AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REAMING AS A
SECONDARY OPERATION FOR HOLE PRODUCTION
by
MAHMOD SORATGAR, B.S., M.S.
A DISSERTATION
IN
INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
Accepted
Dean ^f the Graduate School
May, 1987 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the individuals who have contributed toward the completion of this investigation. I would like to extend my utmost appreciation and sincere gratitude to Dr. Brian K. Lambert, the chairman of the committee, for his direction of this dissertation, and for his guidance, inspiration, and supervision throughout this study. I would also like to thank Dr. Lambert for his continual encouragement and constant support, and for providing the financial assistance for most of my graduate work and research.
I would also like to express my gratitude and thanks to the members of my committee, Dr. Lebert R. Alley, Dr. Evans W. Curry, Dr. William J. Kolarik, and Dr. William M. Marcy, for their constructive criticism, and for their valuable suggestions and help.
11 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES ix CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE 1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 8 General 8 Drill and Drill Geometry 14 Drill Symmetry 15 Drill Points 21 Drill Sharpening 2 2 Reamer and Reamer Geometry 2 4 Machines, Jigs, and Fixtures 27 Lubricants and Coolants 2 9 Type and Properties of the Tool 3 2 Cutting Conditions 34 Essential Factors for a Desirable Production 36 III. EQUIPMENT, PROCEDURE AND EXERIMENTAL DESIGN 38 Equipment 3 8 Procedure 3 9 Experimental Design 4 6 IV. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 62 Effect of Drilling Variables on Surface finish 62 Effect of Drilling Variables on Dimensional Accuracy 10 6 Percentage of Improvement in Surface Finish by the Reaming Operation 14 3 Percentage of Improvement in Dimensional Accuracy by the Reaming Operation 149 iii Effect of the Independent Variables on Surface Finish of the Reamed Holes 154 Effect of the Independent Variables on Dimensional Accuracy of the Reamed Holes 159
V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 164
REFERENCES 191
APPENDIX
A. CUTTING FLUID 2 06
B. DRILL PRESS 2 07
C. BOICE BORE GAGE 2 08
D. PROFILOMETER 2 09
E. DRILL BITS AND REAMERS 211
F. TEST MATERIALS 216
G. DRILLING AND REAMING DATA 218
H. TOOL WEAR 2 88
I. CUTTING TIME 298
IV ABSTRACT
This investigation was concerned with the amount of accuracy and surface finish in the holemaking operation. Surface finish and accuracy were the dependent variables with speed, feed, tool diameter, and elapsed time being the independent variables. The secondary operation of reaming was also investigated to determine the increase in surface finish and accuracy versus the amount of machining time required to perform the reaming operation. In this study 1728 holes were drilled and an additional 1728 holes were pre-drilled then reamed under different drilling and reaming conditions. These opera tions were performed randomly. After drilling, then again after reaming, the amount of surface finish and the hole size were recorded. Also, the amount of tool wear after drilling and reaming was recorded. Some findings of this study showed that 1) in drilling operations: the main effect of feed was significant; a com bination of the lowest feed and speed was not advantageous to other drilling combinations and any other drilling com binations were not advantageous to the combination of the highest speed and feed; with a decrease in hole diameter, an increase in feed resulted in undesirable holes, 2) with
V regard to surface finish: there was a significant interac tion between feed and speed; the main effect of speed was significant with increasing hole diameter and insignifi cant with decreasing hole diameter, 3) with regard to di mensional accuracy: the main effect of speed was signifi cant; an increase in speed caused a decrease in accuracy, 4) in small hole sizes better hole size and surface finish resulted from drilling rather than pre-drilling then re aming, 5) reaming improved the average surface finish and dimensional accuracy with larger diameters, 6) in increas ed hole sizes the percentage of improved accuracy and the standard deviation increased; the percentage of improved surface finish and the standard deviation decreased, 7) regardless of tool diameter, tool wear was insignificant; drilling speed has a significant effect on the surface finish and drilling feed has no significant effect on the dimensional accuracy of reamed holes, and 8) reaming feed has a significant effect on reamed holes.
VI LIST OF TABLES
1. Amount of oversize under normal shop conditions 2 0 2. A trouble-shooting guide for drilling 24 3. A trouble-shooting guide for reaming 2 6 4. Selected levels of independent variables 41 5. Coded case of table 4 42 6. ANOVA table for Drilling Variables 49 7. Layout of one of the replications for reamed holes 55 8. ANOVA table for all Independent Variables 56 9. Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for surface finish in drilling operations 101 10. Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for dimensional accuracy in drilling operations 139 11. Percentage of improvement in surface finish produced by the reaming operation 14 7 12. Percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy produced by the reaming operation 152 13. Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for surface finish in reamed holes 158 14. Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for dimensional accuracy in reamed holes 163 15. Comparative average maximum and minimum hole sizes from this study and previous studies 17 2 16. Standard Drill Sets 211 vii 17. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 15/64" 290
18. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 16/64" 291 19. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 31/64" 292 20. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 32/64" 293 21. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 39/64" 294 22. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 40/64" 295 23. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 47/64" 296 24. The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 48/64" 297
Vlll LIST OF FIGURES
1. Reamer nomenclature 10
2. Twist drill 15
3. Web eccentricity and relative difference in lip height of the drill 16 4. Drill with an eccentrically ground point (a), and deflection caused by the eccentrically ground point (b) 17
5. Oversize of drilled holes 21
6. Distribution of hole oversize by using manual and machine sharpening 2 3 7. Effect of cutting fluids on amount of enlargement in hole diameter 3 0 8. Effect of cutting fluids on surface roughness of reamed holes 3 0 9. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 15/64" 66
10. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 15/64" 68 11. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 15/64" 69 12. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 16/64" 71
13. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 16/64" 72 14. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 16/64" 73
IX 15. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 31/64" 75 16. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 31/64" 77 17. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 31/64" 78 18. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 32/64" 80 19. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 32/64" 81 20. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 32/64" 82 21. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 39/64" 84 22. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 39/64" 85 23. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 39/64" 86 24. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 40/64" 88 25. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 40/64" 90 26. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 40/64" 91 27. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 47/64" 93 28. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 47/64" 94 29. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 47/64" 95
X 30. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 48/64" 97 31. Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 48/64" 99 32. Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 48/64" 100 33. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 15/64" 108 34. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 15/64" 109 35. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 15/64" 110 36. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 16/64" 112 37. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 16/64" 113 38. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 16/64" 114 39. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 31/64" 116 40. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 31/64" 117 41. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 31/64" 118 42. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 32/64" 120 43. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 32/64" 122 44. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 32/64" 123 45. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 39/64" 124
XI 46. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 39/64" 125 47. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 39/64" 126 48. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 40/64" 128 49. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 40/64" 129 50. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 40/64" 130 51. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 47/64" 132 52. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 47/64" 133 53. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 47/64" 134 54. Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 48/64" 13 6 55. Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 48/64" 137 56. Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 48/64" 138 57. Percentage of improvement in surface finish vs. hole size 148 58. Percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy vs. hole size 153 59. Relative vibration between saddle and work, drill size = 5/8", feed = .204 mm/rev, material mild steel 175 60. General scheme of speed vs. roughness for most materials and tools 177 61. Boice Bore Gage 208 62. Profilometer 210 xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE
Although drilling is a common machining operation, it has many subgroups which continually need to be scrutinized and refined. It is generally an efficient and economical method of cutting a hole in solid metal. Drilling is a complex three dimensional cutting process for producing holes. The cutting instrument, namely the drill, is a tool designed to create a hole quickly and easily by its rotary action in some hard substance. Generally, drills and drilling machines do not appear to receive the attention that their importance warrants when one considers that they are probably used more often than any other tools. Drilling, many times, is the first machining operation in the total production of a hole, with further operations to follow. When precision in the production of a hole is involved, the most frequently used secondary operation is reaming. Reaming is the forming, shaping, tapering or enlarging of a hole with a reamer. Reaming, more specifically, is a machining operation in which a rotary tool, the reamer, makes a light cut to improve the accuracy of a round hole, and to reduce the roughness of the hole surface [112]. The reamer, a cutting tool, is generally cylindrical and is used to produce a smoothly finished hole and to enlarge the previously formed hole as closely as possible to the required diameter. Reaming generally makes it feasible to produce a high-quality machined surface as well as to provide for accurate geometric shape and dimensional stability of a hole. Reamers often do not get the attention given to expensive precision tools because they usually operate in close relationship with twist drills. In the past, the accuracy of hole diameters in drilling operations was not extremely critical; the primary concern was long tool life at high penetration rate. In recent years advances in automation and the desire to increase production with the lowest possible cost per piece have increased the need to drill holes accurately in one pass or with a minimum number of secondary operations. If sufficient attention is given to this need, drilled holes can be made much more accurately than is normally the case. There is a possibility that the holemaking operation will be less precise if maximum production rate is achieved. A compromise needs to be struck between the factors of precision and production rate. Three typical examples of the importance of precision and production rate are: 1) the aircraft industry where a high production rate must be maintained as well as precision, 2) drilling holes in a valve housing and cover for a nuclear steam pipe, and 3) reaming the chamber holes of gun cylinders. Several factors might positively influence the dimensional accuracy of drilling with or without a minimum number of additional operations and which need to be investigated and improved upon. These factors are shape, size, and properties of cutting tools; machining and operating conditions; and the properties of workpiece and thermal effects. Although there is a fairly large body of scientific knowledge on drilling, reaming, and machining in general, the adequacy and reliability of drilling and reaming models may be questioned because of unknown machining variables, values of parameters and coefficients, and the generally empirical nature of some crucial relations - all of which are variables attributable to the complexity of this common process. Hence a need for statistical analysis of the final characteristics of reamed holes arises. In general, dimensional accuracy and surface finish of reamed holes are functions of all or some of the following factors: speed; feed; properties and diameter of both the reamer and the drill; body and point geometry of both the reamer and the drill; properties of the workpiece; depth of cut; type and application of the cutting fluid; type of cutting machine; security of setup; and thermal effects. Some of these factors have been investigated either fully or partially and some researchers have conducted experiments on precision drilling. However, there has been no significant investigation into the expense factor of reaming relative to the increase in hole accuracy accompanied by reaming. This investigation was primarily concerned with accuracy and surface finish in the holemaking operation with regard to the variables such as speed, feed, tool diameter, and elapsed time. The cost effectiveness (based on actual machining time) of increased accuracy and surface finish as a result of the use of the secondary operation of reaming was also examined.
A statistical approach was utilized to study the effect of drilling parameters on the final characteristics of reamed holes with regards to dimensional accuracy and surface finish. One purpose of using this approach was to examine the significance of the effect of the following independent variables on the accuracy of hole diameter and surface finish:
speed (Revolutions Per Minute, RPM) V feed (Inches Per Revolution, IPR) F tool diameter (Inches) D The response, or dependent variable, is the hole size, which was initially measured after drilling and then again after reaming. These measurements are represented by Sd and Sr, respectively. Also, the surface roughness in microinches, AA, for each hole is considered as a dependent variable for analyzing the surface finish.
Some elements are not completely under the control of an operator or design engineer, although he might have some influence over them. Examples of such elements are the available standardized equipment such as the drill and reamer, and certain workpiece characteristics. In this investigation the following assumptions were made: 1. Homogeneous workpieces: One of the major difficulties in most machining operations is variation in workpiece material properties from one part to an other and even within the same part. To avoid wide variation in material properties the holes were made about one inch from the edges of the test piece since generally the homogeneity is better closer to the center than near the edges [59]. Therefore, it was assumed that workpieces were homogeneous. 2. Characteristics of the drill: While the American Standard Twist Drill is not really a precision tool [69], in practice it is the most common tool for drilling holes (see Appendix E for more details), especially if the drilling operation is designed to be followed by the reaming operation. The drills which were used were expected to be within acceptable limits. The following characteristics of drills were assumed to be within standard limits and to have no serious defects: a) Symmetry of the drill body, b) Homogeneity of drills, c) Centricity of point grind, d) Equality in lip height, relief angle, and point angle. However, each of the drill bits were closely examined under a microscope and any of the drill bits which were obviously defective were immediately rejected. 3. Characteristics of the reamer: The reamers which were used were expected to be within acceptable limits. Like the drills, the reamers were assumed to have no serious defects and like the drill bits were examined under a microscope in order to reject any defective reamers. This investigation was also designed to determine the effect of different tool diameters on hole accuracy and/or surface finish and to determine the tool diameter that produces the greatest accuracy and/or surface finish with respect to actual machining time. The determination of the difference between actual hole size and anticipated hole size under drilling conditions was another objective of this investigation. The actual hole size measurement was subtracted from the anticipated hole size under each individual condition and these results were analyzed. This analysis was done for pre-drilling then reaming operations as well.
Another purpose of this investigation was to attempt to answer the following questions: 1. To what extent is the average of increased accuracy and/or surface finish in the different drilling conditions worth the difference in cost (based on elapsed time)?
2. To what extent is the percentage of improved accuracy and/or surface finish produced by reaming worth the additional cost of the reaming operation (based on elapsed time)? In addition, the depth of cut was constant because the primary interest was dimensional accuracy, not tool life. Finally, the effect of cutting fluid was not taken into consideration since there have been previous studies conducted in this area. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
General Hole production is definitely the most common of machining operations, and drilling is the most widely used technique for producing holes. Although drilling, basically, is a relatively simple process, certain aspects of it can cause considerable difficulty. As previously mentioned, drilling is the first machining operation in the production of a hole, with further operations to follow. To obtain the functional characteristics of a hole (such as cylindricity, precision of size, location, etc.; exemplified by keyways, threads, recesses, etc.) secondary operations are required. Secondary operations used to obtain these characteristics include reaming, honing, grinding, lapping, boring, counterboring or countersinking, tapping, and broaching.
With regard to the importance of drilling, reference is made to the following quotation from Galloway [58]: Drilling is one of the most widely used production operations. The immense volume of work performed in drilling plain holes which require no further machining, and in drilling holes prior to tapping, reaming, boring, internal grinding, broaching, etc., is such that even a slight increase in
8 drilling efficiency would yield important partical and economic benefits to individual firms and industry as a whole [58].
Reaming is commonly the secondary operation performed in the production of a precise hole. Reaming is economically feasible as a secondary operation in the drilling process [13]. One advantage that reaming has over most other machining processes is long tool life because of the fact that only one tool is needed to ream a large number of holes. Reaming also has the advantage that it can be performed with almost all machine tools having a rotating spindle. Most reamers have two or more flutes, either parallel to the tool axis or in a helix, which provide teeth for cutting and grooves for chip removal [36,112]. Reamers are operated either manually (hand reamer) or by machine (chucking reamers). They are available in different forms, including solid and inserted-blade types, adjustable and nonadjustable. The reamer is one of the few cutting tools whose condition is very difficult to judge by visual appearance. Figure 1 shows some important elements and points of a commercial type of a reamer which will provide a background for the investigation. 10
Over-oil length -S^>QnK length - ^'Tnng
'-^^ Tcger _ Flule length---- shank J Culler Chomler sweep. length Helix angle angle SifOiqht shonn
Shonk length •A Helical flutes Body RH hetiK shown
Chucking reamer, straight and taper shank [30]
Slroighl>shonk
Tope»-shook Straight-flute chucking reamers [101] Chamfer ->- lengfh Chamfer h ongfe Chamfer > ^ relief \ L
^
Achiat Chamfer relief size I ang/e I I <. /j, L
Point or cutting edge Rake angle and right Straight flutes shown hand rotation shown Chucking reamer point [55]
Figure 1: Reamer nomenclature 11 Paul Bober, in his article, "Reamers, Precision Tools for Precision Holes," [23], points out that reamers finish holes that must be round, of close tolerance, and of fine finish. They do this quickly and at low cost. Bober adds that minimizing the importance of reamers is an oversight that is uneconomical and results in shortened tool life and increased scrap [23]. In some specific cases as stated in the article, "Bore Reaming Holes to Close Tolerances (.001" or less)," presented at the 33rd annual meeting of the American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineering [3], many precision holes can be produced economically with only the use of reamers. These precision holes are normally found in typewriters, automotive parts, appliances, and many other items that do not warrant the added expense of high cost precision boring equipment. Several factors must be considered when the decision to use reaming as a secondary operation has been made. The section on reaming in the Material Handbook [112] points out the importance of selecting the appropriate reamer for the job. First of all, it is necessary that the reamer be compatible with the machine in which it will be used. The following factors must be considered as well: composition and hardness of workpiece, hole length, diameter and configuration, type of fixturing (when used), amount of stock removed, accuracy and requirements for 12 finish, production quantity, initial cost, maintenance cost, and salvage value [112],
In the past few years, the metal cutting industry has been directing more and more attention to machine-tool efficiency. Given the increased use of expensive, large volume, multiple tool-machining systems such as transfer
lines and automatic machining centers, the need has arisen to usefully employ these machines to the maximum extent, that is, to reduce the downtime (the non-productive idling
of the machining system), as much as possible. Downtime directly affects the efficiency of the system's utilization. Drilling operations are a major component of multiple tool-machining systems.
The production rate in a holemaking operation is mainly a function of cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut because an increase in the values of these three variables
causes an increase in production rate [145]. Although it
is possible to increase the metal removal rate with the use of high operating conditions, the tool downtime
increases with increases in operating conditions as a
result of rapid tool wear with a consequent reduction in
the production rate. Maximum production rate is achieved when the machining time and tool downtime is the least
possible.
Another area which must be considered is the accuracy
of performance of the drill because it has a direct. 13 significant effect not only on the performance and quality of production but on the cost of the product as well. It has become necessary in recent years to give greater attention to reducing the number of machining operations needed to produce a part. The high production rates which necessitate improved metal-cutting practices have demanded attention to refining the process. In the production of holes a number of operations are generally performed to give the desired outcome. The introduction of a new self- centering drill point geometry, the spiral point, in the early 50's, helped to increase the precision of the hole and produce holes without secondary operations [65]. Dimensional accuracy in a holemaking operation, considering the effects of controllable factors such as speed, feed, tool diameter, type of material, and the possibility of thermal effects, has not previously been investigated to any significant extent, judging by the literature published on the subject of holemaking. However, numerous investigations have been conducted on the presence or absence of a cutting fluid, reamer geometry, drill and drill point geometry and on optimization of various parameters such as relief angle, chisel form, and web size. Also, a large number of researchers have suggested equations for the prediction of total torque and thrust given the cutting conditions for both reaming and drilling operations. This section 14 concerns only the published literature which is directly related to accuracy in a holemaking operation.
Drill and Drill Geometry The properties, type, body and point geometry, grind symmetry, web centrality and flute spacing, relief angle, point angle, relative lip height, and some other important elements of the drill each have an influence on the dimensional size and dimensional accuracy of the holes. The helix angle, as well as web thickness and point angle, is a quantity which has considerable significance in determining drill performance [116]. As another example, W. Haggerty [66] mentioned that an increase in web eccentricity causes an increase in the difference in lip height, which will result in hole oversize. In addition, it is appropriate to mention that the chisel edge is very important to the overall performance of the drill. The chisel edge contributes about 50-60 percent of the total thrust [117] and is pertinent in the control of hole size and accuracy [48,82]. Therefore, the chisel edge definitely needs to be considered in any study relating to the mechanics of the drilling process [141].
The following sections will discuss the previously studied effects of the aforementioned characteristics on drill performance, and the size and the dimensional accuracy of a hole. To provide a background for the 15 investigation, some important elements and points of the American Standard Twist Drill, which is the most commonly used drill with helical flutes, are shown in Figure 2 [1]
Web-H
Lip (Main cutting edqej
Figure 2: Twist drill [1]
Drill Symmetry The paper presented by Haggerty at the twenty-eighth annual meeting of the American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers is one of the major sources on the subject of drilling accuracy [66]. This research deals with the analysis of the effect of drill symmetry on drilling performance. Drill symmetry might be affected by some dimensions of the drill body such as the concentricity between the flute section and taper shank of the drill, and the straightness of the drill. Figure 3 shows the web eccentricity and relative difference in lip 16 height of the drill [65]; Figure 4 shows the drill with an eccentrically ground point and deflection caused by the eccentrically ground point [66]. These figures furnish a background for drill symmetry.
CUTTING EDGE 1
CUTTING EDGE 2
PATH or GRINDING WHEEL
L-OIFFERENCE IN LIP HEIGHT
Figure 3: Web eccentricity and relative difference in lip height of the drill [65] 19 Haggerty concluded that production of an accurate hole site necessitates that the drill have accurate body dimensions and that the point geometry be ground accurately and be self-centering. Complete drill symmetry, including symmetry of the drill point and drill body, is necessary in order to obtain desired accuracy in the holemaking operation [65,66] because an asymmetrical drill point operating at normal feed will not produce accurate holes and lasts a relatively short time since one lip will be overloaded [116],
One of the largest cohesive bodies of information available on drilling accuracy derives from the work done by D. Galloway [59]. Part of Galloway's work involved studying the shape of the drill. The conclusion of the Galloway study stated that hole accuracy is conspicuously dependent on the symmetry of the drill point and drill body, and relative lip height. Carl Oxford, Jr. had previously conducted research similar to that of Galloway [59] and Haggerty [66] concerning cylindricity and drill symmetry [99]. Oxford's research shows that drill symmetry has a significant effect on drilling accuracy. Oversize holes will occur if symmetry in the length or angles of the drill's cutting lips is lacking [59,66,69]. Galloway [59] found the mean hole oversize increases linearly with the relative lip height, and a 18 Drill symmetry consists of two basic effects: 1) the effect of point-grind symmetry, and 2) the effect of web centrality and flute spacing. In response to the first main effect, Haggerty concluded that if the drill is deflected off-center, the cause will be a difference in relative lip height; therefore, the hole diameter will be oversize. Also, whenever the cutting edges are not symmetrical, the applied cutting forces and the chip formation will not be distributed evenly [65]. Therefore, the drill point will be deflected away from the cutting edge on which the largest force acts. For the second main effect, he calculated the relative lip height difference from the web eccentricity by introducing the following formula:
H = W tanB [1+(SinB)(SinT)/Sin(90-T-B)]
Where: H is the relative difference in lip height B is relief angle T is helix angle W is web eccentricity (the difference between web dimensions is known as web eccentricity, where the web dimension is the distance of the position of the cutting edges from diameter of the drill. See Figure 3 for further detail.) 17
ECCENTRICITY OF DRILL JI I POINT GRIND DEFLECTION
1
• I T DIFFERENCE IN LIP HEIGHT
I I
(^ OF •Q_ OF DRILL POINT I I GRIND
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Drill with an eccentrically ground point (a), and deflection caused by the eccentrically ground point (b) [66] 20 smaller point angle makes the oversize for a given relative lip height less than it would be with a larger point angle. In addition, the value of the hole oversize, typically half of the eccentricity of point grind, was found to be H tanK [59,66], where H is the relative difference in lip height and K is half of the point angle. Also, it has been found that the expected amount of hole oversize within .001 inch for drills of .125 to 1.000 - inch diameter is as follows [92]:
Maximum oversize = .005 + .005 D Minimum oversize = .001 + .003 D where D is the drill diameter. In addition to the amount of oversize caused by the drilling operation, the following table (Table 1), presented courtesy of The Metal Cutting Tool Institute under normal shop conditions [89], is worth noting:
TABLE 1 Amount of oversize under normal shop conditions
Drill Amount of oversize Diameter inch Average Average Max Mean Min
1/16 .0020 .0015 .0007 1/8 .0045 .0027 .0010 1/4 .0066 .0041 .0025 1/2 .0080 .0048 .0029 3/4 .0082 .0052 .0032 1 .0092 .0067 .0040 21 Finally, it is appropriate to mention the part of oxford-s research [99] where he has determined that an increase in drill diameter causes an increase in hole oversize. This is illustrated in Figure 5 [97].
.010
a N V5 a o> .005
o <
000 .250 .500 .750 1.00 Drill diameter
Figure 5: Oversize of drilled holes [97]
Drill Points various drill points - such as spiral point, split and notched point, Bickford point, chisel point, helical point, or Racon point - each have a particular significant effect and can influence dimensional accuracy in drilling and reduce the number of secondary operations needed 22 [9,26,65,70]. For instance, Haggerty's study has shown that spiral point drills reduce the hole oversize significantly, providing improved accuracy over the chisel point drills [65]. Also, thinned web or spiral point drills have greater centering abilities, greater balance, and more dimensional accuracy than most other commonly used drills [66,70].
