CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 Y·OLUMB xm. PART V-B PUNJAB
(ETHNOGRAPIlIC ~ERIE's)
(BATWAL; BHAN.JRA; DU.VINAJ MAHA,SHA OR DOOM; ~AGRA; qANDHILA OR GANnIL GONDOLA; ~ARERA; DEHA, DHAYA OR DHEA).
P.;L. SONDHI.. DIRECTOR OF CENSUS OPERATIONS AND EX O:FFICTO SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS OPERAT~ONS, PUNJAB. SUMMARY 01' CONTENTS Pages Foreword v Preface vii-x 1. Batwal 1-13 II. Bhanjra 19-29 Ill. Dumna, Mahasha or Doom 35-49 IV. Gagra 55-61 V. GandhUa or GandH Gondo1a 67-77 VI. Sarera 83-93 VII. Deha, Dhaya or Dhea .. 99-109 ANNEXURE: Framework for ethnographic study .. 111-115
}1~OREWORD
The Indian Census has had the privIlege of presenting authentic ethnographic accounts of Indian communities. It was usual in all censuses to collect and publish information on race, tribes and castes. The Constitution lays down that "the state shall promote with special care educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in parti cular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation". To assist states in fulfiHing their responsibility in this regard the 1961 Census provided a series of special tabulations of the social and economic data on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are notified by the Presi· dent under the Constitution and the Parliament is empowered to include or exclude from the lists any caste or tribe. No other source can claim the same authenticity and comprehensiveness as the census of India to help the Government in taking de· cisions on matters such as these. Therefore, besides the statistical data provided by the 1961 Census, the preparation of detailed ethnographic notes on a selection of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in each State and Union Territory was taken up as an ancillary study. During the census operations, the enumerators frequently face the problem of identifying the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In the President's notification, though in some cases, the names of the sub-castes and sub tribes and synonyms are given, there are many cases where such names have not been provided in the list. The census enumerators, therefore, require guidance about the acceptance or rejection of claims that they come across during the operations of some communities to be treated as sub-castes or sub· tribes of the notified Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes. For conducting the ethnographic studies, a number of ancillary operations are undertaken by the social studies unit of the office of the Registrar General, India, as well as the staff of the Director of Census Operations in the various states. These ancillary operations include (i) compilation of available information on each Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe and preparation of bibliography in respect of them ; (ii) preparation and interpretation of maps showing distribution of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes over,time and space; and (iii) special studies on cultural, techno· -logical and economic changes taking place among the various tribal conununities. Dr. B. K. Roy Burman, Deputy Registrar General, India Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit, assisted by Shri A. L. Kurup and Shri N. G. Nag, Officer on Special Duty, is co-ordinating all the studies at the Central level. At the State level Director of Census Operations and his staff are collaborating in conducting the field investi gation and preparing the reports. Shd Charan Singh prepared the draft& of the Batwal; Bhanjra ; Dumna, Mahasha or Doom; Gagra; Gandhila or Gandil Gondola ~ Sarera; Deha. Dhaya or Dhea, Scheduled Castes and Shri P. L. Sondhi, Shri H.S. Kwatra,Dr. B. K. Roy Burmau, Shri N. G. Nag and Shri G. S. PabIa, edited these reports. To them I extend my warm thanks. . A. CHANDRA SEKHAR, Dated the 8th July, 1970 Registrar General, India.
PREFACE: As an adjunct of 1961 Census, preparation of ethnographic monographs on a number of Selected Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and ethnic groups with special status and ethnographic glossaries 011 all Scheduled Castes and Scheduled TIibes have been taken up by the census organisation. In India the census organisation has a long tradition of undertaking ethno graphic studies. Besides, there are certain reasons why, for its ow n operational purposes, it is necessary for the census organisation to take up such studies. During census operation, the census organisation is required to make a complete enumera tion of all the Sched.uled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the country. The ethno graphic studies are required to establish the identity of the various communities in cluding their segments. The social boundaries of various communities are not al~ ways rigjd, they are in a slate of flux. Ethnographic studies are required to keep track of these changes as well, otherwise comparison of consecutive census figures would give altogether wrong picture in respect of them. There is another aspect of study in respect of Scheduled Cask~ and Scheduled Tribes in which the ccnSUl> organisation as well as the welfare and planning agencies arc interested-it is ethl1o demography. In 1961 Census separate tables were prepared ill respect of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Trihes on the following item'{
(i) indu~trial classificaOon of persons at work and non-workers by sex, (ii) age and marital status, (iii) education,
(iv) religion,
(v) persons at work classified by sex and type of activity for Schedule Castes (vi) persons not at work classified by sex and type of activity for Scheduled Tribes, and (vii) mother-tongue and bilingualism for Scheduled Tribes. The data available in these tables arl.! to be analysed in respect of each Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe, so that the historical and cultural factors responsible for the demographic pattern can be identified and the impact of the emergent demographic pattern on the social structure can be determined.
