pond follows: water volume in a day determined for 1. Aquaculture development in inland production and can produce 5-7 tons saline waters, particularly in trout per hectare in each growing unsuitable areas for agriculture. period. 2. Economic exploitation of brackish To increase production in ponds, water as non-consumption water aeration, however, as an important part resources in agricultural, industrial of commercial aquaculture, because of and etc. water turbulence, re-suspension 3. Meat production according to its sediment particles and also reduction growing market demand and high the water quality is not acceptable economic value. method for utility amelioration in semi- 4. Developing exports and foreign Downloaded from sifisheriessciences.com at 1:22 +0330 on Friday October 1st 2021 [ DOI: 10.18331/SFS2016.3.1.3 ] intensive earth pond system. However, exchange income. the use some techniques such as the 5. Increase in employment reuse of earth ponds waste water and opportunities in less developed areas establishing enclosure medium (net and prevent migration. pen) considerably increase production 6. Increasing the per capita and utilization trout farms. consumption of fish to help improve Some of the essential nutritional people's nutrition. requirements of trout, including protein, Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences 3 (1) 2016 31

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