Drill Sharpening The effect of drill sharpening on dimensional accuracy and a comparison of manual and machine sharpening have been explored [85,112]. The result of the distribution of hole oversize by using manual and machine sharpening is shown graphically in Figure 6 which shows that the method of drill sharpening does not alter the variability around the mean size although the manual sharpening of the drills raises the mean enlargement and lowers the actual production tolerance [85]. In addition, when the hardness of the work material increases, the need for more accuracy in sharpening of the drill increases [59]. 23
SHARPENING MACHINE —- HAND
> CO
CH ^ INC H u (/I 60 - kA a < u< QC M
z
12
HOLE SIZE -001 INCH (ENLARGEMENT)
Figure 6: Distribution of hole oversize by using manual and machine sharpening [85]
The preceding information is summarized in the following table. Table 2, which presents two of the major problems associated with drilling and their respective causes. 24
TABLE 2 A trouble-shooting guide for drilling [45]
Problems Causes Oversized holes Dull drill or unegual lip angles and/or lengths Misalignment Excessive thrust Vibration Loose spindle on drill press Excessive heat Poor surface finish Dull drill or incorrect geometry Excessive thrust Excessive heat Vibration/chatter
Reamer and Reamer Geometry The properties, type, cutting edge, body and point geometry of the reamer each have an influence on the dimensional size, surface finish, and dimensional accuracy of the holes. The guality of the cutting edge of the reamer, among other factors, has an impact on the roughness of the machined surfaces [109]. 25 Various reamer styles - such as the spiral point reamer, PERA (Production Engineering Research Association) reamer, gun reamer, etc. - each have a particular significant effect and can influence dimensional accuracy and surface finish in reaming. Reamer style should be selected according to the material and application. When extreme accuracy is required or the work material is a combination of ferrous and nonferrous and for a through- hole application, the use of straight-fluted reamers is appropriate [20,63]; if the material is aluminum or its alloy, the right-hand spiral/right-hand cut (RHS/RHC) reamer is preferable; if the high penetration rates and great geometrical accuracy are the main concern, the use of the PERA reamers is more appropriate [61]. In addition, for blind holes, using the left-hand spiral/right-hand cut (LHS/RHC) reamer is not recommended [20]. It has been reported that for reaming hard and tough materials solid reamers produced better results than shell reamers [112].
Design of the reamer is very important and it has a significant effect on the result of the holemaking operation. A reamer might cut oversize holes and have a short life if its lips are not uniform; higher pressure is required to feed the reamer through the work material if its helix angle is higher; a reamer cuts more freely and requires less power if it is a right hand helix reamer; a 26 reamer can produce a good surface finish and geometrical accuracy if its number of teeth is as large as possible. Also, a reamer might result in chatterless reaming and better surface finish if its teeth are unevenly spaced [61].
Table 3 briefly summarizes the previous paragraph and related previous studies by displaying two major problems in a reaming operation and their causes.
TABLE 3 A trouble-shooting guide for reaming [45,61]
Problems Causes Oversized holes Misalignment and/or Vibration/chatter Lack of concentricity on the edges due to improper grinding Excessive stock removal Material build up on cutting edges Deterioration of reamer chamfer
Poor surface finish Cutting speed and/or feed too high Insufficient or unsuitable coolant Excessive stock removal Excessive heat Misalignment and/or Vibration/chatter 27 Machines. Jigs, and Fixtures In the past, there was only a little attention paid to drilling as a finishing operation due to its inefficiency in manufacturing good quality holes. It was simply considered as a roughing operation [66]. The additional operation, whether it be reaming, boring, or grinding, had to be used when dimensional tolerances were important. Advances in manufacturing and automation, the need to reduce the cost per part, and the demand for higher production rate in recent years have increased the need for accurate holes with a minimum number of secondary operations.
Through the use of modernized and expensive machines, such as programmable controllers or computer numerical control (CNC) drilling machines, it is possible to produce drilled holes as accurate as +.001" of the desired size [68]. Some other expensive machines, such as jig borers, with low production rates, are the most accurate machines available for hole making [70]. When the jig is fastened to a fixture and the bush is accurately aligned with the spindle axis, a short jig bush reduces the slope of the drilled hole considerably. The reduction of the initial drill deflection accounts for the better hole alignment obtained with the accurately aligned short jig bush. Even with the use of the normal type of loose jig, results show that errors in alignment may occur. The length of the jig 28 bush, the rigidity of the drill, and the resistance to sliding are all factors on which alignment is dependent [59]. Also, the use of the controlled power feeding of the upright machines provides better finish, tool life, and dimensional accuracy than the use of sensitive drill presses [36].
For accurate operations the use of jigs and fixtures is advisable. The advantage of using them is that they hold the work material securely and merge bushings to guide the reamers or drills properly; therefore they result in better alignment, hole roundness, straightness, and accuracy of location [112].
Finally, the following quote from the article, "Bore Reaming Holes to Close Tolerances (.001" or less)," [3] is worth noting: To make holes with a tolerance of a plus or minus .001 using reamers is not too difficult a task, however to bring this tolerance into a plus or mi nus .0002 really separates the men from the boys. There is day and night difference between the two concepts and we can't overly stress the importance of carefully analyzing the entire procedure so as to obtiain the best possible results at the least possible delay, special equipment, cost, etc. [3]. This article points out the results of bore reaming. Reaming holes to precision tolerances is not an easy job and leads to a number of problems such as oversize holes, undersize holes, off position holes, and holes that are bell mouthed. The author says that we must recognize that there is no simple way to produce close tolerance holes 29 except by the imitation and duplication of the rigidity and bearing construction of a boring machine. The author calls this type of reaming "Bore Reaming" and says that normal reaming, juggling of feeds, speeds, and coolants are not to be confused with "Bore Reaming."
Lubricants and Coolants Some investigations have been conducted on the presence or absence, kind, and amount of the cutting fluid and coolants used in drilling and allied operations. Most of these investigations were conducted in a similar manner with very similar conclusions. The summaries of some of these studies are mentioned in this section. One of the findings of a study conducted by R. Murty was that the oversizes for dry cutting in reaming operations are higher than the oversizes when cutting fluids are used [91]. A similar result was reported by K. Okushima et al. [93]. The use of proper lubricants will improve the finish of the work, reduce the amount of enlargement in hole diameter, aid in chip clearance, improve the accuracy of reamed holes, and slow tool wear. Figure 7 shows the effect of different cutting fluids, under the same machining conditions, on amount of oversize and Figure 8 on surface roughness. For each cutting fluid shown in Figures 7 and 8 there were three tests conducted. The result of each test is indicated by a small circle. 30 a > H- 3 QJ O \ 3 C (D 3 } J n- rt 6 (D > ( h o 4 ( \ 1 "Fro 2 K \ ; 0 J
U3 f^k (D -2 3 ^ (D -4 3 1 rt -6 P > H* 1 3 -a S z' 10 in i2]{3\ w /5;/d; !7> isioj
Figure 7: Effect of cutting fluids on amount of enlargement in hole diameter [93]
16 cn c 14 Hi Oi 12 f\ O \J fO 10 O 8 < 3* > 3 6 \ ro \ ^ cn 4 i) ' > s ( 2 0 ni \ f ill (2) (3)1^J (5){6; {7j(SJ(3i
Figure 8: Effect of cutting fluids on surface roughness of reamed holes [93] 31 In Figures 7 and 8, ( M ) stands for microinches, (1) is dry, (2) is mineral oil, (3) is compound oil, (4) is extreme pressure oil (active sulpho-chlorinated oil), (5) is extreme pressure oil (chlorinated oil), (6) is emulsion, (7) is soluble, (8) is soluble (containing sulphurized extreme pressure additive), and (9) is chemical solution. As shown in Figure 7, dry reaming and reaming with cutting oils resulted in hole oversize while reaming with soluble oils resulted in hole undersize. Better surface finish was achieved by using soluble oils rather than by using cutting oils, as illustrated in Figure 8. A similar result was reported by some researchers, such as Zaima et al. [148], Ten Horn et al. [121], Murty [91], Colwell and Branders [33], and Turley [132]. In addition to the use of proper lubricants, the proper amount of the lubricants is also important in removing chips completely and cooling the cutting edge and guides. It is especially important when numerical control (NC) or automatic lathes are used [88]. For various materials different coolants are recommended [3 6,63,112] because different coolants may not have the same result on a given material. For example, it has been shown that when water is used the oversize is maximum and when carbon tetrachloride is used the oversize is minimum [91]. Also, dry cutting in reaming operations produced built-up-edge (BUE), which resulted in a 32 defective surface finish, while there was no significant BUE when a mineral cutting oil was used [141]. Generally, the use of coolant is highly recommended because it substantially reduces friction and temperatures at the drill and workpiece interface. This reduces wear and lengthens drill life, resulting in reduced costs per hole drilled because of less downtime for tool changes and regrinds. Although in general cutting fluids were shown to be beneficial, dry cutting is advisable in some applications such as reaming gray iron [121].
Type and Properties of the Tool The properties and type of the drill and reamer have an influence on the dimensional size of the holes. The effect of the Cor-Bar-Drill, a product of Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc. 1979, which is used in an Omnimil machining center, is different than that of high speed steel [11], carbide, and diamond core drills. Different types of drills and reamers do not have the same influence on dimensional size of the holes. The effect of the spade drills is different than the effect of the masonry, twist, or other types of drills. F. Butrick [28] showed that spade drills provide the best hole size control and straightness but twist drills give a better surface finish. 33 The drill type is generally selected according to the application. Solid-carbide drills such as spade drills and gun drills are preferable when extreme rigidity and drilling accuracy are required [121], Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook [45] states an alternate view with regard to the use of spade drills. It suggests that spade drills are not precision tools and recommends that they not be used for finishing operations in which tolerances of less than approximately +.010 inches are required. The use of the double margin drill for the drilling operation when greater hole accuracy is required has been suggested by Oxford [107] as a result of his research. If both high accuracy and good finish are required, Butrick [28] recommends consideration of gun drills. In addition, Joseph Lynch [92] states that the use of the half-round drills solves the finishing problem. He codes the result of the experiment of his group and says it is possible to maintain a root-mean-square (RMS) of 3 6 microinches ( A\ ) finish by adjusting the speeds and feeds to the proper levels. Also, by adding a coolant it is possible to maintain an RMS of 22 microinches finish. Despite this great improvement. Lynch's group still had a problem on size with a rejection rate of 80%. This problem was solved by using an end mill for boring holes and half-round drills for finishing the size at the appropriate levels of feed and speed. The tool costs were 34 reduced and scrap eliminated with the use of an end mill for boring and half-round drills for finishing each hole to their specific needs [92]. Also, modifications such as point thinning, chamfering, or rounding of a drill result in increased hole accuracy [21,62].
Cutting Conditions The effects of speed and feed on dimensional accuracy along with surface finish have not previously been investigated extensively. However, a number of researchers have briefly investigated the effect of cutting conditions of drilling and/or reaming operations on hole accuracy and surface finish. The recommendations based on the results of most of these investigations are almost identical. Some common findings of these studies are: 1. An increase in speed, feed, and/or depth of cut will cause increased enlargement and defective or undesirable surface finish in the reaming operation [64,100,137]. 2. Poor surface finish appears with cutting speed and/or feed of the reaming operations that is too high. 3. An increase in speed will increase hole diameter and surface roughness in the drilling operation [110]. 35 4. An increase in speed will cause chattering in the reamer [89] which results in oversized and bellmouthed holes and poor surface finish holes [45].
5. Uniform feed results in better surface finish [63].
6. An increase in feed increases hole diameter and decreases vibrations in the drilling operation [110].
7. Excessive speed in the reaming operation may cause the workpiece material to cling to the edges and lands of reamer, resulting in poor surface finish and early dulling of the cutting edges [45]. 8. Reaming speed and/or feed have an important effect on cost [112]. For reaming operations, most of the published articles recommend slower speeds and higher feeds than drills of the corresponding diameter in order to have better surface finish and accuracy. A. Baker has an alternate view, stating that the revolution per minute (RPM) and inches per minute (IPM) used for a drilling operation are appropriate for reaming in a given work material [20]. Generally speaking, the speeds of reamers may be 2/3 (60 to 70 percent) of those for drilling the same material, and the feeds are two or three times those 36 for drilling. This increase in feed helps each flute of a reamer to have a sufficient chip load.
Essential Factors for a Desirable Production In a holemaking operation, the design engineer and/or operator must take several factors into account. If these factors are applied improperly, the result might be an unacceptable product. An example of an unacceptable product is hole misalignment due to two main factors: 1) drill deflection at the start of the drilling process, and 2) specific kinds of errors in the tooling setup, such as an inaccurately located center hole. An example of the dependency of hole alignment on drill deflection is that the axis of the drill point becomes inclined to the spindle axis as a result of initial deflection. The deflection and slope become progressively larger with an increasing path, so that the depth of the drill tends to wander further and further from the true axis [59]. The drill lips are one of the factors which the drill user must consider. It is extremely important that both drill lips do equivalent work and that the length of the two cutting edges, as well as the height of the two lips, be equal [116]. Even though Galloway [59] showed that roundness errors were almost negligible and increased only 37 Slightly with increasing relative lip height, the drill user must be concerned with these points. CHAPTER III EQUIPMENT, PROCEDURE AND EXERIMENTAL DESIGN
Equipment The tests were performed in the Texas Tech University Industrial Engineering Manufacturing Laboratory on an automatic drill press. Illustrations and characteristics of the drill press are summarized in Appendix B. Appendix C illustrates the bore gage which was used for measuring the hole sizes. Also, the surface finish in microinches, AA, was measured by a Bendix Profilometer. Appendix D briefly summarizes the fundamentals and the specifications of the Profilometer. The American Standard Twist Drills, High Speed Steel, and High Speed Steel Straight Shank reamers were used for producing holes. Appendix E provides more information about drill bits and reamers. A three-jaw chuck, the most common tool holder, was used to hold tools. An aluminum bar with a thickness of .5 inches was used as a workpiece. See Appendix F for a brief description of properties and specifications of the test material, namely, aluminum 2024. Threaded clamps (strap type - which is the least expensive and most widely used [45]) were used to hold aluminum plates securely against
38 39 the locators and prevent them from being pulled by the drills or reamers during the drilling or reaming operations. In addition, an accurate microscope (manufactured by Gaertner Scientific Corporation, Chicago, Illinois) was used for measuring the amount of tool wear and for examining the drill bits and reamers for any deficiencies. Finally, 8 CCs of cutting fluid, see Appendix A for details, was used for drilling and reaming each hole in order to obtain a smoother cutting action. Many factors were involved in the selection of equipment for this study. Some of the major factors which were considered are as follows:
1. Technical aspects (various parts of the text, especially appendices furnish more details). 2. Recommendations by previous scholars (Chapter II and appropriate appendices provide more details). 3. Limitations on the availability of equipment during the study. 4. Limitations of budget. 5. Use of equipment identical to that which is commonly used in real manufacturing shops.
Procedure The design provided 4 levels of speed, 3 levels of feed, and 8 different drill sizes in the drilling process (for both drill sizes of a desired hole and recommended 40 drill sizes). It has been recommended that the hole must be drilled at a maximum of 1/64" undersize of the desired hole size if there is to be a secondary operation such as reaming. This concept can be shown mathematically as the following inequality:
[desired hole]>[pre-drilled hole]>[desired hole]-[1/64"]
The design also provided 4 levels of speed, 3 levels of feed, and 4 different reamer sizes in the reaming process. In addition, to ascertain reliability in the reaming operation, each test was repeated three times under the same circumstances. Levels were chosen by taking into account the capacity of the drill press and most common machining conditions in real manufacturing environments. Table 4, on the following page summarizes the preceding information. The aluminum bar (128" X 48" X .5") was divided into twenty four identical plates (16" X 16" X .5") and twelve of them were drilled by a randomly chosen drill size (corresponding to the desired hole size) under various levels of speed and feed. The number of holes drilled under the same drilling condition was dependent on the number of combinations of reaming conditions (twelve holes). This procedure was followed on the other twelve plates, but with the recommended drill size for a reaming operation instead of the desired hole size drill. 41 resulting in a total of 3456 observations. In other words, 144 holes were drilled in each plate (12 rows and 12 columns). Holes in each row were drilled under the same drilling conditions. For example, holes in the first row of each plate were drilled under the speed of V2 (52 5 RPM), and the feed of Fl (.006 IPR). Appendix G explains this in more detail.
TABLE 4 Selected levels of independent variables
drilling | 525 | 774 | 1050 | 1548 speed I RPM | RPM | RPM | RPM drilling | .006 | .008 | .012 | feed I IPR | IPR | IPR | reaming | 350 | 525 | 774 I 1050 speed I RPM | RPM \ RPM | RPM reaming | .006 | .008 | .012 | feed I IPR | IPR | IPR | drill|act.| 16/64" | 32/64" | 40/64" | 48/64" I I I I I dia. I reel 15/64" | 31/64" | 39/64" | 47/64" I I I I I reamer Dia| 16/64" | 32/64" | 40/64" | 48/64" type of I 2024 material I Aluminum
Where: act. is the actual drill size of the desired hole rec. is the recommended drill size of the desired hole After the drilling operation on the second twelve plates (the ones which were drilled with the recommended drill size to be followed by reaming), each hole was reamed under specified reaming conditions. In other words, after the plates were pre-drilled (144 holes in each plate, 12 rows, 12 columns) as described above, the holes in each column were reamed under the same reaming condition. For instance, holes in the first column of each plate were reamed under the speed of 3 50 RPM and feed of .006 IPR.
For the purpose of simplification. Table 5 was constructed to display the coded version of Table 4.
TABLE 5 Coded case of table 4
Vd I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 Fd ^ 1 I 2 1^ 3 ^ Vr I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 Fr I 1 I 2 I 3 I act 2 4 6 8 D D rec 1 3 5 7 R D 2 4 6 8 43 In Table 5, for example, Vd2, Fdl, and D D act. 8 indicate that the hole was drilled under the speed of 52 5 (RPM) and the feed of .006 (IPM) with a drill bit size of 4 8/64". Therefore, it is obvious that Vd4, Fd2 and D D rec. 3 represent the hole which was drilled under the speed of 1050 (RPM) and feed of .008 (IPM) with a drill bit size of 31/64", and so on. Similar notations were used for reaming, as explained in the previous paragraph for drilling. For instance, the Vrl, Fr2 and R D 6 represent a hole which was reamed under the speed and feed of 350 (RPM) and .008 (IPM), respectively, with the reamer size of 40/64". After the holes were randomly drilled, the measurement of the hole size and surface roughness for each hole were recorded. The amount of roughness and hole size are recorded in Appendix G. The amount of actual machining time elapsed for each hole to be drilled or reamed was recorded individually (see Appendix I). The amount of time elapsed for the cut of each hole was found by using the following equation: T = nDL/12VF = L / R F
Where: T is the amount of time elapsed for the cut of each hole in minutes V is speed in FPM D is tool diameter in inches L is hole length in inches F is feed in IPR R is speed in RPM The average increase in hole accuracy and surface finish were compared with the average increase in cost (based on time) under the following situations:
1. Holes were each drilled under different drilling conditions with the drill size of che desired hole size. 2. Number 1 was repeated but with the recommended drill size, with the secondary operation of reaming to follow (under different reaming conditions) in an attempt to reach the desired hole size. 3. Numbers 1 and 2 were repeated but with different tool diameters. Situations 1 and 2 were compared with each other and the results were analyzed in an attempt to answer the questions on page 7. The effect of tool size was analyzed by using the results of situation 3. Converting speed from revolution per minute (RPM) into feet per minute (FPM) was taken into account. For the conversion of the drilling operation the following formula was used:
R = 12 V / n D Where: R is speed in RPM V is speed in FPM 45 D is tool diameter in inches In order to insure that tools stayed in their original shape or within acceptable limits, the amount of tool wear for each drill was recorded after every fourth hole was drilled. The recorded amount of tool wear for each drill bit is shown in Appendix H. The tool wear was not significant, therefore, the possibilities of tool wear affecting dimensional accuracy or surface finish was not considered. Similarly, the amount of tool wear for each reamer was initially measured at intervals of every four holes. Then gradually the number of holes was increased to eight and sixteen before measuring the tool wear of the reamers, because tool wear was not apparent after measurements at intervals of four holes. Even after intervals were increased, tool wear was still not detected. As mentioned in the first chapter, the average of the drilled hole sizes were represented by Sd's. Also, the predrilled then reamed holes were represented by Sr's. The difference between Sr's and Sd's was the amount of improvement in accuracy which was obtained by reaming. Since the actual or expected size of a hole was D (exact tool diameter and not recommended one), the difference between the value of D and a particular Sd showed the amount of oversize or undersize which was caused by the drilling operation or the difference between the value of 46 D and a particular Sr showed the amount of oversize or undersize which is caused by the pre-drilling then reaming operations. The percentage of the improvement in accuracy and surface finish by reaming was calculated as follows:
[(Sr's - D)/(Sd's - D)]*100 -100
[(roughness of drilling)/(roughness of reaming)]*100 -100
It is appropriate to mention that great care was taken in every aspect of this investigation to minimize the effect of extraneous factors on the outcome. Evidence of the preceding statement is presented in Chapter V.
Experimental Design In this section, the utilized statistical experimental design techniques are discussed in the following order: 1. Effect of drilling variables on; a. surface finish of the drilled holes. b. dimensional accuracy of the drilled holes. 2. Improvement by the reaming operation in; a. surface finish. b. dimensional accuracy. 3. Effect of independent variables on; a. surface finish of the reamed holes. 47 b. dimensional accuracy of the reamed holes. All assumptions discussed in Chapter I (pages 5 and 6) remain applicable for each of the statistical analyses to follow. All samples are assumed to be independent. In addition, they are of sufficient size such that sample means are approximately normally distributed (by the Central Limit Theorem). Finally, the level of significance for each of the following analyses is .05. Effect of drilling variables on surface finish: The procedures for examining the significance of the effect of the independent variables, speed and feed, on surface finish in the drilling operation are shown as a part of this investigation. Four levels of speed and three levels of feed were selected. The dependent variable, surface roughness of the drilled holes, was measured in microinches. As previously stated, there were three plates (replications) for each tool diameter. Each plate contained all 3X4 treatment combinations with 12 trials per cell, resulting in 432 observations (levels of speed X level of feed X number of trials X number of replications) for each tool diameter. To accomodate the drill press to run all 432 treatment combinations, it was essential that they be run in three identical homogeneous plates (generally, the use of a smaller workpiece has a significant effect in reducing the possible deflection under cutting pressure). 48
The order in which the 3 X 4 X 12 (levels of speed X
levels of feed X number of trials) observations were
collected was, of course, random. A completely randomized design for two factors which was repeated three times was employed to explore the significance of the effect of independent variables on surface finish. The mathematical model and ANOVA table for this design are as follows:
^ijki=-«+^i^^j^(^^'ij+V^ijki
Where: i = 1,2,3,4 speed level
j = 1,2,3 feed level
1 = 1,2,....,12 trials
k = 1,2,3 replications
X. ., n measured variable 13 kl JU. a common effect in all observations V. speed at ith level F. feed at jth level R replicate at kth level k error term ^ijkl TABLE 6
ANOVA table for Drilling Variables
Source of DF Sum of Mean square variation square
Speed 3 SSV MSV = SSV/3
Feed 2 SSF MSF = SSF/2
Interaction SSI MSI = SSI/6
Replication SSR MSR = SSR/2
Error 418 SSE MSE =: SSE/418
Total 431 SST
The appropriate calculations are as follows
a) Correction term
4 3 12 3
i»l j»l 1»1 k.l C = 432
b) Between speed's sum of squares
SSV = 50 c) Between feed's sum of squares
4 12 3
X ijkl i-l Ul k»l SSF = -C 144
d) Between means sum of squares
12 3
^ijkl
36 i-l j-1 e) Interaction sum of squares
SSI = SSM-SSV-SSF f) Total corrected sum of squares
4 3 12. 3 SST = XZZX^jk.-c i-l j=l 1-1 k=l g) Between replication's sum of squares
4 3 12 2J2^1J ^ijki SSR = i-l j-1 1-1 t 144 k-1 51 h) Error sum of squares
SSE = SST-SSV-SSF-SSR
The following hypotheses were tested by employing the above model:
A. Null hypothesis:
There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of speed on surface finish. Alternative hypothesis: There are differences among the effects of the different levels of speed on surface finish. B. Null hypothesis: There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of feed on surface finish. Alternative hypothesis: There are differences among the effects of the different levels of feed on surface finish. C. Null hypothesis: There is no interaction between speed and feed. Alternative hypothesis: There is interaction between speed and feed. Effect of drilling variables on dimensional accuracy: The procedures used to examine the significance of the independent variables, speed and feed, on dimensional accuracy in the drilling operation were essentially the 52 same as those used in conjunction with the effect of drilling variables on surface finish. The only difference was the dependent variable, which is hole accuracy in one hundred-thousandth of an inch.