The insight gained by the census organisation, through ethnographic studies of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, will be useful for interpretation of the demographic pattern for the country as a whole. Recent studies show that in India even now, it is difficult to correctly appreciate the various social and economic pro~ cesses without reference to caste. On the other hand, in the interest of ultimate national goal, caste is 110t being recorded in census except in case of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The insight gained through ethno-demographic studies of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is, therefore, of invaluable help for census. vii At the same time, such study is very much useful for planning of development activities among the castes or tribes concerned. For instance, if the census shows that great deal of diversification of occupation has taken place among the Parayans of Kerala, it is important for the planners to know whether, the community consists of a number of disconnected segments or whether it means that a great deal of individual mobility is taking place where the main focus of community is other than traditional oc¢upation. Again, when among the Bauris of Orissa, it is found that a very high proportion of the population is engaged in agricultural l~bour and next to them a high proportion is found in cultivation and also that there is considerable diversifi cation of occupation, the following questions of sociological and practical importance arise :- (a) What is the historical relation between the agricultural labourers and the cultivators among the Bauris of Orissa ? The census data suggest one of the two possible developments, namely, (1) Bulk of the Bauris were cultivators and by a p'rocess of degeneration of their economy have become agricultural labourers, (2) on the other hand, it is. also possible that the bulk of them were agricultural labourers and through a process of improvement of their economic .condition, many of them have become cultivators. (b) The fact that a considerable diversification of occupation has taken place, suggests that the economy has not remained in a stagnant condition. Here it is to be examined whether the diversification is the result of upward mobility or downward mobility, or even horizontal mobility and what is the actual process by which the diversification has taken place. (c) The social dimensions corresponding to the diversification in economic life have to be examined. It is also to be examined whether in spite of diversification of occupation, the ethos of a particular occupation, for instance agriculture, continues to be dominant. In that case, diversification might have created problems of adjustment in valu~s and attitudes. Instances can be multiplied, but it is not necessary. What have been stated above, are enough to bring out the significance of ethno-demographic studies for planners. 't The above dimensions of ethno-demographic studies have evolved through stages. In 1960, at the instance of Shti Mitra, Registrar General of India, a questionnaire for collection of ethnograhic data was circulated among the Census Superintendents. In October, 1961, the Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit was set up in the office of the Registrar General of India to co-ordinate the ethnographic studies and a few other ancillary studies, like village surveys, handicraft surveys, etc. In December, 1961, a Study Camp was organised in Delhi, where the personnel en gaged in ethnographic studies and other social and handicrafts studies and other social investigations in the offices of the Census Superintendents, participated. In the Study Camp, it was considered that the ethnographic notes would mainly aim' at making an objective assessment of the state of development of the different Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the context of the changes taking place in technology , viii economic organisation and total cultural pattern of the' country. It was further suggested that the primary focus of the study should not be on the exotic elements of the cultures of the different castes and tribes. It should be on the efforts of the com munities concerned to adjust to the modern conditions of life. In the light of the above decision of the Study Camp, rapid ethnographic studies have been carried on by the staff of the Superintendents of Census Operations as well as by the Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit of the Office of the Registrar General of India, ill dif ferent parts of the country. These rapid surveys have brought out a number of methodological and operational problems. In May and June, 1966, two Ethnographic Study Camps were held at Kurseong and Hyderabad, where personnel from the office of the Registrar General of India as well as from the offices of the Census Superin tendents participated. In the Study Camp held at Kurseong, the Secretary, Tribal Welfare, West Bengal, and Director, Tribal Welfare, West Bengal, also participated. In these Study Camps, all integrated frame for preparation of ethnographic notes was discussed and adopted. A copy of the same may be seen at 'Annexure' In addition the studies in respect of each Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe separately a number of subsidiary studies were undertaken by the Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit of the Office of the Registrar General of India, for gaining insight into a number of problems of general nature, which have bearing on the dif ferent aspects of the lives of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes of the country These subsidiary studies are as follows :-
(1) Shifting cultivation in Santa! Parganas of Bihar and Garo Hills of Assam. (2) Pattern of Rehabilitation of displaced tribals of Rourkela. (3) Socio-economic survey of the Scheduled area of Rajasthan. (4) Socio-economic developments among the hillmen of North-East India. (.5) Social structure and cultural orientation of Christians converted from Scheduled Castes.