Improvement by the reaming operation in surface finish: This part of the investigation, which explored the improved surface finish produced by reaming, was initially set up as a two-sample t test (more details with regard to the t test are given in the section on percentage of improvement in Chapter IV). However, the large sample size mandated that a z test be used instead.
The test statistic and hypothesis were as follows:
Test statistic:
(D-R) Z =
'^D '^R
Where: D stands for drilled holes R stands for pre-drilled then reamed holes
S^ stands for sample variance of drilled D holes S^ stands for sample variance of pre- R drilled then reamed holes
n^=n stands for sample size 53 Null hypothesis: There is no difference among the average surface finish of drilled holes and the pre- drilled then reamed holes. Alternative hypothesis: There is a difference among the average surface finish of the drilled holes and the pre-drilled then reamed holes (in other words, the results of drilled holes are not the same as the results of those holes which have been pre- drilled then reamed). Improvement by the reaming operation in dimensional accuracy: The procedures used to explore the improved dimensional accuracy produced by reaming were essentially the same as those used to assess the improvement in surface finish. These analyses differed only with respect to their dependent variables.
Effect of independent variables on surface finish of the reamed holes: The procedures used to examine the significance of each of the following independent variables on surface finish in the pre-drilled then reamed holes are shown as a part of this study:
Drilling speed (RPM) Drilling feed (FPM) Reaming speed (RPM) Reaming feed (FPM) 54 As was previously mentioned, four levels of speed and three levels of feed were selected for each drilling and reaming operation. The dependent variable was surface roughness of the pre-drilled then reamed holes in microinches. The layout for each replication is shown in Table 7. X represents the measurement of the dependent variable, where - as the machining conditions - drilling speed, drilling feed, reaming speed, and reaming feed, respectively - are portrayed by the subscripts. For example, X . - indicates the amount of surface finish of the hole which was produced at a drilling speed level of 3, a drilling feed level of 1, a reaming speed level of 4 and finally a reaming feed level of 2.
Basically, the procedures used here in order to assess the effect of drilling and reaming variables on surface roughness are identical to those implemented in the analysis of the drilling operation alone, as previously discussed. The following mathematical model was used for this purpose:
X.. , =//+V.+F. + (VF) . .+Vr +Fr^+(VrFr)^„+R,+6". .^„, ijmnk ^ 1 j ij ^ ^ 'mn k ijmnk
Where: i = 1,2,3,4 speed level of drilling operation j = 1,2,3 feed level of drilling operation m = 1,2,3,4 speed level of reaming operation n = 1,2,3 feed level of reaming operation k = 1,2,3 replications 55
TABLE 7 Layout of one of the replications for reamed holes
DrillingI S PEE D 12 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 FEED 1 FEED | FEED | FEED 1 1 1 1 Reaming |1 2 3|1 2 3|1 2 3|1 2 3
1|XXXXXXXXXXXX 12111 2211 2311 3111 3211 3311 4111 4211 4311 5111 5211 5321
E|XXXXXXXXXXXX S 1 E 2 12112 2212 2312 3112 3212 3312 4112 4212 4312 5112 5212 5322
IXXXXXXXXXXXX 3 12113 2213 2313 3113 3213 3313 4113 4213 4313 5113 5213 5313
IXXXXXXXXXXXX P 1 12121 2221 2321 3121 3221 3321 4121 4221 4331 5121 5221 5321
E|XXXXXXXXXXXX 2 E 2 12122 2222 2322 3122 3222 3322 4122 4222 4322 5122 5222 5322
IXXXXXXXXXXXX 3 12123 2223 2323 3123 3223 3323 4123 4223 4323 5123 5223 5323
IXXXXXXXXXXXX 1 12131 2231 2331 3131 3231 3331 4131 4231 4331 5131 5231 5331
EIXXXXXXXXXXXX 3 E 2 12132 2232 2332 3132 3232 3332 4132 4232 4332 5132 5232 5332
IXXXXXXXXXXXX E 3 12133 2233 2333 3133 3233 3333 4133 4233 4333 5133 5233 5333
IXXXXXXXXXXXX 1 12141 2241 2341 3141 3241 3341 4141 4241 4341 5141 5241 5341
EIXXXXXXXXXXXX D 4 E 2 12142 2242 2342 3142 3242 3342 4142 4242 4342 5142 5242 5342
IXXXXXXXXXXXX 3 12143 2243 2343 3143 3243 3343 4143 4243 4343 5143 5243 5343 56
X. . , measured variable
a common effect in all observations
V. drilling speed at ith level 1 F. drilling feed at jth level D Vr reaming speed at mth level m Fr reaming feed at nth level n R replicate at kth level k error term ^ijmnk
TABLE 8 ANOVA table for all Independent Variables
Source of DF Sum of Mean square variation square
Drilling speed 3 SSV MSV = SSV/3
Drilling feed 2 SSF MSF = SSF/2
Drilling interaction 6 SSDI MSDI = SSDI/6
Reaming speed 3 SSVr MSVr = SSVr/3
Reaming feed 2 SSFr MSFr = SSFr/2
Reaming interaction 66 SSRI MSRI = SSRI/6
Replication 2 SSR MSR = SSR/2
Error 407 SSE MSE = SSE/407
Total 431 SST 57 The following appropriate calculations for the above model are essentially similar to those used in conjunction with the effect of drilling variables on surface finish.
a) Correction term
4 3 4 3 3
AmU ZmU ZmU ZmU jLu ijmiik i=l j=l m=l n=l k=l ] C = 432
b) Between drilling speed's sum of squares
3 4 3 3 X.. ^ j=l m=l n=l k=l SSV = --C 108 i=l
c) Between drilling feed's sum of squares
4 4 3 3 3 AmU Aa Zm4 Au ijmnk i=l m=l n=l k=l -c SSF X 144 J-1
d) Between drilling means sum of squares
4 3 3
\ \ \m=l n=I k=l SSDM = 2-,Za 36 ^ 58 e) Drilling interaction sum of squares
SSDI = SSDM-SSV-SSF f) Between reaming speed's sum of squares
4^ 3 3 3
Z^ ZuZu 2La ijmnk i=l j=l n=l k=l SSVr = / t 108 g) Between reaming feed's sum of squares
4 3 4 3
""ijmnk i=l j=l m=l k=l -c SSFr = 144^ n=l h) Between reaming means sum of squares
4 3 3
'ijmnk -C SSRM =2^2-1 36 m=l n=l i) Reaming interaction sum of squares
SSRI = SSRM-SSVr-SSFr 59 j) Total corrected sum of squares
J:^ 3 4 3 3
1=1 j=l m=I n=l k=l
k) Between replication's sum of squares
2 4 3 4 3 2^ 2^2^ 2^ ijmnk i=l j=l m=l n=l c 144
1) Error sum of squares
SSE = SST-SSV-SSF-SSDI-SSVr-SSFr-SSRI-SSR
The following hypotheses were tested by employing the above model: A. Null hypothesis: There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of drilling speed on surface finish of reamed holes. Alternative hypothesis: There are differences among the effects of the different levels of drilling speed on surface finish reamed holes.
B. Null hypothesis: There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of drilling feed 60 on surface finish of reamed holes. Alternative hypothesis: There are differences among the effects of the different levels of drilling feed on surface finish of reamed holes. C. Null hypothesis:
There is no interaction between drilling speed and feed. Alternative hypothesis: There is interaction between drilling speed and feed. D. Null hypothesis: There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of reaming speed on surface finish of reamed holes. Alternative hypothesis: There are differences among the effects of the different levels of reaming speed on surface finish reamed holes. E. Null hypothesis: There are no differences among the effects of the different levels of reaming feed on surface finish of reamed holes. Alternative hypothesis:
There are differences among the effects of the different levels of drilling feed 61 on surface finish of reamed holes. F. Null hypothesis: There is no interaction between reaming speed and feed. Alternative hypothesis: There is interaction between reaming speed and feed. Effect of independent variables on dimensional accuracy of the reamed holes: Procedures similar to those used for the examinatin of the significance of the effect of the independent variables on surface finish in the pre- drilled then reamed holes were employed for this part of the study. Essentially, these analyses differed only with regard to the response or dependent variable which, in this case, was dimensional accuracy in hundred-thousandth of an inch. The following chapter presents the results and analysis of the experimental data. CHAPTER IV EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Drilling Variables on Surface Finish To assist in interpreting the results of this part of the investigation, in addition to the ANOVA tables, it is helpful to construct the graphs of the average surface roughness at each treatment combination, known as profile plots. It is also helpful to construct the graphs of the average surface roughness versus feed rate (inches/minute) and similarly average surface roughness versus actual cutting time. Although in actuality both of the graphs contains information which when analyzed provide the same results, it is advantageous to consider both graphs to view the information from different perspectives. These figures can be used to compare the relationships between different drilling conditions. The profile plots show the different levels of speed versus the average surface roughness (in microinches) for each drill bit individually. The vertical axis of these graphs is the average amount of roughness, the horizontal axis is the speed, and the points within the graphs are numbered according to the feed. For example, as shown in
62 63 Figure 9, page 66, symbol 1 above speed 2 represents the average amount of roughness of 3 6 holes which were drilled under the speed of 525 RPM, V2, and feed of .006 IPR, Fl. This amount is 73 microinches. A comparison of the three symbols above each speed shows the changes in roughness caused by a different level of feed. Also, a comparison of the same symbols above the various speeds shows the effect of speed on roughness. The significant interaction is indicated by the lack of parallelism of the lines. If there is a significant interaction between speed and feed even if neither speed nor feed alone is significant, it must be concluded that speed and/or feed have an effect. The existence of a significant interaction means that both speed and feed affect the surface finish, but not independently. In the graphs of average surface roughness versus actual cutting time (in seconds), each letter, A through L, represents a drilling condition (see Table 5) as follows:
LEGEND
Speed Feed Code
2 (525 RPM) 1 (.006 IPR) A 2 (525 RPM) 2 (.008 IPR) B 2 (525 RPM) 3 (.012 IPR) C 3 (774 RPM) 1 (.006 IPR) D 3 (774 RPM) 2 (.008 IPR) E 64
3 (774 RPM) 3 (:.01 2 IPR) F
4 (1050 RPM) 1 ([.00 6 IPR) G
4 (1050 RPM) 2 1:.00 8 IPR) H
4 (1050 RPM) 3 (:.01 2 IPR) I
5 (1548 RPM) 1 (:.00 6 IPR) J
5 (1548 RPM) 2 1[.00 8 IPR) K
5 (1548 RPM) 3 ([.01 2 IPR) L
Letter A means that a hole was drilled using a speed of 525 RPM and a feed of .006 IPR. Letter B shows that a hole was drilled under a speed of 525 RPM and a feed of .008 IPR, and letter L represents a hole where the drilling condition was 1548 RPM and .012 IPR in speed and feed, respectively. The * represents two or more drilling conditions which have exactly the same average roughness and actual machining time. These figures make it possible to determine the most appropriate drilling condition for a specific task. In the graphs of average surface roughness versus feed rate (inches/minute), each letter, A through L, represents a drilling condition as described in the previous paragraphs for the graphs of the average surface roughness versus actual cutting time. Each of the following ANOVA tables provides the PR > F values for the main factors and interaction between the ma in factors. If the value of PR > F is less than the 65 chosen level of OCthere is a significant factor. In this investigation, as mentioned in Chapter III, the level of 0( = .05 was selected.
Drill size of 15/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 15/64" is shown below.
ANOVA
Source DF Sum of squares Me Model 13 33673.2512 2590.2501 Error 418 91858.2909 219.7567 Corrected total 431 125531.5421 Model F = 11.79 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.2682 17.1108 14.8242 86.6366 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 549.4766 0.83 0.4786 Feed 2 21050.2806 47.89 0.0001 Speed*Feed 6 3858.7650 2.93 0.0083 Replications 2 8214.7291 18.69 The main effect of feed is significant while the main effect of speed is insignificant. Furthermore, there is a significant interaction between feed and speed. Therefore, it can be observed that feed plays an important role in obtaining better surface finish in the drilling operation with a drill size of 15/64". Figure 9 on the following page shows that in general, average surface roughness increases when the feed increases, regardless of the speed. 66 97.5 - 95.0 - 92.5 - A 90.0 - V E R A 87.5 - G E R 85.0 - O U G H 82.5 - N E S S 80.0 - 77.5 - 75.0 - 1 •+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 9: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 15/64" 67 With a drill size of 15/64", as Figure 10 shows, drilling condition A produces a lower amount of roughness compared to other conditions. However, it requires 9.52 seconds of actual machining time (see Appendix I). For example, selecting condition E or G is preferable to conditions D, B, and C because it requires less time and results in better surface finish. For the same reason, selecting condition J over conditions B, C, D, F and H is preferable. As Figure 11 on page 69 shows, drilling condition A produces the best surface finish but has the lowest feed rate compared to the other conditions. As previously stated, choosing drilling condition E or G is preferable to drilling conditions B, C, and D because it produces better surface finish and has a higher feed rate. Also, the selection of drilling condition J is preferable to drilling conditions B, C, D, F and H and drilling condition K is preferable to drilling conditions C, F, and I. Drill size of 16/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 16/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 24192.6189 1860.9707 Error 418 220964.7205 528.6237 Corrected total 431 245157.3394 Model F = 3.52 PR > F = 0.0001 68 97.5 - 95.0 92.5 A V 90.0 E R A G 87.5 E K H R B O 85.0 - D U G H N 82.5 - E S S 80.0 - G*E 77.5 - 75.0 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• -+• •+• •+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 10: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 15/64" 69 97.5 - 95.0 - 92.5 - A V 90.0 - E R A G 87.5 - E K H R B O 85.0 - D U G H N 82.5 - E S S 80.0 - E*G 77.5 - 75.0 - A + +• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• -+• —+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 11: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 15/64" 70 R-Scjuare C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.0987 23.2561 22.9918 98.8637 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 2605.3006 1.64 0.1771 Feed 2 7452.4606 7.05 0.0010 Speed*Feed 6 9822.7224 3.10 0.0056 Replications 2 4312.1353 4.08 The significance of the main effect of feed, speed, and their interaction for the drill size of 1/4" is exactly the same as it was for the drill size of 15/64", as it was previously explained. In general, as Figure 12 on the following page shows, higher average surface roughness is attained at the feed of .012 IPR. This is especially true at low speeds. In addition, at a low feed average surface roughness increases when the speed increases. Choosing drilling condition K when the drill size is 1/4" is preferable to most other drilling conditions. As Figure 13 shows, drilling condition A produces better surface finish but requires the highest actual cutting time when compared to other drilling conditions. Figure 14 shows that drilling condition L has the highest feed rate and condition A has the lowest amount of average roughness. In general, drilling condition K appears to be an ideal condition for surface finish when the drill size is 1/4". 71 117 - 114 - 111 - A 108 - V E R A 105 - G E R 102 - O U G 3 H 99 - N 1 E S 1 S 96 -2 3 93 - 90 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 12: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 16/64" 72 114 - 111 - 108 - A V E 105 R A G E 102 H E R O U 99 - G H N E 96 - B S I S K 93 - D 90 - 87 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 13: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 16/64" 73 114 111 108 A V E 105 R A G E 102 H R O U 99 - G H N E 96 - B S S K 93 - D 90 - 87 - •+• •+• •+• -+• —+• •-+• •-+• •-+• - + • 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 14: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 16/64" 74 Drill size of 31/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 31/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of scjuares Mean scjuare Model 13 10175.5436 782.7341 Error 418 139536.9180 333.8204 Corrected total 431 149712.4616 Model F = 2.34 PR > F = 0.0051 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.0680 16.4465 18.2708 111.0919 Source DF ANOVA SS PR > F Speed 3 395.2653 0.39 0.7602 Feed 2 3440.3362 5.15 0.0062 Speed*Feed 6 1243.2677 0.62 0.7138 Replications 2 5096.6745 7.63 There is no significant interaction between feed and speed. The main effect of feed is a significant factor and the main effect of speed is insignificant. In general, as Figure 15 on the following page shows, average roughness increases when the feed increases. Also, a combination of low feed and speed results in lower average roughness. At a high feed, the average roughness increases with an increase in the speed. In addition, at the speed of 525, the amount of surface roughness is approximately the same at all three different feed levels while this does not hold true with an increase in the speed. 75 119 - 118 - 117 - 116 - 115 A V E 114 R A G 113 E R 112 O U 3 G 111 -2 H N E 110 -1 S S 109 108 - 107 - 106 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 15 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 31/64" 76 Figure 16 on page 77 shows that drilling condition D produced the lowest amount of surface roughness. With an increase in the drill size, drilling condition A no longer produced a better surface finish compared to other drilling conditions. Similar results appeared on feed rate versus average roughness as shown in Figure 17 on page 78. In general, drilling condition K seemed to be an ideal condition for surface finish when the drill size is 31/64". Drill size of 32/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 32/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 17869.8931 1374.6072 Error 418 127217.7032 304.3486 Corrected total 431 145087.5963 Model F = 4.52 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Scjuare C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.1232 18.2118 17.4456 95.7926 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 70.9772 0.08 0.9666 Feed 2 2392.7731 3.93 0.0204 Speed*Feed 6 9153.1793 5.01 0.0001 Replications 2 6252.9635 10.27 With a drill size of 1/2", the main effect of feed is a significant factor, but the main effect of speed is insignificant. There is a significant interaction between feed and speed. 77 119 - 118 - 117 - 116 - A 115 - V E R 114 - A G E 113 - R 0 112 - U G H 111 - B N E S 110 - S 109 - K J E H 108 - 107 - D 106 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• -+• •+• •-+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 16: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 31/64" 78 119 - 118 - 117 - 116 - A 115 - V E R 114 - A G E 113 - R 0 112 - U G H 111 - B N E S 110 - S 109 - K H 108 - 107 - D 106 - •+• -+• -+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• -+• •-+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 17: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 31/64" 79 As shown in Figure 18 on the following page, at a high speed the average roughness increased with an increase in the feed. In general, a high feed results in a higher average roughness. It can be observed that a combination of the highest speed and lowest feed produced the best cjuality surface finish compared with other combinations. With a drill size of 1/2", drilling condition A produced a deteriorated surface finish with the highest actual cutting time, as shown in Figure 19 page 81. Choosing drilling condition E or H is preferable to drilling conditions A, C, D and G. Also, drilling condition J is preferable to drilling conditions A, B, C, E, F, G and H, and drilling condition I to drilling conditions A, F and K. As Figure 2 0 on page 82 shows, similar results were obtained for analysis of feed rate versus average roughness to analysis of actual cutting time as described in the above paragraph. Drill size of 39/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 39/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 36060.2435 2773.8649 Error 418 142684.3365 341.3501 Corrected total 431 178744.5800 Model F = 8.13 PR > F = 0.0001 80 102.5 - 100.0 - A V E R 97.5 - A G E R 95.0 -3 O U G H N 92.5 - E S S 90.0 -2 87.5 - 85.0 - 1 -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 18: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 32/64" 81 102.5 - 100.0 - A K V E R D A 97.5 - G E R G O 95.0 - C U G H N E 92.5 - H S S 90.0 - B 87.5 - 85.0 - -+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 19: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 32/64" 82 102.5 - 100.0 - A K V E R D A 97.5 - G E R G O 95.0 - C U G H N E 92.5 - H S S 90.0 - B 87.5 - 85.0 - •+• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 20: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 32/64" 83 R-Square C,.V . Root MSE Roughn ess mean 0.2017 17,.216 0 18.4757 107.3167 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 6113.8083 5.97 0.0006 Feed C M V O 10007.9351 14.66 0.0001 Speed*Feed 7680.4088 3.75 0.0012 Replications 12258.0913 17.96 With an increase in drill size, the situation begins to change. As shown in the above ANOVA, there was a significant interaction between feed and speed. The main effects of speed and feed are also significant. As shown in Figure 21 on the following page, average roughness increases with increasing feed and/or speed with the exception of the speed of 774 RPM. As shown in Figure 22 on page 85, the highest drilling condition, L, produced the roughest surface finish but required the shortest cutting time compared to other drilling conditions. Selecting drilling condition E is preferable to drilling conditions A, B, C, D and G. In addition, condition K is preferable to conditions B, C, and I, and condition F to drilling conditions A, B, C, D, G, H and J as well. As Figure 23 on page 86 shows, choosing condition E is preferable to selecting conditions A, B, C, D, and G because it has the highest peneteration rate and better surface finish. Also, for the same reason, selection of drilling condition F is more desirable than drilling 84 122.5 - 120.0 - 117.5 - A 115.0 - V E R A 112.5 - G E R 110.0 - O U G H 107.5 - N E S S 105.0 - 102.5 - 100.0 - 3 2 •+• •+• •+ 2 3 5 SPEED Figure 21: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 39/64" 85 122.5 - 120.0 - 117.5 - A V 115.0 - E R A G 112.5 E R O 110.0 - U G H K B N 107.5 - E S D S 105.0 - H 102.5 - G 100.0 - E -+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• -+• •+• •+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 22: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 39/64" 86 122.5 120,0 117.5 A V 115.0 E R A G 112.5 E R O 110.0 U G H B K N 107.5 - E S D s 105.0 - H 102.5 - G 100.0 - E •+• •+• •+• —+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 23: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 39/64" 87 conditions A, B, C, D, G, H and J, and choosing condition K over conditions B, C and I is more appropriate. Drill size of 40/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 40/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of scjuares Mean scjuare Model 13 144775.0510 11136.5424 Error 418 185671.1487 444.1894 Corrected total 431 330446.1998 Model F = 25.07 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Scjuare C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.4381 18.9199 21.0758 111.3951 Source DF ANOVA SS PR > F Speed 3 77719.3814 58 32 0.0001 Feed 2 11120.9529 12 52 0.0001 Speed*Feed 6 38318.6408 14 38 0.0001 Replications 2 17616.0760 19 83 The significance of the main effect of feed, speed, and their interaction for the drill size of 40/64" was exactly the same as it was for the drill size of 39/64" which was previously explained. Figure 24 on the following page shows that at a low speed the average roughness was higher than at a high speed, regardless of the feed. In addition, at high feeds, the average roughness was lower than at low feeds, regardless of speed, with the exception of the speed of 774 RPM. It can be observed that a combination of the highest 88 140 - 130 - 120 - A V E R 110 - A G E R 100 - O U G 1 H 2 N 90 - E S S 80 - 70 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 24 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 40/64" 89 speed and feed produced a better surface finish than a combination of the lowest speed and any other feeds. As the hole size increases the situation changes. Figure 25 shows that the highest drilling condition produced the best quality surface finish with the lowest actual cutting time. As the figure shows, drilling condition C is preferable to drilling conditions B, D, E, and G. Also, drilling condition I is more desirable than all other drilling conditions except for L. Figure 26 on page 91 shows similar results to those described in the previous paragraphs. As previously mentioned, drilling condition L produced a better quality surface finish at a high penetration rate when compared to other drilling conditions. Drill size of 47/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 47/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 81190.3723 6245.4133 Error 418 307601.0611 735.8877 Corrected total 431 388791.4333 Model F = 8.49 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.2088 19.2506 27.1273 140.9164 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 16146.8123 7.31 0.0001 Feed 2 9437.4909 6.41 0.0018 90 135 - 130 - 125 - B A V E 120 - R A G E 115 - R O U G 105 - G N H E S 100 - s 95 - K 90 - I 85 - -+• •+• •+• •+" •+" •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• -+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 2 5 Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 40/64" 91 135 - 130 - 125 - B A V D E 120 R A G E 115 R O U G H 105 N E H E S 100 95 - K 90 - 85 - L •+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• —+• •-+• •-+• •-+- 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 26: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 40/64" 92 Speed*Feed 6 28293.8649 6.41 0.0001 Replications 2 27312.2042 18.56 With a drill size of 47/64", the main effects of speed and feed are significant. In addition, there is a significant interaction between speed and feed. In general, as Figure 27 shows, it is appropriate to state that at a lower feed, average roughness decreases when the speed increases. Also, a better surface finish was attained at a lower feed, especially when higher speeds were used or at the highest feed and lowest speed. As Figure 28 on page 94 shows, drilling condition K produced better surface finish with a lower actual cutting time compared to most of the other drilling conditions. Choosing a combination of the highest speed and feed is more desirable than a combination of the lowest speed and feed since it recjuires less actual cutting time and produces better surface finish. Basically, similar results were obtained for feed rate versus average surface roughness as it was described for the actual cutting time versus average surface roughness using the drill size of 47/64". As Figure 29 on page 95 shows, condition I appeared to produce better results compared to most of the other drilling conditions. 93 170 - 165 - 160 - A 155 V E R A 150 G E R 145 -2 O U G H 140 N E S S 135 130 - 125 - • + • •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 27 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 47/64" 94 H 170 - 165 - 160 - A V 155 - E R A G 150 - E R O 145 - B U E G G H N 140 - E S S 135 - 130 - K 125 - -+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 28 Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 47/64" 95 H 170 165 160 A V 155 E R A G 150 E R O 145 B U E G G H N 140 E S S 135 130 - K 125 - •+• •+• -+• -+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •—h- - + • 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 29: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 47/64" 96 Drill size of 48/64": The ANOVA for surface finish using the drill size of 48/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 25219.9066 1939.9928 Error 418 397714.4423 951.4700 Corrected total 431 422934.3489 Model F = 2.04 PR > F = 0.0169 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.0596 23.4394 30.8459 131.5984 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 10023.8869 3.51 0.0153 Feed 2 94.3270 0.05 0.9516 Speed*Feed 6 14712.4563 2.58 0.0184 2 389.2363 0.20 Replications With a drill size of 48/64", the main effect of feed was insignificant, while the main effect of speed was significant. Also, there was a significant interaction between feed and speed. It can be seen that the main effect of feed does not affect the surface finish independently, but it affects surface finish when combined with speed. Figure 3 0 on the following page shows that in general, at low speed and high feed, the average roughness is less than the average roughness occuring at lower speed and feed. Also, with an increase in the speed, the average roughness decreases at lower feeds, while it increases at 97 1 2 141 138 - A 135 - V E R A 132 - G E R 129 - O U G H 126 - N E S S 123 - 120 - 117 - 114 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 SPEED Figure 30 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average surface roughness using the drill size of 48/64" 98 higher feeds. m addition, at high speeds the average roughness is greater with higher feeds than with lower feeds. It was observed that with the drill size of 48/64", drilling condition A produced the roughest surface finish and required the highest actual cutting time. As Figure 31 on the following page shows, drilling condition J was preferable to most of the other drilling conditions. The results of feed rate versus average roughness are similar to the results of actual cutting time versus average roughness. As Figure 32 on page 100 shows, drilling condition J is preferable to drilling conditions A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H because it produced better surface finish with a higher penetration rate. Table 9 on page 101 was constructed based on the observations of the preceding ANOVAs for surface finish in order to summarize the significance or non-significance of speed, feed, and interaction with regard to roughness in a drilling operation. Table 9 contains four columns, the first column shows the drill size and columns two through four show the values of the probabilities greater than the F value for speed, feed, and their interaction, respectively. As Table 9 shows, the speed was not a significant factor when the drill size is below 39/64" in diameter. It also shows that feed and the interaction of feed and speed were significant 99 B 140.0 - 137.5 - 135.0 - D A V E 132.5 - R A G E 130.0 - R O U 127.5 - G H N H E 125.0 - S S 122.5 - K 117.5 - •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 31: Average surface roughness vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 48/64" 100 B 140.0 137.5 135.0 D A V E 132.5 R A G E 130.0 R O U 127.5 G H N H E 125.0 - S s 122.5 - K 117.5 - •+• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •- + • •-+• 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 32: Average surface roughness vs. feed rate using the drill size of 48/64" 101 factors with an exception of the drill sizes of 48/64" and 31/64" in diameter, respectively. TABLE 9 Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for surface finish in drilling operations drill 1 PR > F 1 PR > F 1 PR > F size j for speed | for feed interaction 15/64" 0.4786 NS 1 0.0001 S 1 0.0083 S 16/64" 0.1771 NS 0.0010 S 0.0056 S 31/64" 0.7602 NS 0.0062 S 0.7138 NS 32/64" 0.9666 NS 0.0204 S 0.0001 S 39/64" 1 0.0006 S 0.0001 S 0.0012 S 40/64" 0.0001 S 1 0.0001 S 1 0.0001 S 47/64" 1 0.0001 S 1 0.0018 S 1 0.0001 S 48/64" 1 0.0153 S 1 0.9516 NS 1 0.0184 S Where: S stands for significant and NS for not significant The following charts were constructed based on the observations of the figures of actual cutting time versus average roughness to summarize the preference of drilling conditions with respect to each other. Of course, the following charts contain the results of the figures of feed rate versus average surface roughness as well. The drilling condition which was preferable to the other 102 drilling conditions produced a better surface finish and required lower actual cutting time. The drilling conditions are connected by arrows which are used to show which conditions are preferable over other conditions considering both roughness and actual cutting time or penetration rate. Each of the conditions to the right on any given line which is connected as shown by the arrows are progressively less desirable. If there is no connection between any given drilling conditions it cannot be presumed that any one condition is favorable to the others. Drill size = 15/64" ^ F E or G 103 Drill size = 16/64" D •» B K" ^ I ^ G » C Drill size = 31/64" > E > G B 104 Drill size = 32/64" Drill size = 39/64" -^ H 105 Drill size = 40/64" •^ G L > I ^ K ^ J. H. •» C 'A D ^ B Drill size = 47/64" ^ E > D ^ B ^ A drill size = 48/64" ^ A 106 Effect of Drilling Variables on Dimensional Accuracy The following analysis of variances (ANOVAs), graphs of the average of hole accuracy at each treatment combination, graphs of the average of hole accuracy versus actual cutting time and graphs of the average of hole accuracy versus feed rate were constructed with the same format as explained for surface finish in the preceding section. Drill size of 15/64"; The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 15/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 13 347874.1898 26759.5531 Error 418 433233.2176 1036.4431 Corrected total 431 781107.4074 Model F = 25.82 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Scjuare C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.4454 356.2433 32.1938 9.0370 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 299879.1667 96.44 0.0001 2 12430.6713 6.00 0.0027 Feed 1.33 0.2421 Speed*Feed 6 8273.9583 Replications 2 27290.3935 13.17 There was no significant interaction between feed and speed, but the main effects of speed and feed are significant. Even though the table shows that the main effect of feed is significant, the Sum of Squares is relatively small compared to the Sum of Squares of speed. 107 Figure 3 3 on the following page shows that accuracy decreased when the feed increased. It also shows that accuracy decreased when the speed increased. It can be concluded that higher speeds and feeds cause oversize holes while lower speeds and feeds cause undersize holes. As Figure 34 on page 109 shows, drilling conditions A and B produced the same dimensional accuracy, however, drilling condition B was preferable to drilling condition A since it required less cutting time. In terms of accuracy only, condition E or G was preferable to other conditions but when considering accuracy and cutting time, condition I seemed to be an ideal condition when the drill size was 15/64" in diameter. Figure 35 on page 110 confirms the results of observations as Figure 34 on page 109 does, with an exception of condition G which was more accurate than condition E, even though only by a very small amount ( .00002") . Drill size of 16/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 16/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 376928.3264 28994.4866 Error 418 1368226.4861 3273.2691 Corrected total 431 1745154.8125 Model F = 8.86 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.2160 1005.9339 57.2125 -5.6875 108 60 - 50 - A 40 - V 2 E 1 R A 30 - G E O 20 - 2 F 3 H O 10 - L E 1 2 A 0 - C C U R -10 - A C Y -20 - -30 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 3 3 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 15/64" 109 50 40 - K A V 30 - E R A G 20 - H E O F 10 - H D O G*E L 0 - E A C -10 - C U R A -20 - C Y -30 - B -40 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• -+• -+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 34: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 15/64" 110 50 - K 40 - A V 30 - E R A H G 20 - E O F 10 - D H E O G L 0 - E A C -10 - C U R A -20 - C Y -30 - B -40 - •+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 35: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 15/64" Ill Source F ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 203873.1181 20.76 0.0001 Feed 2 7086.5000 1.08 0.3397 Speed*Feed 6 22495.6111 1.15 0.3350 Replications 2 143473.0972 21.92 The main effect of speed was significant. Neither feed nor the interaction between feed and speed was significant. As Figure 3 6 on the following page shows, accuracy decreased when the speed increased. Low speeds caused undersized holes and high speeds caused oversized holes, regardless of the feed. Using the drill size of 16/64", Figure 37 on page 113 shows that condition I was still an ideal condition when dimensional accuracy and time were considered. Figure 3 8 on page 114 shows that condition D was preferable to conditions A and B. It also shows that condition I was a fairly appropriate condition when compared to the other drilling conditions. Drill size of 31/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 31/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 310128.0093 23856.0007 Error 418 3074660.6481 7355.6475 Corrected total 431 3384788.6574 Model F = 3.24 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 112 30 - 3 1 20 A V 1 E 10 - R 2 A G E 0 - O F H O -10 - L E 2 A 3 C -20 - C U R A C -30 - Y -40 -1 •+• •+• -+• •+ 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 3 6 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 16/64" 113 30 - K J 20 A V E 10 H R A G E 0 O F H O -10 - L E A C -20 - C B u R A C -30 - Y -40 - D -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 37 Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 16/64" 114 30 - K 20 - A V E 10 - H R A G E 0 O F H O -10 L E A C -20 - C B U R A C -30 - Y -40 - D •+• •+• •+• -+• —+• •-+• •-+• •-+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 38: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 16/64" 115 0.0916 130,,120 5 85.7651 65.9120 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 77656.7130 3.52 0.0152 Feed 2 53136.5741 3.61 0.0278 Speed*Feed 6 82099.5370 1.86 0.0863 Replications 2 97235.1852 6.61 With an increase in drill size, the situation begins to change. As shown in the above ANOVA table, there is no significant interaction. However, the main effects of feed and speed were significant. In general, as Figure 39 on the following page shows, a higher speed results in decreased accuracy. This is especially true at a lower feed. A combination of low speeds and feeds was observed to produce more accurate holes than a combination of high speeds and feeds. Figure 40 on page 117 shows that drilling condition A has the greatest dimensional accuracy compared to the other drilling conditions. It also shows that drilling condition L has the least amount of cutting time between the other drilling conditions. As Figures 40 and 41 on pages 117 and 118, respectively, show, drilling condition F is preferable to drilling conditions C, D, E, G, H and J. When the objective is to produce more accurate holes with fairly less cutting time and high penetration rate and the drill size of 31/64" in diameter is used, condition K is the appropriate drilling condition. 116 100 - 90 - A V E 80 - R A G E 70 - 0 F 2 H O 60 - 1 L E A C 50 - C U R A C 40 - Y 30 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 39 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 31/64" 117 100 - 90 - A V E 80 - R A G E 70 O F H H K O 60 - D L E A C 50 - C U R A C 40 - Y B 30 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• -+• •+• -+• -+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 40: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 31/64" 118 100 - 90 - A V E 80 - R A G E 70 - O F H H K O 60 - D L E A C 50 - C U R A C 40 - Y B 30 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 41: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 31/64" 119 Drill size of 32/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 32/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 13 2006968.5764 154382.1982 Error 418 6058526.7361 14494.0831 Corrected total 431 8065495.3125 Model F = 10.65 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.2488 104.0286 120.3914 115.7292 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 183300.6366 4.22 0.0061 Feed 2 1271187.8472 43.85 0.0001 Speed*Feed 6 128604.7454 1.48 0.1838 Replications 2 423875.3472 14.62 The significance of the main effect of feed, speed, and their interaction for the drill size of 32/64" was exactly the same as it was for the drill size of 31/64" which was explained previously. As Figure 42 shows, regardless of the speed, the accuracy decreased when the feed increased. Also, regardless of the feed, the accuracy decreased when the speed increased. In addition, it can be seen that lower feeds and speeds produce greater accuracy than higher feeds and speeds. Drilling condition B had the best dimensional accuracy and drilling condition L had the highest penetration rate with the lowest cutting time compared to the other drilling 120 250 - 225 - A V 200 E R A G 175 E O F 150 H O L 125 E A C 100 C u R 1 A 75 C 2 Y 50 25 - -+• •+• •+• •+ 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 42: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 32/64" 121 conditions as Figures 43 and 44 show on pages 122 and 123, respectively. Condition H was preferable to conditions C, D and G and drilling condition E to drilling conditions A, C, D and G. Drill size of 39/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 39/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 5057632.0023 389048.6156 Error 418 7392716.5509 17685.9248 Corrected total 431 12450348.5532 Model F = 22.00 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Scjuare C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.4062 197.9499 132.9884 67.1829 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 1029598.3218 19.41 0.0001 Feed 2 1724562.9630 48.76 0.0001 Speed*Feed 6 872126.8518 8.22 0.0001 Replications 2 1431343.8657 40.47 All of the main factors and the interaction were significant for a drill size of 39/64". Figure 45 on page 12 4 shows the same results as were described for the drill size of 32/64". As Figures 46 (page 125) and 47 (page 126) show, a combination of thelowest speeds and feeds produced more accurate holes while a combination of the highest feeds and speeds produced undesirable holes. A combination of highest speeds and feeds produced approximately .00325" over a combination of lowest speeds and feeds. 122 250 225 A V 200 - E R A G 175 E O F 150 - H O L 125 - E K A C 100 - C U R D A 75 - H G C E Y 50 - B 25 - -+- -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 43: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 32/64" 123 250 - 225 - A V 200 - E R A G 175 - E O F 150 - H O L 125 - E K A C 100 - C U R D A 75 - G H C E Y 50 - B 25 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 44: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 32/64" 124 350 - 300 - A V E R A G E O 200 - F H O L E 150 - A C C U R 100 - A C Y 50 - 2 2 1 2 1 0 -1 -+• •+• •+ 2 4 5 Speed Figure 4 5 Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 39/64" 125 L 300 - A V E R 250 - A G E O F 200 - H O L E 150 - A C C U R A 100 - C Y K 50 - c J H G*E D B 0 - A -+• •+• •+• '+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• .+ +. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 46 Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 39/64" 126 300 - A V E R 250 - A G E O F 200 - H O L E 150 - A C C U R A 100 - C Y K 50 - C H J E*G A BD 0 - + •+• -+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• •-+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 47: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 39/64" 127 Drill size of 40/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 40/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 13 984514.6412 75731.8955 Error 418 21045245.0231 50347.4761 Corrected total 431 22029759.6644 Model F = 1.50 PR > F = 0.1119 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.0447 32.3472 224.3824 693.6690 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 189979.8032 1.26 0.2879 Feed 2 196612.9630 1.95 0.1432 Speed*Feed 6 455095.3704 1.51 0.1744 Replications 2 142826.5046 1.42 In this particular drill size, there was no significant main effect of speed and feed, nor was there any significant interaction between speed and feed. This is graphically shown on the following page. Figure 48. According to Figures 49 (page 129) and 50 (page 130), drilling condition L produced better dimensional accuracy with the highest penetration rate. It also required the least amount of cutting time compared to the other drilling conditions when the drill size was 40/64". Drill size of 47/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of size of 47/64" is shown on page 131 128 740 -3 1 720 1 A 3 V E 700 R A G E 680 O F H O 660 L E A C 640 C U R A C 620 Y 600 - -+• •+• •+ 2 3 5 Speed Figure 48: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 40/64" 129 740 C G*E 720 - D B A V H E 700 R A G E 680 O K F H O 660 L E A C 640 C U R A C 620 Y 600 - -+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 49: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 40/64" 130 740 - C E*G 720 - D B A V H E 700 R A G E 680 O K F H O 660 L E A C 640 C U R A C 620 Y 600 - •+- •+• •+• •+• —+• •-+• •-+- •-+• •-+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 50: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 40/64" 131 ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 3048249.1898 234480.7069 Error 418 14828017.2454 35473.7255 Corrected total 431 17876266.4352 Model F = 6.61 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.1705 31..771 5 188.3447 592.8102 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 1070590.0463 10.06 0.0001 Feed 2 431264.3519 6.08 0.0025 Speed*Feed 6 784499.5370 3.69 0.0014 Replications 2 761895.2546 10.74 Both main factors and interaction between feed and speed were significant for a drill size of 47/64". The results of a combination of high speed and high feed were more favorable than high speed and low feed, while the results of low speed and low feed were more favorable than low speed and high feed. These are shown on Figure 51 on the following page. Figures 52 (page 133) and 53 (page 134) show that it is fair to say that drilling condition A is an ideal condition when compared to the other drilling conditions when the drill size is 47/64", although drilling conditions B and D produced a more accurate hole size than drilling condition A. 132 750 - 720 - A 690 V E R A 660 - G E 3 2 O 630 -3 F H 0 600 - L E 3 A 570 - 1 C C 2 U R 540 - A C Y 510 - 480 - -+• •+• •+• •+• 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 51: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 47/64" 133 750 - 720 - A 690 - V E R A 660 - G E K O 630 - F H O 600 - L E A 570 - C C H U R 540 - A C Y 510 - D B 480 - -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• - + • 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 52: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 47/64" 134 750 - 720 A 690 V E R A 660 - G E K O 630 - F H O 600 - L E A 570 - C C H U R 540 - A C Y 510 - D B 480 - •+• •+• -+• •+• •-+• •-+• •-+• —+• 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 53: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 47/64" 135 Drill size of 48/64": The ANOVA for dimensional accuracy using the drill size of 48/64" is shown below. ANOVA Source DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 13 4547741.8403 349826.2954 Error 418 22302207.6389 53354.5637 Corrected total 431 26849949.4792 Model F = 6.56 PR > F = 0.0001 R-Square C.V. Root MSE Accuracy mean 0.1694 44.2108 230.9861 522.4653 Source DF ANOVA SS F Value PR > F Speed 3 1608158.0440 10.05 0.0001 Feed 2 1386933.6806 13.00 0.0001 Speed*Feed 6 880533.4491 2.75 0.0124 Replications 2 672116.6667 6.30 The significance of the main effect of feed, speed, and their interaction for the drill size of 48/64" was exactly the same as it was for the drill size of 47/64" described previously. As Figure 54 on page 13 6 shows, high speed and feed decreased the hole accuracy while low feed and speed improved the hole accuracy. In general, low feeds cause more oversize than high feeds. According to Figures 55 (page 137) and 56 (page 138), drilling condition I is preferable to drilling conditions D, E, F, G, H, J and K. Drilling condition I seemed to be the reasonable choice as an ideal drilling condition when the drill size was 48/64". 136 690 - 660 - A 630 - V E R A 600 - G E O 570 - F 3 H O 540 - 2 L E A 510 - C C U R 480 - A C Y 450 - 3 2 420 - 1 -+• •+• -+• •+ 2 3 4 5 Speed Figure 54: Effect of the drilling speed and feed on average hole accuracy for the hole diameter of 48/64" 137 D 690 - 660 - A 630 V E R A 600 G E O 570 F H O 540 K L E A 510 C C U R 480 A C Y H 450 B 420 - A -+• •+• •+• •+• -+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •+• •-+• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACTUAL CUTTING TIME (IN SECONDS) Figure 55: Average hole accuracy vs. actual cutting time using the drill size of 48/64" 138 D 690 - 660 - A 630 - V E R A 600 - G E O 570 - F H O 540 - K L E A 510 - C C U E R 480 - A C Y H 450 - B 420 - •+• -+• •+• •+• —+• •-+• •-+• •-+• -+- 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 FEED RATE (INCHES/MINUTE) Figure 56: Average hole accuracy vs. feed rate using the drill size of 48/64" 139 Table 10 summarizes the significance or nonsignificance of speed, feed, and interaction with regard to dimensional accuracy in a drilling operation. This table was constructed using the same format as was described for surface finish (table 9) in the first section of this chapter. TABLE 10 Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for dimensional accuracy in drilling operations drill PR > F PR > F PR > F size for speed for feed interaction 15/64" 0.0001 s 0.0027 s 0.2421 NS 16/64" 0.0001 s 0.3397 NS 0.3350 NS 31/64" 0.0152 s 0.0278 S 0.0863 NS 32/64" 0.0061 s 0.0001 S 0.1838 NS 39/64" 0.0001 s 0.0001 S 0.0001 S 40/64" 0.2879 NS 0.1432 NS 0.1744 NS 47/64" 0.0001 S 0.0025 S 0.0014 S 48/64" 0.0001 s 0.0001 s 0.0124 S Where: S stands for significant and NS for not significant Table 10 shows that speed was a significant factor in all cases except for the drill size of 40/64". Table 10 140 also shows that feed was a significant factor with the exception of the drill sizes of 16/64" and 40/64" in diameter. Additionally, the interaction of feed and speed was not shown to be a significant factor when drill sizes were below 39/64" while it was a significant factor when the drill size was over 32/64" with the exception of the drill size of 40/64" in diameter. The following charts which summarize the preferences of drilling conditions with respect to each other, were constructed with the same format as was explained in the preceding section. Drill size = 15/64" B 141 Drill size =^ 16/64" D •» A Drill size = 31/64 ^ C Drill size = 32/64" ^ I ^ F' •^ C ^ A ^ G ^ D 142 Drill size = 39/64" E or G ^ C D ^ B Drill size = 40/64" A J ^ E or G •» C •^ I "^ K B and D Drill size = 47/64" •» J » C ^ G 143 Drill size = 48/64" D Percentage of Improvement in Surface Finish by the Reaming Operation In order to obtain a certain hole diameter, two methods were used, namely, drilling and pre-drilling then reaming. On the average it required 4.5 seconds for drilling a hole (actual machining time) and 11.06 seconds for pre-drilling then reaming. In other words, the pre- drilling then reaming operations took 146% of the machining time for the drilling operations. These two methods were compared and analyzed and the results with an analysis are shown in the following paragraphs of the t- test procedure (because of the sample size, SAS automatically converted it into the Z-test as was mentioned in the experimental design section of Chapter 144 III). Each table contains means, standard deviations, and standard errors of surface finish for drilling and pre- drilling then reaming (pre-drilled then reamed holes are shown under reaming in the operation column). In addition, each table contains the information of the folded form of the F statistic, F'. The value of T for unequal variances, which is the same as that for equal variances, was calculated by the formula for finding the Z value (as mentioned in the experimental design section of Chapter III). Satterthwaite's approximation was used to calculate degrees of freedom. The results of the test of equal variances is provided at the end of each t-test procedure. Finally, it is appropriate to mention again about the calculation of the percentage of improvement of surface finish which was found as follows: roughness of drilled only holes X 100 -100 roughness of reamed holes Hole size of 16/64": The t-test procedure for surface finish for the hole diameter of 1/4" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 98.8637 23.8497 1.1475 Reaming 432 120.5493 20.2704 0.9753 Variances T DF Prob > |T| 145 Unequal -14.4002 840.2 o 0001 Equal -14.4002 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 1.38 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0008 The first method (drilling only) is highly recommended over the second method for two reasons: (1) no improvement in surface finish was accomplished by using the second method; (2) actual machining time is saved by not using the second method. Hole size of 32/64": The t-test procedure for surface finish for the hole diameter of 1/2" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 95.7926 18.3475 0.8827 Reaming 432 55.0671 24.5361 1.1805 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal 27.6284 798.2 0.0001 Equal 27.6284 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 1.79 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 With an increase in the drill size, the situation changed. As the above analysis shows, the second method improved the surface finish approximately 43% over the first method. Hole size of 40/64": The t-test procedure for surface finish for the hole diameter of 5/8" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error 146 Drilling 432 111.3951 27.6893 1.3322 Reaming 432 71.7331 23.0320 1.1081 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal 22.8886 834.3 0.0001 Equal 22.8886 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 1.45 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 Again, the second method improved the surface finish. The improvement was approximately 3 6% over the first method. Hole size of 48/64": The t-test procedure for surface finish for the hole diameter of 3/4" is shown on the following page. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 131.5984 31.3255 1.5072 Reaming 432 94.3294 25.6852 1.2358 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal 19.1220 830.1 0.0001 Equal 19.1220 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 1.49 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 Pre-drilling then reaming caused approximately 28% improvement in accuracy over the drilling only. The following table. Table 11, was constructed based on the observations of the preceding t-test procedures for summarizing the percentage of improvement in surface finish by the reaming operation. 147 TABLE 11 Percentage of improvement in surface finish produced by the reaming operation hole 1 improvement by size 1 reaming operation 1/4" 1 no improvement 1/2" 1 43% over drilling only 5/8" 1 36% over drilling only 3/4" 1 28% over drilling only As Table 11 shows, the second method (pre-drilling then reaming) improved surface finish when the hole diameter was over 1/4". The percentage of improvement decreased by increasing the hole diameter. In addition to the above table, the plot of hole size versus percentage of improvement in surface finish was constructed. Figure 57 on the following page shows that percentage of improvement increased and decreased below the hole size of 1/2" and over 1/2" in diameter, respectively. 148 40 - P 30 - E R C E N 20 - T A G E 10 - O F I M 0 - P R O V E -10 - M E N T -20 - -30 - + + +- 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 DRILL SIZE Figure 57: Percentage of improvement in surface finish vs hole size 149 Percentage of Improvement in Dimensional Accuracy by the Reaming Operation The percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy of a certain hole was compared and analyzed under two different methods similar to the percentage of improvement in surface finish which was discussed in the previous section. The analysis and comparison of these two methods are shown in the following t-test procedure. Each t-test procedure contains similar information which was mentioned in the previous section. The calculation of the percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy which is shown after each table is appropriate to mention again. hole size after reaming - drill size X 100 - 100 hole size after drilling - drill size Hole size of 16/64": The t-test procedure for percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy of hole diameter of 1/4" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 24994.3125 63.6324 3.0615 Reaming 432 25050.2546 31.0871 1.4957 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal -16.4181 625.6 0.0001 Equal -16.4181 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 4.19 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 150 In general, the absolute value of drilling is more accurate than pre-drilling then reaming. Therefore, drilling only is strongly recommended over pre-drilling then reaming when the expected hole size is 1/4". Hole size of 32/64"; The t-test procedure for percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy of hole diameter of 1/2" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 50115.7292 136.7971 6.5817 Reaming 4 32 50038.3102 78.4103 3.7725 Variances DF Prob > Unecjual 10.2053 686.6 0.0001 Equal 10.2053 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 3.04 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 With an increase in the drill size, the situation begins to change. As the above analysis shows, the second method increases the hole accuracy. Although both methods produce oversize holes, the second method increases accuracy approximately 67% over the first method. Hole size of 40/64": The t-test procedure for percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy of hole diameter of 5/8" is shown on below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 63193.6690 226.0821 10.8774 Reaming 432 62616.6551 90.6607 4.3619 151 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal 49.2359 566.1 0.0001 Equal 49.2359 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 6.22 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 The second method produced a more accurate hole size than the first method. The increase in hole accuracy produced by the second method was almost 5.95 times better than that produced by the first method. In other words, predrilling then reaming increased the accuracy approximatly 83% over drilling only. Hole size of 48/64": The t-test procedure for percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy of hole diameter of 3/4" is shown below. t-test procedure Operation N Mean STD DEV STD error Drilling 432 75522.4653 249.5934 12.0086 Reaming 432 75042.4282 117.3297 5.6450 Variances T DF Prob > |T| Unequal 36.1768 612.6 0.0001 Equal 36.1768 862.0 0.0001 For HO: Variances are equal, F'= 4.53 with 431 and 431 DF Prob > F'= 0.0001 Although the result under both methods was hole oversize, the relative accuracy of pre-drilled then reamed holes was almost 12.3 times better than holes that are only drilled. In other words, the second method gives a 92^% improvement in accuracy over the first method. 152 The following table, Table 12, summarizes the preceding t-test procedure with regard to percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy. This table was constructed using the same format as was described for the percentage of improvement in surface finish (Table 11) in the previous section. TABLE 12 Percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy produced by the reaming operation hole improvement by size reaming operation 1/4" no improvement 1/2" 67% over drilling only 5/8" 83% over drilling only 3/4" 92% over drilling only The following plot. Figure 58, hole size versus percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy, was constructed with the same format as was explained in the preceding section. 153 75 - P E 50 - R C E N T 25 - A G E O 0 - F I M P -25 - R O V E M -50 - E N T -75 - 100 - h + +- 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 DRILL SIZE Figure 58: Percentage of improvement in dimensional accuracy vs. hole size 154 Effect of the Independent Variables on Surface Finish of the Reamed Holes The following general linear models (GLM) procedure show significance or non-significance of each independent variable involved in reamed holes. Each of the following GLM provides the PR > F values for the main factors and interaction between the main factors of drilling and reaming operations. Hole size of 16/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 1/4" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 24 104450.9742 4352.1239 Error 407 72641.9656 178.4815 Corrected total 431 177092.9398 Model F = 24.38 PR > F = 0.0001 R-square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.5898 11.0824 13.3597 120.5493 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 3303.5901 6.15 0.0004 Drilling feed 2 1161.3676 3.25 0.0396 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 1942.5907 1.81 0.0950 Reaming speed 3 1805.2371 3.37 0 0185 Reaming feed 2 74909.2956 209.85 0 0001 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 2999.8613 2.80 0.0111 Replications 2 18329.0318 51.35 The results indicate that drilling speed and reaming feed had a significant effect on the surface finish of the reamed holes. There was no significant effect from the 155 interaction of speed and feed of drilling on the final surface finish of holes that were only drilled. In addition, speed, the interaction of speed and feed on reaming, and drilling feed were significant factors at Oc equals to .05. However, they were insignificant at 0( =.oi. Hole size of 32/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 1/2" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 24 27218.0040 1134.0835 Error 407 232253.0092 570.6462 Corrected total 431 259471.0132 Model F = 1.99 PR > F = 0.0041 R-square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.1049 43.3801 23.8882 55.0671 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 7960.0860 4.65 0.0033 Drilling feed 2 5198.3787 4.55 0.0111 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 2611.9580 0.76 0.5995 Reaming speed 3 232.2223 0.14 0.9387 Reaming feed 2 562.6584 0.49 0.6112 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 1176.3581 0.34 0.9135 Replications 2 9476.3425 8.30 Reaming conditions had no significant effect on the surface finish of the reamed holes. However, drilling speed had a significant effect on final roughness. Therefore, the selection of an appropriate drilling condition and the least expensive reaming condition would result in a desirable reamed hole. 156 Hole size of 40/64"; The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 5/8" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 24 79485.0164 3311.8757 Error 407 149149.3603 366.4603 Corrected total 431 228634.3766 Model F = 9.04 PR > F = 0.0001 R-square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.3477 26.6866 19.1432 71.7331 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 5283.7364 4.81 0.0027 Drilling feed 2 1162.1023 1.59 0.2061 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 1037.8227 0.47 0.8291 Reaming speed 3 1531.8766 1.39 0.2443 Reaming feed 2 46378.3200 63.28 0.0001 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 3360.2314 1.53 0.1674 Replications 2 20730.9270 28.29 Neither drilling feed nor reaming speed had any significant effect on surface finish. In addition, there was no significant interaction between speed and feed in either operation. The speed of drilling and feed of reaming were the main factors which significantly effect final surface finish. Hole size of 48/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 3/4" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of squares Mean square 157 Model 24 94496.8540 3937.3689 Error 407 189845.5026 466.4509 Corrected total 431 284342.3566 Model F = 8.44 PR > F = 0.0001 R-square C.V. Root MSE Roughness mean 0.3324 22.8958 21.5975 94.3294 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 7465.1184 5.33 0.0013 Drilling feed 2 969.9563 1.04 0.3545 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 20374.5311 7.28 0.0001 Reaming speed 3 5642.6097 4.03 0.0076 Reaming feed 2 54895.0695 58.84 0.0001 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 4673.3000 1.67 0.1269 Replications 2 476.2691 0.51 Speed and the interaction between speed and feed of drilling had a significant effect on the roughness of the reamed holes. Also, reaming speed and feed were significant factors. In addition, drilling feed and the interaction between speed and feed of reaming were insignificant. Table 13, on the following page, was constructed based on the observations of the GLM procedures for surface finish in order to summarize the significance of speed, feed, and interaction of drilling and reaming operations with regard to roughness in reamed holes. It contains the values of probabilities greater than F value for all of the main factors and their intractions. 158 TABLE 13 Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for surface finish in reamed holes 1 hole 1 1/4" 1/2" 5/8" 1 3/4" I size 1 1 PR > F for 1 .0004 s 1 .0033 s 1 .0027 s 1 .0013 s i 1 Vd 1 1 PR > F for .0396 s 1 .0111 s .2061 NS 1 .3545 NS 1 1 Fd 1 PR > F for .0950 NS .5995 NS .8291 NS .0001 s 1 I Vd * Fd 1 PR > F for .0185 S .9387 NS .2443 NS .0076 s 1 1 Vr 1 PR > F for 1 .0001 S 1 .6112 NS 1 .0001 S 1 .0001 s 1 1 Fr 1 PR > F for 1 .0111 S 1 .9135 NS 1 .1674 NS 1 .1269 NS 1 1 Vr * Fr Where: S stands for significant, NS for not significant, Vd for drilling speed, Fd for drilling feed, Vd*Fd for interaction between drilling speed and feed, Vr for reaming speed, Fr for reaming feed, and Vr * Fr for interaction between reaming speed and feed. 159 Effect of the Independent Variables on Dimensional Accuracy of the Reamed Holes The significance or non-significance of each independent variable on the dimensional accuracy of the reamed holes is shown in the GLM tables below. Each of the following GLM procedures contains information similar to that which was described in the preceding section. Hole size of 16/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 1/4" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of scjuares Mean square Model 24 194757.9861 8114.9109 Error 407 221764.0046 544.8747 Corrected total 431 416521.9908 Model F = 14.89 PR > F = 0.0001 R-scjuare C.V. Root MSE Size mean 0.4676 0.0932 23.3425 25050.2546 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 26306.2500 16.09 0.0001 Drilling feed 2 135.1852 0.12 0.8834 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 9747.2222 2.98 0.0073 Reaming speed 3 4097.4537 2.51 0.0586 Reaming feed 2 86444.9074 79.33 0.0001 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 ^4960.1852 ^1.52 0.1709 Replications 2 63066.7824 57.87 The feed of the secondary operation was a significant factor on final hole accuracy. Also, speed and the interaction between speed and feed of the drilling operation were significant factors. Reaming speed and the 160 interaction between speed and feed of reaming were not significant factors. Hole size of 32/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 1/2" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of squares Mean square ^o^®l 24 513240.2778 21385.0116 Error 407 2136626.1574 5249.6957 Corrected total 431 2649866.4352 Model F = 4.07 PR > F = 0.0001 R-square C.V. Root MSE Size mean 0-1936 0.1448 72.4548 50038.3102 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 23661.8056 1.50 0..213 4 Drilling feed 2 5566.7824 0.53 0..588 9 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 16280.9028 0.52 0..795 6 Reaming speed 3 155000.2315 9.84 0..000 1 Reaming feed 2 2543.1713 0.24 0..785 0 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 22485.5324 0.71 0..638 6 Replications 2 287701.8519 27.40 The only significant factor was the reaming speed. Selecting the least expensive condition for pre-drilling (as discussed in the second section of this chapter) and the highest feed with an appropriate speed for reaming produced the most accurate and least expensive hole. Hole size of 40/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 5/8" is shown on the following page. 161 General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 24 261070. 1389 10877.,922 5 Error 407 3281471. 4700 8062.,583 5 Corrected total 431 3542541. 6089 Model F = 1.35 PR > F = 0.,127 3 R-square C.V. Root MSE Size mean 0.0737 0.1434 89,.791 9 62616.,655 1 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 17115..451 4 0,.7 1 0.,547 9 Drilling feed 2 945..254 6 0..0 6 0..943 1 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 39087..152 8 0,.8 1 0..564 1 Reaming speed 3 61442..303 2 2,.5 4 0,.056 1 Reaming feed 2 83768..171 3 5,.1 9 0,.005 9 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 23617,.939 8 0 .49 0,.817 2 Replications 2 35093,.865 7 2 .18 For the accuracy of the hole diameter of 5/8", the main effect of reaming feed was significant while the other factors were not. Hole size of 48/64": The GLM for the drilled then reamed holes with an expected hole diameter of 3/4" is shown below. General linear models procedure Sources DF Sum of squares Mean square Model 24 841767.5556 35073.6481 Error 407 5091486.2203 12509.7942 Corrected total 431 5933253.7759 Model F = 2.80 PR > F = 0.0001 R-square C.V. Root MSE Size mean 0.1419 0.1490 111.8472 75042.4282 162 Sources DF Type I SS F Value PR > F Drilling speed 3 105177.9700 2..8 0 0..039 6 Drilling feed 2 65319.8657 2..6 1 0..074 7 Speed*feed (drilling) 6 23156.3565 0..3 1 0..932 5 Reaming speed 3 57679.3588 1..5 4 0..204 4 Reaming feed 2 252854.7269 10..1 1 0.,000 1 Speed*feed (reaming) 6 280737.0509 3..7 4 0..001 2 Replications 2 56842.2269 2..2 7 Although the drilling speed and interaction between feed and speed of reaming were significant, the main significant factor was the reaming feed for the drill size of 3/4". The following table. Table 14 on page 163, summarizes the significance or non-significance of speed, feed, and interaction between speed and feed of drilling and reaming operations with regard to dimensional accuracy in reamed holes. This table was constructed using the same format as was described for surface finish (Table 13 on page 158) in the previous section. 163 TABLE 14 Summary of the statistical significance of speed, feed, and their interaction for dimensional accuracy in reamed holes hole 1 1/4' 1 1/2'1 1 5/8'1 1 3/4'1 size PR > F for i .0001 s 1 .2134 NS ! .5479 NS 1 .0396 S Vd PR > F for .8834 NS .5889 NS .9431 NS .0747 NS Fd PR > F for .0073 S .7956 NS .5641 NS .9325 NS Vd * Fd PR > F for .0586 NS .0001 S .0561 NS .2044 NS Vr PR > F for .0001 S .7850 NS .0059 S .0001 S Fr PR > F for 1 .1709 NS 1 .6386 NS 1 .8172 NS 1 .0012 s Vr * Fr Where: S stands for significant, NS for not significant, Vd for drilling speed, Fd for drilling feed, Vd*Fd for interaction between drilling speed and feed, Vr for reaming speed, Fr for reaming feed, and Vr * Fr for interaction between reaming speed and feed. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Billions of holes are drilled every year in various manufacturing plants. A majority of all parts have one or more cylindrical holes in them. The techniques to obtain the minimum cost per accurate hole are very important. The reduction of downtime and the number of operations, and/or the increase in the penetration rate in drilling are extremely important because they can save millions of dollars annually for hole producers. In this study the use of different drill sizes, different machining conditions, and the use of reaming as a secondary operation for hole production have all been examined with regard to quality and cost effectiveness based on actual machining time. Analyses of data and the resulting conclusions are based on the use of statistical techniques and can be applied in the manufacturing industries. The following general conclusions can be drawn from the observations of the tables, charts, profile plots, and other information given in the previous chapter concerning different aspects of this study. Exceptions to these conclusions are noted. 164 165 Surface finish: With regard to the surface finish of drilled and/or pre-drilled then reamed holes, the experimental analyses showed that: 1. The main effect of drilling speed was significant in the reamed holes. 2. The main effect of reaming feed was significant in the reamed holes. 3. The standard deviations of drilling only were larger than the standard deviations of pre-drilling then reaming for each hole size respectively. 4. The main effect of drilling speed was insignificant in the drilled holes when tool diameter was less than or equal to 1/2", while it was significant when tool diameter was over 1/2". 5. The main effect of drilling feed was signirleant in the reamed holes when tool diameter was less than or ecjual to 1/2", while it was insignificant when tool diameter was over 1/2". 6. An increase in drilling feed caused an increase in roughness when tool diameter was less then or equal to 1/2". This was not significant with larger hole diameters. 7. Better surface finish resulted from drilling only, rather than from pre-drilling then reaming, when tool diameter was 1/2". 166 8. Better surface finish resulted by employing a secondary operation such as reaming, rather than drilling only, when tool diameter was over 1/2". 9. The main effect of reaming speed was significant when the hole sizes were 1/4" or 3/4" in diameter, while it was not significant when the hole sizes were 1/2" and 5/8". 10. A combination of higher drilling speed and lower drilling feed caused a decrease in roughness in the drilled holes with diameter of 47/64" and 48/64". 11. The main effect of drilling feed was significant in the drilled holes (except for 3/4"). 12. There was a significant interaction between drilling feed and speed in the drilled holes (except for 31/64"). 13. There was no significant interaction between drilling feed and speed in the reamed holes (except for 3/4"). 14. There was a significant interaction between reaming feed and speed in the reamed holes (except for 1/4") . 15. In the following mathematical relationships between different drilling conditions the > symbol has been used to show that the condition(s) on the right side of the symbol is (are) not advantageous to the condition(s) on the left side of the symbol with 167 consideration to both surface finish and actual cutting time or penetration rate. Also, the < symbol shows that the condition(s) on the left side of the symbol is (are) not advantageous to the condition(s) on the right side of the symbol considering the same criteria simultaneously. In addition, the term "any other drilling conditions" refers to all of the twelve drilling conditions except for those conditions which are already stated in a given mathematical relationship. A < any other drilling conditions L >. any other drilling conditions any other drilling conditions >. B >. A any other drilling conditions >: D > A and/or B K > C, E, F, G, H and/or J J > C, E, F, G, and/or H I > E, F, G, H and/or J H > C, E and/or G F > C, E, G and/or H Dimensional accuracy: With regard to the dimensional accuracy of drilled and/or pre-drilled then reamed holes, the experimental analyses showed that: 1. The main effect of drilling feed was not significant in the reamed holes. 168 2. Better dimensional accuracy resulted from drilling only, rather than from pre-drilling then reaming, when tool diameter was 1/2". 3. Better dimensional accuracy resulted by employing a secondary operation such as reaming when tool diameter was over 1/2", rather than from drilling only. 4. As the hole size increased, the percentage of improved dimensional accuracy of reaming over drilling increased. 5. As the hole size increased, the standard deviation of reamed holes increased. 6. The main effect of reaming feed was significant in the reamed holes (except for 1/2"). 7. The main effect of drilling speed was significant in the drilled holes (except for 5/8"). 8. There was no significant interaction between drilling speed and feed in the reamed holes (except for 1/4"). 9. There was no significant interaction between reaming speed and feed in the reamed holes (except for 3/4"). 10. The main effect of drilling speed was significant in the drilled holes (except for 1/4" and 5/8") . 11. There was a significant interaction between drilling feed and speed in the drilled holes when the drill 169 size was over 1/2" (except for 40/64"), while there was no significant interaction when the drill size was less than or equal to 1/2". 12. The main effect of drilling speed was significant in the reamed holes when the hole sizes were 1/4" or 3/4" in diameter, while it was not significant when the hole sizes were 1/2" and 5/8". 13. Hole accuracy of the drilled holes was more dependent on drilling feed for holes of larger diameter than in holes of smaller diameter. 14. An increase in the drilling speed usually caused a decrease in the accuracy of those holes which were drilled but not reamed. This was especially true with a small hole diameter. An early investigation also confirmed this result [110]. 15. An increase in the drilling feed caused a decrease in the accuracy of the drilled-only holes in smaller hole diameters. This result was also confirmed by an early investigation [110]. 16. A combination of a high drilling speed and a high drilling feed resulted in better hole accuracy than a combination of high drilling speed and low drilling feed. It is also true that a combination of low drilling feed and low drilling speed caused better hole accuracy than a combination of low 170 drilling speed and high drilling feed in the drilled holes only. 17. The following mathematical relationships between different drilling conditions were constructed with the same format as was described in the previous section. A < any other drilling conditions L > any other drilling conditions C > D > B E and/or G >. D I and/or K > B, C, D, E, F, G, H and/or J J > C, D, E, G, and/or H F>H>B, C, D, E and/or G Occasionally, inconsistent observations were found to occur during the course of the experiment. For example, a few times the drill bit became warmer than usual; this melted the aluminum chips which appeared to be clinging on the drill bit at high combinations of speed and feed with a 5/8-inch drill bit. Also, at higher combinations of speed, feed and tool diameter, the appearance of wide continuous chips was noted. It is not unusual to discover occasional discrepencies in conducting various Icinds of manufacturing experiments. These discrepencies might be regional, depending on the 171 conditions of the different factors involved in the experiment. There are many instances in which the results of experiments may not follow expected or speculated patterns. Some of these instances will be discussed later in this chapter. In all probability, there are various extraneous, unidentified factors which have an impact upon surface finish and/or dimensional accuracy. The effect of tool deflection, excessive heat, excessive forces, vibration/ chatter, and chip thickness are among the possibilities of extraneous factors which might affect surface finish and/or dimensional accuracy. Although every aspect of this investigation (e.g., operational procedures, tools and materials selection, etc.) was conducted in such a way as to minimize the effect of these factors on the outcome, it is suggested that perhaps these extraneous factors may be responsible for some of the exceptions to the preceding general conclusions. The following table. Table 15, is evidence that, even though extraneous factors may have affected the outcome of this study, the results were more precise than those of previous studies. This table compares the results of this investigation with three previous studies with regard to expected average (maximum and minimum) hole size in the drilling operation. 172 TABLE 15 Comparative average maximum and minimum hole sizes from this study and previous studies Oberg & Jones 1 Moltrecht Metcut Current Study Drill Average Average Average Average Size Max. Min. Max. Min. size Max. Min. .23438 .24055 .23608 .23738 .23494 .23405* .25000 .25625 .25175 .25660 .2525 .25300 .25026 .24960* .48438 .49180 .48683 .49038 .48539 .48464 .50000 .50750 .50250 .50800 .5029 .50600 .50244 .50045 .60938 1.61742 .61220 .61538 .61267 .60942 .62500 .63313 .62788 .63100 .63238 .63093 .73438 .74305 .73758 .74038 .74187 .73927 .75000 1.75875. 75325 1.75820 .7532 1 .75600 .75701 .75402 * indicates undersize hole The first column lists the drill sizes. The second, third, and fourth columns show the results found by Oberg and Jones [85], Moltrecht [82], and Metcut Research Associates, Inc. [45], respectively, in previous studies. The fifth column shows the results found in this investigation. The results from this investigation, when compared with those of Oberg and Jones and Moltrecht, are much closer to the anticipated hole diameter. The average maximum hole size for each drill diameter under Oberg and Jones is greater than the average maximum hole size for 173 each drill diameter under current investigation. Similarly, this is true for Moltrecht's average maximum. The average hole sizes of this investigation, when compared with the average hole sizes which are on the fourth column (this column shows the average of hole sizes produced with twist drills which are stated in Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook [45]) of the above table, are reasonably close to the anticipated hole diameter. Also, in general, the average minimum in the current study was generally less than that of the other three studies. It is pertinent to mention that Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook [45] states that surface finishes produced by drilling generally range from about 100-250 microinches or more. In this investigation, none of the individual holes exceeded 210 microinches. On the average, the maximum and minimum values of roughness were about 14 2 and 82 microinches, respectively. According to Carroll Edgar [46], roughness of drilled holes is around 120 microinches. The current research, however, found the average roughness to be about 111 microinches. Theoretically, some of those extraneous factors affect surface finish and/or dimensional accuracy in various ways, depending on machining conditions and/or hole sizes. Overall, the experimental results of this study generally coincide with that which is theoretically expected. The following paragraphs represent the impact of some of the 174 above extraneous, unidentified factors on surface finish and/or dimensional accuracy. One of the most important factors which may influence the outcome of any experiment is chatter. When force conditions between tool and workpiece are just right, resonance occurs, and a vibration called "chatter" takes place. In other words, chatter is a synchronized vibration that is set up in the machine, tool, workpiece, or, as a combination of vibration in all of these components. Harris and Crede [67] define chatter as "a self-induced vibration which is caused not by external forces, but which is induced and maintained by forces generated by the cutting process itself". Chatter has a significant effect upon tool life and surface finish. The three main adverse effects of chatter are: imperfections on surface finish, increasing the tool wear rate, and causing an unpleasant noise. It has been seen experimentally that chatter occurs only in a single speed range or a number of well-defined ranges [127]. Tobias and Fishwick [128] conducted an experiment with speed ranges of 70 to 1100 RPM. They observed that chatter occurred only in the speed range of 440-680 RPM. This is shown graphically on the following page (Figure 59, page 175): 175 Drilling speed ChsHer frequency revfmin ^h Timing marks 65 cjs niMmTiiiMiiMiTniiniiiiiiTniiiitiimiiniiiiiuiitiii inniiiiinnn.irrT O^OJmm. SBO --.-^.--..^-.^-s.-N..-~^^=-U—^N-^>w- • 1290 OOkSmmv TTTiinnTninnnminiMmiMiiiiiiiiiiiiimMiimiinMinnmiii'iiiiiiii 0175 mm iTnniiiiiiTiTiiriiiiriiMiiiiimiiiiTiiimiMiiMiii!iimii:Tmiiiiiiiitiiiiii 350 iitiirnntiMitniii'iimiiimiiiiriiiTinininiiiiiiiiiiMiitintnirmiiiiin Figure 59: Relative vibration between saddle and work, drill size = 5/8", feed equals to .204 mm/rev, material mild steel [127] As Figure 59 shows, the speed has been altered in an attempt to reduce the chatter. A further important fact discovered is that the chatter frequency varies regularly as a function of speed. In addition, the figure shows that when speed is decreased, there is a concomitant decrease in chatter frequency. It has also been experimentally and theoretically shown that small diameter drills (30/64" or less) produce no chatter in well-installed drill presses. When using larger diameter drills, the speed should normally be reduced to eliminate the chatter [127]. Additionally, experiments and theoretical analyses have 176 shown that chatter cannot occur between certain speeds, usually 700 and 900 RPM if the drill press is installed in the usual manner [127]. This also seemed to be confirmed by the present investigation, whose overall results showed that a speed of 774 RPM produced better surface finish and/or dimensional accuracy, see the example later on in this chapter. It might be necessary to alter the speed in order to reduce the chatter which may have been present in this study. Although chatter was not the primary concern of this investigation, it might be responsible for some of the exceptions noted previously. Exceptions such as: 1) the main effect of drilling speed, which was insignificant in the drilled holes when tool diameter was less than or equal to 1/2" and was significant when tool diameter was over 1/2"; 2) better dimensional accuracy and/or surface finish resulted by employing the reaming operation, rather than from drilling only, when tool diameter was over 1/2". Another factor, although not of primary concern in this study, which may be responsible, for these exceptions is tool deflection. Since an increase in tool diameter requires extra forces to feed the tool into the workpiece, the possibility of tool deflection increases. Generally, it is shown for most tools and materials, that surface finish is poor at low speeds and begins to improve as speed increases. At some critical velocity, BUE may begin to form (most likely chatter has some influence 177 on the BUE) and finish deteriorates. Surface finish begins to improve again when a sufficiently high speed is reached. This is shown schematically in Figure 60 as follows: R O U G H N E S S SPEED Figure 60: General scheme of speed vs. roughness for most materials and tools In addition to chatter, another important factor which may influence the outcome of any experiment is chip formation. Chips are formed by two different tool geometries - the outer cutting lips and the chisel edge. The type of chip produced, one of the main factors affecting surface quality, is largely dependent upon the chisel edge. For example, an extremely negative value of 178 the chisel edge tends to crowd the chip rather than cut through it. In general, chips which are continuous with no BUE are best because steady cutting conditions exist; chips which are continuous with BUE are worst; and these which are discountinuous are reasonably good although they can cause cracks and create force fluctuations. Conjunction of these fluctuations with one of the natural frecjuencies of the structure may raise a forced vibration of appreciable amplitude. However, segmentation of the chip may not be a primary effect, it might be produced by other vibration without which continuous chip flow would be engaged [67]. With regard to the wide chips which were sometimes found to occur in the present research, a previous study showed that such chips lead to chatter more often than do narrow chips [67]. Also, the BUE which was observed in the present experiment is known to occasionally accompany chatter. Armarego and Brown [16] referred to Shteinberg's experiment and mentioned that the frequency of vibration is essentially the same as the frequency of BUE fracture which increases with an increase in cutting speed. They also mentioned that the chip fluctuation effect is initially vibration. Finally, they suggested that the instability phenomena which may initiate force vibrations and which seem to be inherent to cutting conditions are BUE formation, chip segmentation and discontinuous chip formation. Finally, they refer to Ferraresi's conclusion 179 in which the machine does not have any effect on chip segmentation. The chip reduction coefficient, whose inverse is known as the cutting ratio can be found as follows [114]: chip thickness 2 X (feed, mm/rev) X Sin(half of point angle) The chip reduction coefficient is mainly affected by cutting conditions, workpiece, and tool. Chip thickness is basically dependent upon the shape and size of tool. With an increase in depth of cut, the chip reduction coefficient decreases sharply at first and then remains constant after reaching a particular value [114]. Another anomaly involves the chip reduction coefficient, which generally decreases as cutting speed increases; however, once a certain cutting speed is reached, further increases in speed are associated with a concurrent increase in the chip reduction coefficient until a maximum chip reduction coefficient value is reached, then again the chip reduction coefficient decreases as cutting speed increases [114]. A similar relationship has been found to exist between feed and the chip reduction coefficient [114]. It is suggested that perhaps these relation ships, which are partially a function of the type of chips formed, may be responsible for some of the conclusions in the present study. For example, the effect of reaming speed on surface finish, 180 which was significant when tool diameter was 1/4", insignificant when tool diameters were 1/2" and 5/8", and again significant when tool diameter was 3/4". As another example, although the main effect of drilling speed was not significant on dimensional accuracy when the diameter of the tool was 1/4", it became significant for a diameter of 1/2", insignificant for 5/8", and again significant for 3/4". Additionally, the effect of drilling speed was significant on dimensional accuracy in the reamed holes when the hole sizes were 1/4" or 3/4" in diameter, while it was not significant when the hole sizes were 1/2" and 5/8". Each of the patterns in the above examples is similar to that discussed previously with regard to the chip reduction coefficient. The following suggestions were made in order to minimize chatter: 1. to keep the ratio of the chip thickness coefficient over equivalent stiffness as small as possible and the ratio of the penetration coefficient over equivalent stiffness as large as possible [127]. As was mentioned previously (and also in Appendix F) the selected workpiece for this study has a small chip thickness coefficient value since it is reasonably soft, readily machinable material. 2. to bolt down the drill press as well as possible. In this study, the drill press was bolted on a very 181 heavy plate. In addition, some weight was placed on the drill press in order to increase the rigidity of the setup. 3. to hold the workpiece accurately by using adequate support, fixtures or jigs. In this study, the work- pieces were clamped precisely. 4. to shorten the drill or reamer as much as possible. The longer the drill or reamer in proportion to its diameter, the greater the possiblity of deflection and chatter. In this study, the drills were short and reamers were shortened by cutting them. 5. to increase feed and/or reduce the speed. On the other hand, excessive feed tends to produce spiral marks or a wavy finish and may reduce the hole accuracy. 6. to hold the tool accurately. In this study, the tools were held in a three jaw-chuck in order to prevent tool slippage and excessive wear and to increase rigidity, and to minimize the chances of deflection. 7. to reduce the height of the arm on the column and the distance between the head and column of the drill press. Small chips, which usually are produced by small drills, reduce horsepower and relieve binding [76]; because of the limited amount of space in the drill flutes for 182 chips, it is desirable to have the chips broken into sufficiently small pieces. Small chips are usually unavoidably blown into precision finished areas causing loss of accuracy [76]. To prevent this problem, the chips were brushed instead of blown, even though blowing is a faster method. They were brushed away as often as possible, since chip elimination from the workpiece is necessary to avoid enlargement with the cutter. The quality of the finish improves as the volume of chips is reduced. The more stock to be removed, the lower the feeds should be. The amount of material to be removed from the front of the dead center depends on the size of dead center, which, in turn, is dependent upon the size of the drill. That is why a smaller drill may be used to first remove material from in front of the dead center. This reduces the generated heat and the amount of force required for feeding. However, this requires an extra operation, therefore extra costs are involved. The cutting energy consumed in drilling is highly dependent upon the amount of materials to be reamed. Basically, the specific energy in drilling can be found as the amount of work done per revolution divided by the volume of metal removed [136]. The thermodynamicist generally claims that all energy involved in friction is converted irreversibly into heat. Hence the chip-tool interface, where chip slides over tool, is one heat source 183 - the amount of heat generated is a function of the cutting area and feed rate. As was mentiond earlier, excessive heat may cause BUE which results in poor surface finish. It was also mentioned that during the course of the experiment, it was sometimes observed that the tools became warmer than usual. Although neither heat nor cutting energy was the primary concern here, they may influence the results of this study. For example, the combination of lower drilling feed and higher drilling speed may have affected cutting energy and/or heat which, in turn, may have caused a decrease in the roughness of the drilled holes with diameters of 47/64" and 48/64". Another example also involves the increase in heat which seems to be associated with increasing tool diameter. It is plausible that this may have been in some way responsiblefor the increase in the percentage of the improved dimensional accuracy of reaming over drilling with increasing hole size. Additionally, it is possible that the reason that the main effect of reaming feed was significant for all reamed holes except those which were 1/2"was related to the excessive cutting energy and/or heat created by the larger cutting area. The finding that hole accuracy was more dependent on drilling feed for large holes than was the case for holes of a smaller diameter may have been related to the effects of cutting energy. Finally, heat might have had an influence on the results where the study showed that 184 a combination of low drilling feed and low drilling speed caused better hole accuracy than a combination of low drilling speed and high drilling feed. It is worthwhile to mention the study done by Tobias and Fishwick [58] where they stated that over the comparatively short distance in which the drill broke through, an additional movement of about .024 inches might be impressed on the drill feed. Since the point at which the drill breaks through is a critical point, at which time the force ranges from the highest value to zero, the possibility of vibration at this point increases. This vibration might be responsible for some of the exceptions noted previously. In order to select the appropriate speed and feed for a given hole size in a drilling operation several factors must be taken into account. One of the main concerns is the requirement of the task which includes the tolerance in both surface finish and dimensional accuracy. When the quality of surface finish is important, selection of the speed and feed would be different than if the amount of time consumed or penetration rate is important. Also, the selection of the speed and feed for a required quality hole size would be different than when high feed rate is important. For example, selection of the speed with the lowest cost and the lowest corresponding feed would be the appropriate condition for surface finish when the drill 185 size is 15/64". Also, choosing low speeds and feeds is appropriate only when the quality of surface finish is important. However, when the amount of time consumed is important, this is not the right selection since it requires the highest operation time. A combination of the lowest feed and high speed produces better quality hole size while it does not have a high penetration rate, although it requires a fairly short cutting time. As study of the first two sections of the previous chapter and the general conclusions of this chapter would be useful to assist with the selection of an appropriate drilling condition with respect to the requirement of a given task. As was previously stated, the reaming operation increases the cjuality of surface finish and hole accuracy over drilled holes only, in all cases except for those holes with 1/4" diameter. However, as was mentioned earlier, on the average it requires 4.5 seconds of actual cutting time to drill a hole and 11.06 seconds when reaming is employed. A design engineer or an operator must not only consider the employment of the reaming operation based on the requirement of a given task and the extra actual cutting time associated with the reaming operation, he also has to consider the other costs of employing the reaming operation. He has to compare the percentage of improvement in hole accuracy and surface finish to the increase in unit cost caused by employing the reaming operation in order to 186 decide whether or not the percentage of improvement caused by the reaming operation is worth the increase in unit cost. The unit cost of reaming can be calculated as follows: Total unit cost = $ / minute (reaming time + rapid traverse time + load and unload time + set-up time + tool changing time) + tool cost C = c T + (T / t) (c tc + ct) + c th Where: c is cost rate of production time in $/minute T is the amount of time elapsed for the cut of each hole in minutes (as shown previously) t is tool life in minutes tc is tool changing time in minutes th is handling time in minute/workpiece ct is tool cost Assume the hole size of 1/2" in diameter was selected to be produced. This hole can be produced under two different operations, namely, drilling the hole with a drill size of 1/2" in diameter or drilling the hole with a drill size of 31/64" then reaming it with a reamer size of 1/2" in diameter. It is obvious that the first method, drilling only, will be less costly than the second method. Using the above equation, the first method will be more expensive than drilling a hole with the drill size of 31/64" in diameter since T and ct for the drill size of 31/64" are less than for the drill size of 1/2" in 187 diameter. However, the cost of the reaming operation must be added to the cost of drilling the hole with a drill size of 31/64" in diameter. If the values of t, tc, th, and ct are given, the total cost of producing the hole under two different methods can be calculated and compared. Also, the percentage of increased cost of the second method over the first method can be calculated. Based on the results of the observations in this study, the second method increases the improvement of surface finish 43% and dimensional accuracy 67% over the first method. Considering the tolerance and importance of a given task, the design engineer or operator can decide whether or not 43% improvement in surface finish and 67% improvement in dimensional accuracy is worth the extra cost caused by employing the reaming operation. For example, according to the observations of this investigation, on average the hole size under the first method is .5011573" and under the second method is .5003631". If the expected hole size should not vary more than .500" ± .002, the second method is not cost effective and is useless, but if the expected hole size must be .500" + .0001, the first method is no longer appropriate since it does not fulfill the requirements. Reference to the third and fourth sections of the previous chapter and the general conclusions of this chapter would assist one in deciding on the necessity or 188 uselessness of employing the secondary operation of reaming for hole production. When the decision is made to employ the reaming operation, a review of the first and last two sections of the previous chapter would be helpful in the selection of the appropriate machining conditions. The last two sections of the previous chapter can provide information about the significance of the main factors and their interactions for both reaming and drilling operations. The following example might be useful for an understanding of this part of the investigation. Example: Suppose the requirement is to produce a hole size of 1/2" in diameter using the drilling then reaming operations. According to Table 14 (page 163) in the previous chapter, when the quality of surface finish is important, the main factors of speed and feed of reaming and the interaction of reaming or drilling are not significant. In addition. Table 14 shows that drilling speed and feed are significant factors. Since the speed and feed of drilling are significant, the selection of a drilling speed and feed which produce a better surface finish (speed of 774 RPM and feed of .006 IPR, condition D, first section of the previous chapter and also mathematical relationship of this chapter) with the selection of reaming speed and feed which produces a better surface finish (speed of 1050 RPM and feed of .012 IPR condition L) are 189 the appropriate machining conditions for producing a hole size of 1/2" in diameter when the quality of surface finish is important. Based on the results of this research the following topics are suggested for exploration in the future: 1. The effect of drilling variables on the final characteristic of holes which require a secondary operation such as tapping. 2. Analysis of the effectiveness of reaming on different kinds of materials such as steel En 30 B, steel En 10, cast iron, tungsten, etc. 3. 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"Tool-Life Testing by Response Surface Methodology-Part 2," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Transactions of the ASME, May, 1964, pp. 111-116. \/147. Yee, K. W. and Blomquist, D. S. "Holemaking - Checking Toolwear by Time Domain Analysis," Manufacturing Engineering. May, 1982, pp. 74-76. 148. Zaima, S., Yuki, A., and Kamo, S. "Effects of Cutting Fluids on Roughness of Drilled Surfaces of Aluminum Alloys," Journal of the Japanese Institute of Light Metals. Vol. 21, No. 3, March, 1971, pp. 130-136. APPENDICES 205 APPENDIX A CUTTING FLUID In general, cutting fluid is used to reduce friction at chip-tool and work-tool interfaces; reduce heat; protect the surface finish against corrosion, and help remove chips and debris [136]. The cutting fluid used in this investigation was Tapmatic Dual Action Plus Cutting Fluid #2 manufactured by Tapmatic Corporation, Irvine, California and Tapmatic International Corporation, Kriessern, Switzerland. Tapmatic Dual Action Plus Cutting Fluid #2 is especially designed for use in drilling, reaming, tapping, milling, turning and boring of aluminum and is hand applied. Tapmatic Dual Action Plus Cutting Fluid #2 helps to increase production, prevent galling and seizure, and increase tool life. It simultaneously refrigerates and lubricates. It contains a blend of fatty methylesters that provide superior extreme pressure lubricity. 206 APPENDIX B DRILL PRESS Drill presses are machines commonly used for drilling and machining cylindrical holes. They are relatively simple and have comparatively low initial costs. Drill presses are relatively easy to set up and operate, and they can be tooled for large-quantity production at comparatively low costs [29]. For various reasons including those outlined above, an automatic drill press. Model SE1425, made by Solberga Mekaniska Verstands (Sweden) was used for all of the drilling and reaming operations in this investigation. The machine has automatic feed provisions and it is gear driven with eight different speeds (120, 175, 240, 350, 525, 774, 1050, and 1548 RPM) and four different feeds (.004, .006, .008, and .012 IPM). 207 APPENDIX C BOICE BORE GAGE A Boice Bore Gage made by Boice Division, Mechanical Technology Incorporated (Latham, New York, U.S.A.) was used for measuring the hole sizes. Boice Bore Gage Model #0, #1, and #2 were used for measuring hole sizes ranging from .126" to .255", .250" to .500", and .500" to 1.000", respectively. In addition, Boice Bore Gage Setmaster Model #22 was used to set the bore gages. The Boice Bore Gage has a .0001" indicator with a range of + .0052". (i^M I iwui yiiai Figure 61: Boice Bore Gage 208 APPENDIX D PROFILOMETER The most widely used and the most accurate instrument for surface finish measurement is a Profilometer, manufactured by Bendix Corporation. The Profilometer is an instrument system which directly shows the amount of surface roughness and average roughness height of most materials. A sharp-pointed stylus moves over the surface. Its motion perpendicular to the surface is translated to an amplified and recorded in the form of trace. The average roughness of the surface for one inch of tracer travel can be seen on a digital reading display which is shown in the following figure. The digital reading is updated every 3 seconds. The number of roughness peaks per inch above a preselected height and the average roughness height are displayed in microinches [4,12,44]. 209 210 I *m > Figure 62: Profilometer APPENDIX E DRILL BITS AND REAMERS It is highly recommended that standard tools be used whenever possible. Since standard tools are mass produced, they are generally far less expensive than custom made tools. Also, they have greater availability and interchangability. Finally, standard tools are more likely to cut satisfactorily since their designs are more often the product of extensive research than is the case for custom made tools [45,76]. Standard drills are available in sets of fractional sizes, millimeter sizes, numbered drills, and letter drills as presented in the table below (Table 16). TABLE 16 Standard Drill Sets [29] Type, of set Size range Increments Fractional sizes 1/64-4 inches 1/64 inches Millimeter sizes .5-10 millimeters .1 millimeter Numbered drills 0135-.2280 inches varying slightly Lettered drills (A through Z) 2340-.4130 inches varying slightly 211 212 DeGarmo [38] pointed out that millimeter sizes of standard drill sets differ slightly from Table 16. He indicated that the millimeter sizes of standard drill sets have .01 to .50 millimeter increments, according to size, in diameters from .015 millimeters. Conventional drills are generally constructed of one of the following three materials [46]: 1. High-carbon tool steel 2. High-speed steel 3. Carbide or steel tipped with cemented carbide The high speed steel drills are most widely used for production work because of their ability to retain hard cutting edges at higher cutting temperatures. In addition, high speed steel drills operate about twice as fast as high carbon steel drills [46]. Finally, drills of the cemented carbide variety are somewhat less common than high speed steel drills and, therefore, more expensive. For these reasons, the great majority of the more than 100 million drills produced annually are two-lipped, or two-fluted, twist drills with an 118-degree point angle [136]. The drill bits used in this study were CLE-Forge High Speed Steel, Straight Shank manufactured by Cleveland Twist Drill Company, Acme-Cleveland Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio. They were right hand cut, short length screw machine drill bits in fractional sizes (as is evident from the previous 213 table, the fractional sets provide the greatest range of available sizes, which would match perfectly with reamers, and have therefore been selected for the present analysis). The specifications of the drill bits are as follows: Diameter Flute Length Overall Length 15/64" 84/64" 156/64" 16/64" 88/64" 160/64" 31/64" 140/64" 236/64" 32/64" 144/64" 240/64" 39/64" 176/64" 272/64" 40/64" 176/64" 272/64" 47/64" 200/64" 320/64" 48/64" 200/64" 320/64" Short-length screw machine drill bits are primarily used in screw machines. The short flute and overall length lend increased rigidity. In this regard. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook [45] states that the shortest possible drill or reamer should always be used for the hole depth required to increase rigidity and improve accuracy. Also, the longer the drill or reamer in proportion to its diameter, the larger the possibility of deflection and chatter. 214 Reamers used were High Speed Steel, Straight Shank, Right Hand Cut manufactured by the same company as the drills. They were ground with a 45 degree chamfer. The specifications of the reamers are as follows: Diameter Flute Length Overall Length Number of Flutes 16/64" 96/64" 384/64" 6 32/64" 128/64" 512/64" 6 40/64" 144/64" 576/64" 8 48/64" 160/64" 608/64" 8 As mentioned previously, great care was taken in every aspect of this study to minimize the effect of extraneous undefined factors on the outcome. In order to minimize the chances of chatter, the unneeded portion of the shank of reamers were cut. It is recommended that short reamers of comparatively large cross section be used in order to minimize the chances of chatter [45]. Besides the advantages of selecting high speed steel, which were mentioned in various parts of this text, it is worthwhile to mention that they retain the maximum hardness up to about 538 Celsius and consequently they can do work at a substantially faster rate of speed. They have hardness, high wear resistance, and toughness. Chemical composition of high speed steels are as follows: carbon .73 to 1.5%, manganese .25 to .30%, chromium 3.75 to 4.15%, vanadium 1.15 to 1.90%, tungsten up to 18%, molybdenum up to 0.7., and ccalt in so^e specific ,.a.es. Haraenin, ^'^ temperatures range fro. i093 to 1238 Celsius t46]. APPENDIX F TEST MATERIALS Aluminum and aluminum alloys are used in various areas in industry. These areas include transportation, machinery, containers, building and construction, electrical products, and consumer durables. The properties of aluminum that make it of engineering significance are workability and good electrical and thermal conductivity; aluminum is an excellent material for those applications where relatively good corrosion resistance must be combined with light weight. Aluminum has very low gravity, 2.7, as compared with steel, 7.85. Additionally, it has a relatively small chip-thickness coefficient which is important in the reduction of chatter. 2024 alloy aluminum is used in aircraft structures, truck wheels, and screw-machine products. In Europe and Asia the majority of window frames are made of 2024 alloy aluminum. Nominal chemical composition of aluminum 2024 is as follows: copper 4.4%, magnesium 1.5%, and manganese .6%. The melting point is 660 Celsius and the boiling point is 2441 Celsius. The Brinell hardness value is 47 [35]. Finally, it is important to mention that the ductility of 216 aluminum 2024 does not decrPP,c=o • • • clecrease significantly with the strength increase produced by heat treatment. APPENDIX G DRILLING AND REAMING DATA A SAS statement, 'PROC PLAN', was used to completely randomize the order of the holes to be drilled and reamed. The drill and reamer size selection for data collected from the first, second, and third replications of the drilled, pre-drilled, and reamed holes on aluminum alloy 2024, were also completely randomized by the SAS statement PROC PLAN. The following pages show the collected data. The first 8 columns represent the drilling data, and the second 8 columns show the reaming data. Each individual column on the following pages contains the following information: Column 1: drill bit size Column 2: speed Column 3: feed Column 4: trial number in drilling Column 5: replication number (blocks) Column 6: amount of hole roughness Column 7: amount of hole size (in one hundred thousandth of an inch) Column 8: hole accuracy in drilling (in one hundred thousandth of an inch) Column 9: reamer size 218 219 Column 10: speed Column 11: feed Column 12: trial number in reaming Column 13: replication (blocks) Column 14: amount of hole roughness Column 15: amount of hole size (in one hundred thousandth of an inch) Column 16: hole accuracy in reaming (in one hundred thousandth of an inch) For instance, the first row on the following page shows a hole which was drilled with a drill diameter of 15/64" under the speed of 525 RPM, and feed of .006 IPR. This hole was the first trial on the first replication which shows a roughness amount of 72.7 microinches and a hole size of .23365 inches. Also, it shows that the hole is .00073 inches under the expected diameter. This hole was reamed with a reamer diameter of 16/64" under the speed of 350 RPM, and feed of .006 IPR. This hole was the first trial on the first replication which shows a roughness amount of 105.2 microinches and a hole size of .25090 inches. Also, it shows that the hole is .00090 inches over the expected diameter. The negative values represent undersize holes. As another example, the first row of the following data which has only 8 columns shows a hole which was drilled with a drill diameter of 16/64" under the speed of 525 RPM, and feed of .006 IPR. This hole was the first 220 trial on the first replication which shows a roughness amount of 86.9 microinches and a hole size of .24950 inches. Also, it shows that the hole is .00050 inches under the expected diameter. 1 2 1 1 1 72.7 23365 -73 2 1 1 1 1 105.2 25090 90 1 2 1 2 1 77.5 23425 -13 2 1 2 1 1 132.0 25050 50 1 2 1 3 1 68.3 23410 -28 2 1 3 1 1 145.1 25020 20 1 2 1 4 1 75.6 23440 2 2 2 1 1 1 123.1 25060 60 1 2 1 5 1 97.7 23420 -18 2 2 2 1 1 98.1 25040 40 1 2 1 6 1 88.7 23395 -43 2 2 3 1 1 126.9 25050 50 1 2 1 7 1 107.3 23415 -23 2 3 1 1 1 77.2 25060 60 1 2 1 8 1 108.6 23430 -8 2 3 2 1 1 126.5 25010 10 1 2 1 9 1 95.9 23415 -23 2 3 3 1 1 136.8 25030 30 1 2 1 10 1 60.5 23385 -53 2 4 1 1 1 72.5 25060 60 1 2 1 11 1 67.3 23460 22 2 4 2 1 1 128.6 25030 30 1 2 1 12 1 70.8 23390 -48 2 4 3 1 1 126.1 25050 50 1 2 1 1 2 64.9 23340 -98 2 1 1 1 2 99.1 25080 80 1 2 1 2 2 70.5 23385 -53 2 1 2 1 2 74.4 25020 20 1 2 1 3 2 75.7 23415 -23 2 1 3 1 2 131.6 25010 10 1 2 1 4 2 83.2 23390 -48 2 2 1 1 2 84.6 25080 80 1 2 1 5 2 67.5 23395 -43 2 2 2 1 2 97.6 25060 60 1 2 1 6 2 68.3 23345 -93 2 2 3 1 2 141.6 25070 70 1 2 1 7 2 71.7 23405 -33 2 3 1 1 2 79.1 25060 60 1 2 1 8 2 72.7 23405 -33 2 3 2 1 2 134.7 25040 40 1 2 1 9 2 59.4 23360 -78 2 3 3 1 2 145.6 25030 30 1 2 1 10 2 65.5 23425 -13 2 4 1 1 2 95.8 25060 60 1 2 1 11 2 63.4 23435 -3 2 4 2 1 2 136.4 25020 20 1 2 1 12 2 71.9 23440 2 2 4 3 1 2 120.9 25020 20 1 2 1 1 3 64.2 23340 -98 2 1 1 1 3 93.2 25060 60 1 2 1 2 3 68.0 23360 -78 2 1 2 1 3 103.2 25060 60 1 2 1 3 3 75.4 23390 -48 2 1 3 1 3 130.8 25050 50 1 2 1 4 3 74.0 23355 -83 2 2 1 1 3 83.6 25020 20 1 2 1 5 3 97.8 23435 -3 2 2 2 1 3 94.9 25060 60 1 2 1 6 3 78.4 23425 -13 2 2 3 1 3 143.7 25070 70 1 2 1 7 3 84.6 23405 -33 2 3 1 1 3 109.4 25055 55 1 2 1 8 3 91.2 23440 2 2 3 2 1 3 132.9 25050 50 1 2 1 9 3 60.5 23435 -3 2 3 3 1 3 133.6 25070 70 1 2 1 10 3 34.2 23465 27 2 4 1 1 3 121.4 25060 60 1 2 1 11 3 39.4 23420 -18 2 4 2 1 3 131.4 25050 50 1 2 1 12 3 49.0 23465 27 2 4 3 1 3 129.0 25065 65 1 2 2 1 1 84.6 23345 -93 2 1 1 2 1 108.0 25085 85 1 2 2 2 1 80.5 23355 -83 2 1 2 2 1 124.9 25080 80 1 2 2 3 1 63.8 23370 -68 2 1 3 2 1 139.3 25040 40 1 2 2 4 1 91.1 23350 -88 2 2 1 2 1 112.5 25055 55 1 2 2 5 1 76.6 23375 -63 2 2 2 2 1 115.6 25040 40 1 2 2 6 1 87.8 23400 -38 2 2 3 2 1 136.0 25020 20 221 1 2 2 7 1 90.5 23415 -23 2 3 1 2 1 72.3 25080 80 1 2 2 8 1 88.6 23420 -18 2 3 2 2 1 102.3 25040 40 1 2 2 9 1 87.0 23460 22 2 3 3 2 1 138.5 25015 15 1 2 2 10 1 81.7 23440 2 2 4 1 2 1 98.7 25070 70 1 2 2 11 1 116.4 23435 -3 2 4 2 2 1 128.2 25000 0 1 2 2 12 1 77.8 23445 7 2 4 3 2 1 129.1 24980 -20 1 2 2 1 2 93.8 23430 -8 2 1 1 2 2 133.7 25050 50 1 2 2 2 2 100.5 23410 -28 2 1 2 2 2 125.5 25070 70 1 2 2 3 2 91.2 23405 -33 2 1 3 2 2 100.6 25070 70 1 2 2 4 2 83.2 23375 -63 2 2 1 2 2 111.7 25060 60 1 2 2 5 2 95.5 23405 -33 2 2 2 2 2 124.3 25065 65 1 2 2 6 2 95.8 23395 -43 2 2 3 2 2 113.6 25055 55 1 2 2 7 2 85.4 23375 -63 2 3 1 2 2 130.5 25080 80 1 2 2 8 2 95.6 23390 -48 2 3 2 2 2 127.7 25060 60 1 2 2 9 2 94.8 23375 -63 2 3 3 2 2 137.7 25030 30 1 2 2 10 2 74.1 23365 -73 2 4 1 2 2 110.2 25080 80 1 2 2 11 2 80. 1 23385 -53 2 4 2 2 2 108.7 25045 45 1 2 2 12 2 81.5 23355 -83 2 4 3 2 2 123.7 25010 10 1 2 2 1 3 69.0 23445 7 2 1 1 2 3 99.9 25050 50 1 2 2 2 3 89.1 23450 12 2 1 2 2 3 105.9 25050 50 1 2 2 3 3 87.5 23475 37 2 1 3 2 3 121.9 25035 35 1 2 2 4 3 100.6 23475 37 2 2 1 2 3 106.0 25030 30 1 2 2 5 3 121.5 23430 -8 2 2 2 2 3 107.7 25060 60 1 2 2 6 3 115.5 23410 -28 2 2 3 2 3 137.7 25070 70 1 2 2 7 3 100.1 23415 -23 2 3 1 2 3 95.8 25040 40 1 2 2 8 3 90.6 23430 -8 2 3 2 2 3 126.0 25060 60 1 2 2 9 3 58.8 23420 -18 2 3 3 2 3 135.6 25070 70 1 2 2 10 3 50.9 23370 -68 2 4 1 2 3 108.7 25070 70 1 2 2 11 3 36.4 23385 -53 2 4 2 2 3 129.3 25050 50 1 2 2 12 3 69.0 23410 -28 2 4 3 2 3 128.4 25030 30 1 2 3 1 1 77.5 23385 -53 2 1 1 3 1 74.3 25060 60 1 2 3 2 1 102.6 23355 -83 2 1 2 3 1 116.3 24990 -10 1 2 3 3 1 103.6 23380 -58 2 1 3 3 1 145.9 25020 20 1 2 3 4 1 83.8 23440 2 2 2 1 3 1 133.2 25070 70 1 2 3 5 1 132.9 23410 -28 2 2 2 3 1 105.0 25030 30 1 2 3 6 1 102.1 23405 -33 2 2 3 3 1 121.6 24980 -20 1 2 3 7 1 96.4 23405 -33 2 3 1 3 1 74.9 25050 50 1 2 3 8 1 103.6 23380 -58 2 3 2 3 1 119.8 25060 60 1 2 3 9 1 118.0 23385 -53 2 3 3 3 1 121.9 24970 -30 1 2 3 10 1 97.7 23395 -43 2 4 1 3 1 106.4 25040 40 1 2 3 11 1 90.3 23395 -43 2 4 2 3 1 126.6 25040 40 1 2 3 12 1 98.3 23385 -53 2 4 3 3 1 143.6 24990 -10 1 2 3 1 2 87.7 23380 -58 2 1 1 3 2 133.0 25070 70 1 2 3 2 2 73.5 23370 -68 2 1 2 3 2 123.0 25050 50 1 2 3 3 2 73.5 23390 -48 2 1 3 3 2 124.0 24990 -10 1 2 3 4 2 92.3 23385 -53 2 2 1 3 2 113.7 25050 50 1 2 3 5 2 103.0 23385 -53 2 2 2 3 2 110.8 25050 50 1 2 3 6 2 103.0 23425 -13 2 2 3 3 2 156.7 25000 0 1 2 3 7 2 141.0 23425 -13 2 3 1 3 2 114.8 25070 70 1 2 3 8 2 101.0 23410 -28 2 3 2 3 2 111.7 25075 75 1 2 3 9 2 105.0 23515 77 2 3 3 3 2 130.5 25020 20 222 1 2 3 10 2 97.7 23450 12 2 4 1 3 2 112.7 25080 80 1 2 3 11 2 109.3 23435 -3 2 4 2 3 2 129.6 25020 20 1 2 3 12 2 102.3 23435 -3 2 4 3 3 2 127.2 25015 15 1 2 3 1 3 82.1 23405 -33 2 1 1 3 3 94.3 25065 65 1 2 3 2 3 88.7 23395 -43 2 1 2 3 3 114.8 25075 75 1 2 3 3 3 88.7 23410 -28 2 1 3 3 3 115.4 25010 10 1 2 3 4 3 83.6 23390 -48 2 2 1 3 3 98.0 25045 45 1 2 3 5 3 101.1 23420 -18 2 2 2 3 3 106.0 25055 55 1 2 3 6 3 113.8 23425 -13 2 2 3 3 3 138.5 25030 30 1 2 3 7 3 112.2 23445 7 2 3 1 3 3 102.6 25050 50 1 2 3 8 3 110.6 23480 42 2 3 2 3 3 117.8 25025 25 1 2 3 9 3 96.9 23430 -8 2 3 3 3 3 127.5 25040 40 1 2 3 10 3 81.6 23450 12 2 4 1 3 3 113.3 25060 60 1 2 3 11 3 80.0 23405 -33 2 4 2 3 3 123.6 25030 30 1 2 3 12 3 58.4 23470 32 2 4 3 3 3 127.9 25065 65 1 3 1 1 1 78.7 23385 -53 2 1 1 4 1 135.9 25025 25 1 3 1 2 1 68.7 23420 -18 2 1 2 4 1 145.0 25020 20 1 3 1 3 1 88.1 23390 -48 2 1 3 4 1 148.5 24990 -10 1 3 1 4 1 79.5 23385 -53 2 2 1 4 1 87.6 25025 25 1 3 1 5 1 89.4 23415 -23 2 2 2 4 1 111.7 25020 20 1 3 1 6 1 97.3 23410 -28 2 2 3 4 1 121.1 24990 -10 1 3 1 7 1 96.7 23430 -8 2 3 1 4 1 79.0 25075 75 1 3 1 8 1 94.5 23405 -33 2 3 2 4 1 107.5 25035 35 1 3 1 9 1 78.0 23455 17 2 3 3 4 1 136.5 24985 -15 1 3 1 10 1 97.5 23505 67 2 4 1 4 1 116.5 25060 60 1 3 1 11 1 78.3 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3 88.9 23495 57 2 4 3 10 3 139.0 25060 60 1 5 2 1 1 89.1 23405 -33 2 1 1 11 1 123.7 24995 -5 1 5 2 2 1 98.1 23475 37 2 1 2 11 1 124.6 25030 30 1 5 2 3 1 87.1 23465 27 2 1 3 11 1 143.5 25020 20 1 5 2 4 1 104.7 23505 67 2 2 1 11 1 99.0 25050 50 1 5 2 5 1 94.6 23445 7 2 2 2 11 1 146.1 24990 -10 1 5 2 6 1 96.4 23485 47 2 2 3 11 1 156.8 25010 10 1 5 2 7 1 95.9 23475 37 2 3 1 11 1 123.5 25070 70 1 5 2 8 1 106.3 23455 17 2 3 2 11 1 147.2 25080 80 1 5 2 9 1 87.9 23520 82 2 3 3 11 1 147.5 25000 0 1 5 2 10 1 107.5 23500 62 2 4 1 11 1 108.1 25040 40 1 5 2 11 1 77.1 23545 107 2 4 2 11 1 138.7 25030 30 1 5 2 12 1 105.6 23540 102 2 4 3 11 1 150.2 25015 15 1 5 2 1 2 77.0 23470 32 2 1 1 11 2 127.0 25100 100 1 5 2 2 2 85.2 23530 92 2 1 2 11 2 122.0 25070 70 1 5 2 3 2 67.8 23525 87 2 1 3 11 2 141.7 25030 30 1 5 2 4 2 56.2 23485 47 2 2 1 11 2 116.8 25100 100 1 5 2 5 2 77.8 23520 82 2 2 2 11 2 127.4 25100 100 1 5 2 6 2 90.8 23465 27 2 2 3 11 2 146.8 25050 50 1 5 2 7 2 75.0 23470 32 2 3 1 11 2 113.0 25080 80 1 5 2 8 2 69.8 23480 42 2 3 2 11 2 116.1 25050 50 1 5 2 9 2 51.4 23415 -23 2 3 3 11 2 156.6 25040 40 1 5 2 10 2 50.6 23425 -13 2 4 1 11 2 124.6 25080 80 1 5 2 11 2 85.2 23475 37 2 4 2 11 2 122.9 25100 100 1 5 2 12 2 53.8 23450 12 2 4 3 11 2 165.4 25080 80 1 5 2 1 3 85.9 23475 37 2 1 1 11 3 80.1 25090 90 1 5 2 2 3 91.6 23525 87 2 1 2 11 3 103.6 25060 60 1 5 2 3 3 108.6 23495 57 2 1 3 11 3 126.7 25050 50 1 5 2 4 3 98.3 23445 7 2 2 1 11 3 107.2 25070 70 1 5 2 5 3 99.5 23455 17 2 2 2 11 3 113. 1 25100 100 1 5 2 6 3 101.7 23475 37 2 2 3 11 3 135.5 25080 80 1 5 2 7 3 98.0 23505 67 2 3 1 11 3 103.5 25120 120 1 5 2 8 3 89.6 23485 47 2 3 2 11 3 100.9 25055 55 1 5 2 9 3 99.3 23455 17 2 3 3 11 3 130.7 25065 65 1 5 2 10 3 93.0 23485 47 2 4 1 11 3 108.2 25080 80 1 5 2 11 3 92.6 23460 22 2 4 2 11 3 121.6 25045 45 1 5 2 12 3 72.4 23450 12 2 4 3 11 3 141.3 25050 50 1 5 3 1 1 103.2 23505 67 2 1 1 12 1 113.7 25080 80 1 5 3 2 1 96.5 23485 47 2 1 2 12 1 116.4 25095 95 1 5 3 3 1 100.7 23485 47 2 1 3 12 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109,. 3 25130 130 1 5 3 11 2 88.6 23490 52 2 4 2 12 2 123,. 3 25060 60 1 5 3 12 2 97.2 23505 67 2 4 3 12 2 159,. 0 25055 55 1 5 3 1 3 105.9 23500 62 2 1 1 12 3 94 .2 25070 70 1 5 3 2 3 114.5 23485 47 2 1 2 12 3 78 .4 25090 90 1 5 3 3 3 106.9 23515 77 2 1 3 12 3 129 .4 25050 50 1 5 3 4 3 115.2 23505 67 2 2 1 12 3 79 .7 25100 100 1 5 3 5 3 99.2 23510 72 2 2 2 12 3 86 .7 25090 90 1 5 3 6 3 90.1 23475 37 2 2 3 12 3 127 .5 25030 30 1 5 3 7 3 96.3 23515 77 2 3 1 12 3 104 .6 25060 60 1 5 3 8 3 87.6 23500 62 2 3 2 12 3 121 .7 25055 55 1 5 3 9 3 93.5 23550 112 2 3 3 12 3 142 .7 25045 45 1 5 3 10 3 113.6 23495 57 2 4 1 12 3 85 .9 25090 90 1 5 3 11 3 102.5 23545 107 2 4 2 12 3 136 .4 25055 55 1 5 3 12 3 92.7 23545 107 2 4 3 12 3 129 .7 25080 80 2 2 1 1 1 86.9 24950 -50 2 2 1 2 1 84.5 24980 -20 2 2 1 3 1 69.4 24880 -120 2 2 1 4 1 61.0 24930 -70 2 2 1 5 1 106.6 24960 -40 2 2 1 6 1 114.5 24960 -40 2 2 1 7 1 134.7 24940 -60 2 2 1 8 1 105.0 24940 -60 2 2 1 9 1 101.8 24940 -60 2 2 1 10 1 100.4 24910 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4 3 3 10 2 49.0 50150 150 3 5 1 10 2 118.3 48630 192 4 4 1 10 2 76.0 50210 210 3 5 1 11 2 114.1 48635 197 4 4 2 10 2 52.3 50250 250 3 5 1 12 2 126.1 48610 172 4 4 3 10 2 80.2 50410 410 3 5 1 1 3 103.0 48595 157 4 1 1 10 3 17.7 50020 20 3 5 1 2 3 91.5 48610 172 4 1 2 10 3 10.2 50000 0 3 5 1 3 3 84.6 48580 142 4 1 3 10 3 51.0 50030 30 244 3 5 1 4 3 101.6 48585 147 4 2 1 10 3 44.4 50030 30 3 5 1 5 3 84.1 48500 62 4 2 2 10 3 43.4 50030 30 3 5 1 6 3 98.4 48465 27 4 2 3 10 3 43.7 50040 40 3 5 1 7 3 85.6 48460 22 4 3 1 10 3 23.4 49990 -10 3 5 1 8 3 114.6 48465 27 4 3 2 10 3 47.6 50030 30 3 5 1 9 3 86.2 48525 87 4 3 3 10 3 22.8 50030 30 3 5 1 10 3 82.4 48520 82 4 4 1 10 3 24.7 50000 0 3 5 1 11 3 110.2 48535 97 4 4 2 10 3 53.1 49990 -10 3 5 1 12 3 138.2 48560 122 4 4 3 10 3 49.8 50030 30 3 5 2 1 1 86.2 48475 37 4 1 1 11 1 116.8 49990 -10 3 5 2 2 1 105.5 48480 42 4 1 2 11 1 105.8 49990 -10 3 5 2 3 1 84.9 48480 42 4 1 3 11 1 117.4 49960 -40 3 5 2 4 1 92.2 48480 42 4 2 1 11 1 114.3 50020 20 3 5 2 5 1 114.9 48425 -13 4 2 2 11 1 91.1 50040 40 3 5 2 6 1 121.8 48430 -8 4 2 3 11 1 46.0 50000 0 3 5 2 7 1 125.2 48405 -33 4 3 1 11 1 53.3 49990 -10 3 5 2 8 1 125.7 48410 -28 4 3 2 11 1 38.4 50010 10 3 5 2 9 1 92.8 48590 152 4 3 3 11 1 54.9 50000 0 3 5 2 10 1 90.4 48580 142 4 4 1 11 1 54.9 50030 30 3 5 2 11 1 111.2 48555 117 4 4 2 11 1 58.0 50010 10 3 5 2 12 1 104.8 48565 127 4 4 3 11 1 60.3 50130 130 3 5 2 1 2 118.9 48560 122 4 1 1 11 2 26.3 50020 20 3 5 2 2 2 112.3 48630 192 4 1 2 11 2 21.0 50005 5 3 5 2 3 2 127.7 48570 132 4 1 3 11 2 54.2 49990 -10 3 5 2 4 2 125.8 48550 112 4 2 1 11 2 37.0 50040 40 3 5 2 5 2 124.7 48460 22 4 2 2 11 2 65.8 50020 20 3 5 2 6 2 126.2 48465 27 4 2 3 11 2 68.3 50030 30 3 5 2 7 2 138.3 48475 37 4 3 1 11 2 55.5 50030 30 3 5 2 8 2 125.9 48470 32 4 3 2 11 2 78.9 50130 130 3 5 2 9 2 101.8 48510 72 4 3 3 11 2 52.0 50030 30 3 5 2 10 2 128.6 48535 97 4 4 1 11 2 22.2 50140 140 3 5 2 11 2 98.2 48525 87 4 4 2 11 2 52.6 50440 440 3 5 2 12 2 128.3 48500 62 4 4 3 11 2 31.8 50630 630 3 5 2 1 3 91.3 48565 127 4 1 1 11 3 18.8 50030 30 3 5 2 2 3 96.0 48515 77 4 1 2 11 3 14.6 50010 10 3 5 2 3 3 98.9 48480 42 4 1 3 11 3 14.5 50010 10 3 5 2 4 3 102.2 48470 32 4 2 1 11 3 48.9 50040 40 3 5 2 5 3 105.4 48430 -8 4 2 2 11 3 17.2 50030 30 3 5 2 6 3 106.5 48400 -38 4 2 3 11 3 67.5 50040 40 3 5 2 7 3 107.3 48390 -48 4 3 1 11 3 44.9 50010 10 3 5 2 8 3 102.2 48395 -43 4 3 2 11 3 51.2 50020 20 3 5 2 9 3 103.5 48550 112 4 3 3 11 3 50.0 50020 20 3 5 2 10 3 84.7 48535 97 4 4 1 11 3 56.9 50040 40 3 5 2 11 3 99.0 48550 112 4 4 2 11 3 42.2 50050 50 3 5 2 12 3 113.9 48560 122 4 4 3 11 3 46.2 50020 20 3 5 3 1 1 123.7 48650 212 4 1 1 12 1 156.0 49990 -10 3 5 3 2 1 148.1 48630 192 4 1 2 12 1 143.5 49985 -15 3 5 3 3 1 143.9 48580 142 4 1 3 12 1 167.6 49970 -30 3 5 3 4 1 125.8 48570 132 4 2 1 12 1 150.8 50010 10 3 5 3 5 1 127.7 48435 -3 4 2 2 12 1 56.0 50000 0 3 5 3 6 1 115.0 48435 -3 4 2 3 12 1 54.9 50010 10 245 3 5 3 7 1 111.2 48420 -18 4 3 1 12 1 43. 9 49990 -10 3 5 3 8 1 129.7 48400 -38 4 3 2 12 1 47. 2 50030 30 3 5 3 9 1 90.0 48460 22 4 3 3 12 1 53. 4 49980 -20 3 5 3 10 1 103.7 48470 32 4 4 1 12 1 43. 0 50010 10 3 5 3 11 1 93.8 48475 37 4 4 2 12 1 54. 7 50000 0 3 5 3 12 1 141.2 48640 202 4 4 3 12 1 54. 5 50010 10 3 5 3 1 2 142.0 48690 252 4 1 1 12 2 119. 8 50030 30 3 5 3 2 2 147.6 48625 187 4 1 2 12 2 113. 1 49990 -10 3 5 3 3 2 103.8 48540 102 4 1 3 12 2 116., 0 50000 0 3 5 3 4 2 125.9 48605 167 4 2 1 12 2 49., 9 50035 35 3 5 3 5 2 112.1 48465 27 4 2 2 12 2 60,, 1 50040 40 3 5 3 6 2 133.5 48470 32 4 2 3 12 2 60., 6 50060 60 3 5 3 7 2 122.2 48480 42 4 3 1 12 2 49.. 9 50020 20 3 5 3 8 2 121.0 48490 52 4 3 2 12 2 82.. 2 50025 25 3 5 3 9 2 130.6 48680 242 4 3 3 12 2 28.. 9 50080 80 3 5 3 10 2 115.4 48620 182 4 4 1 12 2 44.. 3 50530 530 3 5 3 11 2 123.6 48680 242 4 4 2 12 2 43,. 4 50440 440 3 5 3 12 2 124.4 48580 142 4 4 3 12 2 45,. 7 50380 380 3 5 3 1 3 136.8 48620 182 4 1 1 12 3 19,. 7 50020 20 3 5 3 2 3 99.4 48590 152 4 1 2 12 3 22,. 8 50030 30 3 5 3 3 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2 5 3 119.9 60957 19 6 2 2 11 3 78.4 62620 120 5 5 2 6 3 139.5 61002 64 6 2 3 11 3 104.2 62580 80 5 5 2 7 3 120.3 61032 94 6 3 1 11 3 78.4 62640 140 5 5 2 8 3 84.4 61072 134 6 3 2 11 3 71.0 62640 140 5 5 2 9 3 81.4 61137 199 6 3 3 11 3 107.1 62620 120 5 5 2 10 3 137.0 61337 399 6 4 1 11 3 76.7 62645 145 5 5 2 11 3 105.8 61337 399 6 4 2 11 3 115.3 62610 110 5 5 2 12 3 94.6 61337 399 6 4 3 11 3 98.8 62590 90 5 5 3 1 1 143.4 61172 234 6 1 1 12 1 69.0 62540 40 5 5 3 2 1 125.9 61147 209 6 1 2 12 1 68.1 62530 30 5 5 3 3 1 118.6 61052 114 6 1 3 12 1 62.0 62520 20 5 5 3 4 1 143.2 61087 149 6 2 1 12 1 80.2 62540 40 5 5 3 5 1 127.5 60992 54 6 2 2 12 1 57.5 62545 45 5 5 3 6 1 114.4 61102 164 6 2 3 12 1 83.3 62510 10 5 5 3 7 1 125.0 61292 354 6 3 1 12 1 53.4 62545 45 5 5 3 8 1 120.2 61197 259 6 3 2 12 1 64.9 62630 130 5 5 3 9 1 130.2 61217 279 6 3 3 12 1 70.7 62580 80 1 -sa- 262 5 5 3 10 1 99.8 61017 79 6 4 1 12 1 62. 3 62940 440 5 5 3 11 1 110.9 61197 259 6 4 2 12 1 61. 1 63040 540 5 5 3 12 1 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62900 400 6 2 2 3 3 183,. 7 62950 450 6 2 2 4 3 168,. 7 62900 400 6 2 2 5 3 103,. 4 63220 720 6 2 2 6 3 108,. 4 63280 780 6 2 2 7 3 100,. 6 63265 765 6 2 2 8 3 104 .8 63250 750 6 2 2 9 3 94,. 0 63440 940 6 2 2 10 3 99 .8 63470 970 6 2 2 11 3 88 .7 63530 1030 6 2 2 12 3 87 .0 63530 1030 6 2 3 1 1 107 .5 63500 1000 6 2 3 2 1 127 .0 63635 1135 6 2 3 3 1 117 .5 63590 1090 264 6 2 3 4 1 134.8 63495 995 6 2 3 5 1 110.7 63530 1030 6 2 3 6 1 111.0 63530 1030 6 2 3 7 1 108.2 63480 980 6 2 3 8 1 120.1 63500 1000 6 2 3 9 1 127.2 62950 450 6 2 3 10 1 158.5 62945 445 6 2 3 11 1 167.3 62980 480 6 2 3 12 1 152.2 62955 455 6 2 3 1 2 105.1 63420 920 6 2 3 2 2 94.4 63590 1090 6 2 3 3 2 123.2 63380 880 6 2 3 4 2 95.6 63325 825 6 2 3 5 2 94.6 63160 660 6 2 3 6 2 101.0 63195 695 6 2 3 7 2 118.8 63095 595 6 2 3 8 2 122.2 63160 660 6 2 3 9 2 136.1 62850 350 6 2 3 10 2 145.6 62930 430 6 2 3 11 2 158.3 62885 385 6 2 3 12 2 149.8 62820 320 6 2 3 1 3 93.9 63265 765 6 2 3 2 3 77.0 63430 930 6 2 3 3 3 87.2 63470 970 6 2 3 4 3 91.6 63480 980 6 2 3 5 3 89.6 63400 900 6 2 3 6 3 75.2 63385 885 6 2 3 7 3 81.7 63380 880 6 2 3 8 3 115.4 63225 725 6 2 3 9 3 113.0 63010 510 6 2 3 10 3 140.4 62910 410 6 2 3 11 3 146.1 62880 380 6 2 3 12 3 160.0 62840 340 6 3 1 1 1 150.3 62930 430 6 3 1 2 1 165.8 62980 480 6 3 1 3 1 138.6 62945 445 6 3 1 4 1 156.0 62890 390 6 3 1 5 1 111.1 63280 780 6 3 1 6 1 124.7 63265 765 6 3 1 7 1 96.2 63290 790 6 3 1 8 1 109.4 63370 870 6 3 1 9 1 105.6 63560 1060 6 3 1 10 1 99.3 63570 1070 6 3 1 11 1 119.9 63580 1080 6 3 1 12 1 114.0 63550 1050 6 3 1 1 2 123.8 62815 315 6 3 1 2 2 115.7 62975 475 6 3 1 3 2 120.6 62930 430 6 3 1 4 2 125.5 62840 340 6 3 1 5 2 121.9 63145 645 6 3 1 6 2 83.0 63175 675 265 6 3 1 7 2 95. 6 63155 655 6 3 1 8 2 109. 7 63185 685 6 3 1 9 2 133. 1 63470 970 6 3 1 10 2 114. 9 63475 975 6 3 1 11 2 117. 7 63485 985 6 3 1 12 2 126. 3 63435 935 6 3 1 1 3 140. 0 62800 300 6 3 1 2 3 148. 8 62880 380 6 3 1 3 3 135. 2 62930 430 6 3 1 4 3 129. 2 62890 390 6 3 1 5 3 117. 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75030 30 7 5 1 1 2 157.8 74120 682 8 1 1 10 2 90.1 75070 70 7 5 1 2 2 141.8 74145 707 8 1 2 10 2 143.8 75065 65 7 5 1 3 2 131.5 74160 722 8 1 3 10 2 120.4 75025 25 7 5 1 4 2 133.9 74160 722 8 2 1 10 2 142.0 75130 130 7 5 1 5 2 103.7 73800 362 8 2 2 10 2 74.7 75060 60 7 5 1 6 2 110.6 73800 362 8 2 3 10 2 130.7 75040 40 7 5 1 7 2 108.8 73805 367 8 3 1 10 2 47.8 75080 80 7 5 1 8 2 127.4 73790 352 8 3 2 10 2 74.7 75055 55 7 5 1 9 2 109.1 73840 402 8 3 3 10 2 109.6 75030 30 7 5 1 10 2 121.1 73875 437 8 4 1 10 2 30.8 75080 80 7 5 1 11 2 123.2 73840 402 8 4 2 10 2 66.0 75050 50 7 5 1 12 2 140.3 74230 792 8 4 3 10 2 113.3 75030 30 7 5 1 1 3 137.4 74100 662 8 1 1 10 3 71.9 75040 40 7 5 1 2 3 172.9 74130 692 8 1 2 10 3 64.4 75390 390 7 5 1 3 3 179.3 74340 902 8 1 3 10 3 93.1 75010 10 7 5 1 4 3 144.3 74190 752 8 2 1 10 3 61.2 75070 70 7 5 1 5 3 157.2 74400 962 8 2 2 10 3 71.7 75035 35 7 5 1 6 3 126.0 74040 602 8 2 3 10 3 78.0 75030 30 7 5 1 7 3 131.8 74215 777 8 3 1 10 3 64.2 74990 -10 7 5 1 8 3 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2 145.1 76070 1070 8 5 1 4 2 165.3 76650 1650 8 5 1 5 2 119.3 75850 850 8 5 1 6 2 102.9 76230 1230 8 5 1 7 2 98.0 75920 920 8 5 1 8 2 93.9 76070 1070 8 5 1 9 2 116.9 75750 750 8 5 1 10 2 143.3 75265 265 8 5 1 11 2 130.9 75780 780 8 5 1 12 2 117.8 75600 600 8 5 1 1 3 122.1 75235 235 8 5 1 2 3 105.6 75370 370 8 5 1 3 3 102.1 75970 970 8 5 1 4 3 104.8 75775 775 8 5 1 5 3 138.3 75790 790 8 5 1 6 3 159.5 75630 630 8 5 1 7 3 122.6 75770 770 8 5 1 8 3 69.7 75700 700 8 5 1 9 3 113.5 75630 630 8 5 1 10 3 98.4 75850 850 8 5 1 11 3 81.7 75310 310 8 5 1 12 3 77.6 75550 550 8 5 2 1 1 148.3 75940 940 8 5 2 2 1 110.9 75750 750 8 5 2 3 1 97.1 75850 850 8 5 2 4 1 138.2 75830 830 8 5 2 5 1 89.0 75975 975 8 5 2 6 1 143.1 75580 580 8 5 2 7 1 187.4 75800 800 8 5 2 8 1 109.5 75730 730 8 5 2 9 1 46.2 75780 780 8 5 2 10 1 168.1 75325 325 8 5 2 11 1 199.9 75350 350 8 5 2 12 1 178.6 75665 665 8 5 2 1 2 194.5 75635 635 8 5 2 2 2 140.0 75270 270 8 5 2 3 2 105.8 75225 225 8 5 2 4 2 158.3 75535 535 8 5 2 5 2 138.4 75550 550 8 5 2 6 2 117.2 75280 280 8 5 2 7 2 168.6 75520 520 8 5 2 8 2 119.7 75800 800 8 5 2 9 2 138.6 75265 265 8 5 2:L O 2 134.0 75255 255 8 5 2:L I 2 87.1 75575 575 8 5 2:L 2 2 171.4 75325 325 8 5 2 1 3 97.2 75480 480 8 5 2 2 3 77.2 75560 560 8 5 2 3 3 95.9 75225 225 8 5 2 4 3 141.3 75590 590 8 5 2 5 3 72.9 75585 585 8 5 2 6 3 110.6 75255 255 8 5 2 7 3 111.5 75465 465 8 5 2 8 3 129.6 75425 425 8 5 2 9 3 67.4 75590 590 8 5 2 10 3 77.2 75520 520 8 5 2 11 3 77.7 75400 400 8 5 2 12 3 65.7 75400 400 8 5 3 1 1 112.4 75290 290 8 5 3 2 1 151.4 75280 280 8 5 3 3 1 126.5 75240 240 8 5 3 4 1 127.6 75300 300 8 5 3 5 1 165.1 76025 1025 8 5 3 6 1 145.8 75550 550 8 5 3 7 1 127.6 75740 740 8 5 3 8 1 199.9 75565 565 8 5 3 9 1 137.0 75540 540 8 5 3 10 1 142.6 75250 250 8 5 3 11 1 135.3 75480 480 8 5 3 12 1 154.4 75600 600 8 5 3 1 2 196.8 75780 780 8 5 3 2 2 199.7 75815 815 8 5 3 3 2 197.0 75750 750 8 5 3 4 2 152.6 76525 1525 8 5 3 5 2 160.6 75635 635 8 5 3 6 2 149.7 75850 850 8 5 3 7 2 84.2 75600 600 8 5 3 8 2 106.6 75450 450 8 5 3 9 2 105.8 75600 600 8 5 3 10 2 160.1 75370 370 8 5 3 11 2 187.2 75430 430 8 5 3 12 2 132.6 75680 680 8 5 3 1 3 166.6 75870 870 8 5 3 2 3 73.7 75450 450 8 5 3 3 3 104.7 75415 415 8 5 3 4 3 164.7 75730 730 8 5 3 5 3 123.5 75350 350 8 5 3 6 3 84.0 75380 380 8 5 3 7 3 79.2 75455 455 8 5 3 8 3 66.6 75290 290 8 5 3 9 3 144.5 75440 440 8 5 3 10 3 85.5 75425 425 8 5 3 11 3 97.3 75350 350 8 5 3 12 3 82.3 75575 575 APPENDIX H TOOL WEAR To ascertain reliability and eliminate the effect of tool wear, three drill bits for each tool diameter were used. The amount of tool wear was very accurately measured. In the following tables the amount of tool wear (in inches) for each drill bit is recorded. The first row of the recorded values in each table which is followed by asterisks (**) represents the original amount of tool imperfection of the brand new drill bits prior to their use. Each table consists of three sections of numbers separated by dashed lines. The top section represents the first replication, the middle section represents the second replication, and the last section represents the third replication. After four holes were drilled (in random order) the amount of tool wear of the drill bit was measured and recorded. Each number in the following tables represents the amount of tool wear after every four randomly drilled holes. For instance, the value of 0.000025, located in the second row under drill No. 1 in table 16 (drill diameter of 16/64") indicates the amount of tool wear after four randomly drilled holes were produced on an aluminum plate 288 289 which was selected to be a first replication. The actual amount of tool wear for drill No. 1 after drilling four holes is 0.000005" (0.0000025-0.000020). As another example, the value in the third row, first column, 0.00040", represents the amount of tool wear for drill No. 1 after drilling eight holes (replication 1). The actual amount of tool wear is 0.000380" (0.000400-0.000020). In addition, the value of tool wear, 0.005150, which is located in the second column, under drill No. 2, fourth row of the last section (third replication), represents the amount of tool wear for drill No. 2 after drilling 112 holes (48 holes for the first replication, 48 holes for the second replication, and 16 holes for the third replication since it is in the fourth column). Drill No. 1 (drill diameter of 1/4") appeared to have a big crack after drilling forty holes (see an asterisk under the first column on the amount of recorded tool wear for 16/64" drill bits. Table 18). Because of this, it was replaced with a brand new drill bit. It is usually recommended that the tool be reground if the tool wear exceeds 0.03". In this investigation the amount of tool wear for not even one of the drill bits reached 0.03". Therefore, there was no regrinding done on any of the drill bits used. The maximum tool wear was 0.013200" (drill No. 3, drill bit diameter of 40/64", on the third replication). 290 TABLE 17 The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 15/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.001350 0.000800 0.002000** 0.001350 0.000800 0.002050 0.001450 0.001400 0.002050 0.001650 0.001450 0.002100 0.001750 0.001500 0.002100 0.001800 0.001650 0.002150 0.001850 0.001650 0.002150 0.001900 0.001850 0.002300 0.002500 0.001900 0.002400 0.002700 0.001900 0.002400 0.002800 0.001900 0.002400 0.002800 0.001950 0.002500 0.002900 0.002000 0.002500 0.002900 0.002000 0.002600 0.003000 0.002100 0.002600 0.003100 0.002300 0.002650 0.003200 0.002300 0.002650 0.003300 0.002500 0.002900 0.003500 0.002550 0.003150 0.003500 0.002550 0.003300 0.003650 0.002700 0.003400 0.003750 0.002750 0.003450 0.003950 0.002750 0.003450 0.004050 0.002800 0.003600 0.004200 0.002950 0.003800 0.004200 0.002950 0.003950 0.004200 0.002950 0.004000 0.004200 0.003000 0.004000 0.004250 0.003000 0.004600 0.004250 0.003000 0.004600 0.004250 0.003200 0.004650 0.004300 0.003300 0.004650 0.004300 0.003300 0.004650 0.004350 0.003500 0.004700 0.004350 0.003650 0.004750 0.004450 0.003700 0.004800 0.004600 0.004050 0.004800 291 TABLE 18 The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 16/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.000020 0.000200 0.000300** 0.000025 0.000400 0.000350 0.000400 0.000650 0.000700 0.000550 0.000700 0.000800 0.000650 0.000750 0.000900 0.000700 0.000800 0.001050 0.000850 0.000950 0.001150 0.000900 0.001000 0.001200 0.001050 0.001050 0.001350 0.001100 0.001250 0.001500 0.012900* 0.001400 0.001650 0.000100 0.002550 0.002150 0.000700 0.002700 0.003500 0.000850 0.002750 0.003800 0.001000 0.002750 0.003850 0.001250 0.002850 0.003850 0.001500 0.003400 0.004350 0.002650 0.003500 0.004450 0.002700 0.003550 0.004600 0.003450 0.003850 0.004800 0.003750 0.004100 0.004850 0.003950 0.004450 0.005150 0.004300 0.004450 0.005300 0.004600 0.004550 0.005550 0.004650 0.004850 0.005600 0.004650 0.004850 0.005800 0.004700 0.004850 0.006000 0.004700 0.004950 0.006050 0.004750 0.005150 0.006450 0.004900 0.005150 0.006550 0.005000 0.005200 0.006700 0.005050 0.005300 0.006850 0.005850 0.005300 0.007050 0.006000 0.005400 0.007050 0.006000 0.005400 0.007100 0.006150 0.005400 0.007100 0.006150 0.005500 0.007200 292 TABLE 19 The amount of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 31/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.004200 0.002300 0.002250** 0.004400 0.003100 0.004150 0.006600 0.003500 0.004200 0.006900 0.003750 0.004250 0.006950 0.003800 0.004400 0.007200 0.004100 0.004500 0.007300 0.004250 0.004650 0.007350 0.004350 0.004900 0.007550 0.005800 0.006400 0.008500 0.005850 0.006600 0.008700 0.006000 0.006700 0.008900 0.006300 0.007000 0.009000 0.006350 0.007050 0.009300 0.006600 0.007100 0.009350 0.006650 0.007300 0.009500 0.006650 0.007350 0.009500 0.006700 0.007500 0.009700 0.006700 0.007500 0.009900 0.006750 0.007500 0.009950 0.006750 0.007500 0.009950 0.006900 0.008100 0.010000 0.007000 0.008150 0.010100 0.007200 0.008200 0.010100 0.007300 0.008250 0.010300 0.007600 0.008250 0.010300 0.007600 0.008300 0.010350 0.007700 0.008350 0.010450 0.007700 0.008500 0.010500 0.007900 0.008500 0.010550 0.007900 0.008550 0.010550 0.008000 0.008550 0.010550 0.008000 0.008550 0.010600 0.008100 0.008650 0.010600 0.008100 0.009000 0.010650 0.008200 0.009000 0.010700 0.008200 0.009000 0.011000 0.008300 0.009050 293 TABLE 2 0 The amcpunt of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 32/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.002650 0.002250 0.002000** 0.002800 0.002400 0.002100 0.002950 0.002550 0.002200 0.003400 0.002750 0.002550 0.003600 0.003050 0.003025 0.003800 0.003200 0.004350 0.004050 0.003650 0.004550 0.004150 0.003750 0.004700 0.004275 0.003900 0.004800 0.004400 0.004050 0.004850 0.004450 0.004150 0.006150 0.004650 0.004850 0.006200 0.004700 0.004900 0.006450 0.004700 0.004900 0.006450 0.004900 0.005650 0.006450 0.004950 0.005750 0.006450 0.005000 0.006000 0.006450 0.005050 0.006050 0.006450 0.005150 0.006050 0.006450 0.005250 0.006200 0.006450 0.005300 0.006250 0.006450 0.005350 0.006400 0.006500 0.005450 0.006450 0.006650 0.005500 0.006600 0.006800 0.005650 0.006750 0.006850 0.005900 0.006750 0.007050 0.006400 0.007100 0.007300 0.007300 0.007500 0.007300 0.007500 0.007500 0.007400 0.007500 0.010300 0.007400 0.007600 0.010300 0.007400 0.007700 0.010400 0.007400 0.008200 0.010450 0.007500 0.008400 0.010500 0.007500 0.008400 0.010500 0.008150 0.008450 0.010700 0.008200 0.008450 0.010700 0.008200 294 TABLE 21 The amcDunt of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 39/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0. 000400 0.001450 0.002500** 0. 000600 0.002000 0.002700 0.,00450 0 0.002300 0.003000 0.,00460 0 0.002350 0.003150 0,,00460 0 0.003650 0.003200 0.,00465 0 0.003850 0.003225 0,,00475 0 0.004150 0.003350 0,,00480 0 0.004150 0.003600 0,,00485 0 0.004300 0.003700 0,,00485 0 0.004350 0.003750 0,,00490 0 0.004500 0.003950 0,,00495 0 0.004550 0.004150 0,,00500 0 0.004600 0.004200 0..00535 0 0.005300 0.004400 0..00550 0 0.005550 0.006200 0..00550 0 0.005600 0.006200 0..00560 0 0.005600 0.006400 0..00560 0 0.005650 0.006400 0..00560 0 0.005700 0.006400 0..00560 0 0.005700 0.006400 0,.00570 0 0.005700 0.006400 0,.00570 0 0.005700 0.006400 0,.00570 0 0.005800 0.006400 0,.00570 0 0.005800 0.006400 0,.00575 0 0.005850 0.006400 0,.00575 0 0.005850 0.006400 0,.00580 0 0.005850 0.006400 0..00580 0 0.005850 0.006800 0..00590 0 0.006500 0.006900 0,.00640 0 0.006900 0.006900 0,.00640 0 0.006900 0.007050 0,.00650 0 0.006950 0.007050 0..00660 0 0.007000 0.007200 0..00660 0 0.007000 0.007200 0..00660 0 0.007300 0.007350 0.,00675 0 0.007300 0.007400 0..00695 0 0.007500 0.007400 295 TABLE 22 The amcpunt cpf tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 40/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.003400 0.004100 0.004200** 0.003400 0.004100 0.004400 0.003900 0.005450 0.004400 0.004300 0.005500 0.004950 0.004900 0.005500 0.004950 0.005050 0.006300 0.004950 0.005400 0.006300 0.005800 0.005700 0.007000 0.005900 0.005800 0.007100 0.006900 0.005800 0.007100 0.006900 0.005800 0.007300 0.009800 0.005800 0.007300 0.009800 0.005800 0.007900 0.009800 0.006300 0.007900 0.009800 0.006300 0.009000 0.009800 0.006300 0.009000 0.010100 0.006700 0.009000 0.010100 0.007100 0.009000 0.010100 0.007200 0.009600 0.010200 0.007300 0.009700 0.010200 0.007450 0.009700 0.010700 0.007450 0.009700 0.010700 0.007600 0.009900 0.010900 0.007900 0.010200 0.011300 0.007900 0.010500 0.011300 0.007900 0.010500 0.011900 0.008300 0.010850 0.012000 0.008300 0.010850 0.012000 0.008300 0.010850 0.012000 0.008300 0.010900 0.012000 0.009700 0.010900 0.012000 0.009700 0.010900 0.012000 0.009700 0.010900 0.012100 0.009700 0.010900 0.012100 0.010300 0.011500 0.013200 0.010300 0.011600 0.013200 0.011000 0.011600 0.013200 296 TABLE 2 3 The amcpunt of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 47/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0. 005150 0.004800 0.005000** 0.,00535 0 0.006400 0.005600 0.,00535 0 0.006400 0.005600 0,,00540 0 0.006400 0.005900 0,,00540 0 0.006400 0.005900 0,,00570 0 0.006550 0.006100 0,.00570 0 0.006550 0.006800 0,,00600 0 0.006700 0.006900 0,,00610 0 0.006700 0.006950 0.,00615 0 0.006700 0.006950 0,,00620 0 0.006700 0.006950 0.,00620 0 0.006900 0.007300 0,.00640 0 0.006900 0.007300 0..00640 0 0.007400 0.007700 0..00700 0 0.007400 0.010400 0..00720 0 0.007550 0.010400 0..00720 0 0.007550 0.010400 0.,00740 0 0.007550 0.010400 0.,00745 0 0.007800 0.010500 0.,00860 0 0.008300 0.010500 0.,00885 0 0.008300 0.010500 0.,00885 0 0.008700 0.010500 0.,00900 0 0.008700 0.010500 0.,00930 0 0.008700 0.010500 0.,00950 0 0.008700 0.010500 0.,00950 0 0.008700 0.011100 0.,00950 0 0.008800 0.011600 0.,00950 0 0.008800 0.011600 0.,00995 0 0.009100 0.011600 0.,01085 0 0.009200 0.011700 0.,01140 0 0.009300 0.011700 0.,01225 0 0.009300 0.011700 0..01225 0 0.009900 0.012600 0..01290 0 0.010200 0.012800 0,.01290 0 0.010250 0.012800 0..01290 0 0.011200 0.013000 0..01290 0 0.011300 0.013000 TABLE 2 4 The amcpunt of tool wear for the drill bits with a size of 48/64" Drill No. 1 Drill No. 2 Drill No. 3 0.002950 0.001550 0.002450** 0.003300 0.001600 0.002500 0.003450 0.001650 0.002550 0.003550 0.002000 0.003050 0.003650 0.002250 0.003950 0.003800 0.002400 0.004050 0.003950 0.002500 0.004300 0.004500 0.002750 0.004350 0.004600 0.002850 0.004500 0.004850 0.003150 0.005900 0.004950 0.003600 0.005950 0.005100 0.003750 0.006000 0.005250 0.004650 0.006150 0.005350 0.004700 0.006150 0.005350 0.004750 0.006250 0.005400 0.004950 0.006250 0.005450 0.005000 0.006300 0.005500 0.005550 0.006300 0.005500 0.005550 0.006350 0.005500 0.005600 0.006350 0.005600 0.005600 0.006400 0.005600 0.005650 0.006450 0.005650 0.005650 0.006550 0.005750 0.005700 0.006600 0.006800 0.005850 0.006600 0.006950 0.005900 0.007500 0.006950 0.006100 0.007700 0.007000 0.006250 0.007700 0.007000 0.006250 0.007700 0.007000 0.006250 0.007750 0.007050 0.006500 0.007750 0.007050 0.006500 0.007800 0.007050 0.007000 0.007800 0.007050 0.007500 0.009100 0.007150 0.007700 0.009200 0.007150 0.008700 0.009650 0.007500 0.008800 0.009900 APPENDIX I CUTTING TIME The amount of time elapsed for the cutting of each hole was estimated (see the eguation on page 43). The following is the result of this estimation. Both drilling and reaming time are in seconds. DEPTH DRILLING REAMING OF CUT SPEED FEED TIME TIME 1/2" 350 0.006 — 14.285710 1/2" 350 0.008 — 10.714280 1/2" 350 0.012 — 7.142858 1/2" 525 0.006 9.523810 9.523810 1/2" 525 0.008 7.142856 7.142856 1/2" 525 0.012 4.761905 4.761905 1/2" 774 0.006 6.459947 6.459947 1/2" 774 0.008 4.844960 4.844960 1/2" 774 0.012 3.229974 3.229974 1/2" 1050 0.006 4.761903 4.761903 1/2" 1050 0.008 3.571428 3.571428 1/2" 1050 0.012 2.380952 2.380952 1/2" 1548 0.006 3.229972 1/2" 1548 0.008 2.422479 1/2" 1548 0.012 1.614987 298