(6) Traditional rjghts of scavenging as claimed by scavengers in urban areas.
(7) Grouping of castes and tribes with reference to occupation and inter group and intra-group comparative study on the basis of the data available in earlier censuses.
(8) Social mobility movements among the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. On the basis of each of the subsidiary study indicated above, a separate mono graph is under preparation. It is also proposed to prepare separate monographs on a few Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and ethnic groups with special status in each State. Besides, ethnographic glossaries are proposed to be prepared in res pect of all Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. For this purpose about one lakh references have been indexed. ix Thls is the series of Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Castes and Scheduied Tribes of composite Punjab State. This volume contains notes on Batwal ;- Bhanjra, Dumna, Mahasha or Doom; Gagra; Gandhila or Gandil Gondola; Sarera and Deha, Dhaya or Dhea. Field investigation on these castes was undertaken in the joint office by a team of investigators, under the supervision of Shri R. L. Anand the then Superintendent of Census Operations, Punjab. The drafts on these castes were prepared by Shri Charan Singh, Senior Technical Assistant. These notes were finally edited by the Editorial Board constituting Shri P. L. Sondhi, Director of Census Operations, Punjab, Shri H. S". Kwatra, P.C.S., Deputy Director of Census Operations, Punjab, Shri N. G. Nag, Officer on Special Duty, 'Office of the Registrar General, India and Shri G. S. Pabla, Tabulation Officer and myself. I am also thankful to Shri H. S. Dhingra who typed out the drafts of these reports and Shri K. D. Sharma, ProofReader who helped me in reading and seeing the Volume in the Press. My thanks are due to Shri Gurpartap Singh Srao, Deputy Controller, Printing and Stationery Department Chandigarh, tU.T.) for his personal attention in the printing of this volume.
I take the opportunity to express~my-thanks to all the colleagues who col- laborated in this Project...... Shri H. L. Harit, Investigator, who is looking after the compilation of informa tion from published sources in respect of all Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and other special ethnic groups of India deserves mention. Shri A. Mitra, Registrar General of India for 1961 Census, whose farsighted initiative is responsible for social investigations in a large number of fields includ ing ethnography, deserves thanks of all students of Indology. I have been benefited not only by his inspiration, but also by his valuable suggestions in connection with the ethnographic studies as well as the other studies conducted by the Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit. The tradition built by Shri Mitra has been continued by Shri A. Chandra Sekhar, the present Registrar General of India. Under his guidance the scope of Social Studies by the Census Organisation has been further expanded. In spite of his other pre-occupations, he has gone through the final drafts of the ethnographic notes and given a number of valuable suggestions. I avail of this opportunity to express my gratefulness to him. (B.K. ROY BUR:rvrAN) Deputy Registrar General, India (Handicrafts and Social Studies Unit). AN ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON
BATWAL
A SCHEDULED CASTE IN PUNJAB
CON'fENTS pages
1. Identity 1-2 2. Population Distribution 2-4
3. Settlement and DwelIlngs 4-5 4. Dietary HabIts 5
5. Dress and Ornaments ibid
6. Language, EducatIon and Lltera(;y 5-6 7. Ikonomlc Pursuits 6 -8 8. Life Cycle 8-10 Death Rites and Beliefs 11 9. ReJlgio us Beliefs and Pract i(;es 11-12 10. S·).,lal Status aaJ Control 12 11. R'!ferences and other Blbllography 13
BATWAL 1. Identity known as Batwal, they are alms01 all Hindus, but when they decend to the lower bills or The Batwals have been declared among the plains and take the Dame of Barwa1a they are Scheduled Castes in Punjab, J. & K. and the almost entirely Muslman" (Ibretson 1881-p.338). Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh according Prom the above account it is possible that tbe to President's SCheduled Castes and Scheduled nomenclatural variation might be due to the dif Tribes Lists (Modjfication) Order 1956. In f~rence in the religious belief of these communi Jammu and Kashmir,-vide President's Order lies. However, at the time of 1961 census, this of 1956, Barwala Community has been notified community has been returned under the name as a separate scheduled caste, though Batwal 'Batwal' both from the mountains and plains. and Barwala. are considered to be synonyms Tt also appears that the l1ame Batwal has been on the basis of the rigidity 0 f their caste occupa homogeneous with its own social boundaries, tion. Regarding the synonymity' of these two and it enjoyed somewhat greater prestige than names it wonld be interesting to mention the Barwala as the laUel was generic in Sense and views expressed by different writers. According persons from lowest grollps could COlTIe into to Ibbetson, "Barnala and Bah-val are two words its fold. Rose, at the time of compilation of us¢ almost indifferently to express the same 'Glossal) of the- Tribes and Castes of the Punjab thing, the former being more commonly used and NoTth-Wesl Frontier Province' has recorded in the lOWer hills and the lattcr in the mountain about Barwala, Batwal as, "These two names, tho ranges of Kangra. In Chamba both names ugh probably of different origin, are used almost are curlent as synonyms. But T have separated as synonyms, the former being more common the figures, becausc the Balwal of Kangra is in the lower hills and the lat tel' in the mountain a true cas'e while Barwala is little more than ranges of Kangra. But in Chrunba the Barwala the name of an occupation. Both words cor is clearlY distinct from the Bat\';al, being a maker respond very closely with the Lahbar or Balahar of mats and winnowing fans. and Ihe name is of the plains and denote the village watchman 0 t probably derived from bara or baria, the kind messenger. In the higher hilts thi!: office is (If grass used for them. Batwal (If batwar 011 almost cO'llfined to the Batwa Is, while in the lower the other hand means a tax-collector, and 1'-atwal hills it is performed by men (If various low castes is an'oridnary peon 0 f any caste, even a Brahaman. who are all included under tll...: generic term of though of course he may be by caste, a Bahval " Barwala. These men arc also the coolies but the Batwal has perhaps a slightly higher of the hills, and III fact occupy much the same standillg than the Barwala. indeed tlle name of position there as is held by the Chamars in the Barwala is said to be a corrupti(!n of bal' 3 rwaJa or plains, save that they do 110t tan or work in "0 utsi<:1er", because like all outcasits, ,}., Y Jive leather. In Kangra they are also known as in the OL tskirts of the village" (Rose 19] l-II-pp. Kirawak or Kirauk, a word which properly 66-67). Unlike Ibbetwn, Rose has stattd that means a man whose duty it is to assemble co olics Barwala is distinct from BatwaJ in Chamba, and others for begar Or forced labour and thcy which appears contr8dictory to a certain extent; are also called Sat wag or "bearers of burdens". but he gives the distinction between the two that .... The term Barwala seems IV be current also in Barwala deals in making mats and winnowing Jalandhar, Amritsar, Lahore, and Sialkot. as fans from a kind of grass termed as 'bara' or considerable numbers ar~ returned for these dis 'baria' and Bat~al is usually a peon or tax-COl tricts. In the higher ranges and where they are lector and tatter name is prestigious as compared 2 to the fonner. Barwal: Barwala and Batwal District also cla.iJned themselves from Rajput have been reported as 'Chaukiclars" at the 1891 ancestry admitting themselVes to be lower in census and Maclagan has quoted Mr. O'Brien social status than the Rajputs mOre popularly while writing on Batwal, "Mr. O'Brien on the known as 'Thakurs'. It was reported that the other hand, tells me that he knows of Batwals princes had separated their (Batwal) ancestors who are stone cutters like the Bataihras, they are on some pretext or the other and thus they were however, outcastes, while tIle Bataihras, are not" degraded in scrcial status and since those day~ (Maclagan-1891-p.292). It is to be noted that they have been suffering from S'Ocial disabilities Bafera-Bataihra-was returned another caste of till very recently. Traditionally, the community stone cutters and masons reported to be enjoying ",as reported to be associated with menial jobs a better status (ref. ibid). Bat~al ~ere returned like chowkidars, peons, coolies, and agricultural as farm labourers (C.l. 1931. J.&K. labourers, etc.• but these days they were also p. 158). The Barwalas on the 0 ther hand were reported to have dissociateQ themselves from their reported to be making mats, winnowing fans, traditional 'Occupation and have professed diversi and act as musicians according to Chamba fied occupations like cultivation, Government... Gazetteer df 1904. Further more from the Hima services. animal husbandry and allied works, chal Pradesh, 'Bakhala' was reported to be etc. They are called Batwal by the members of another synonym or local name for Batwal; the community themselves and by the members but its confirmation is lacking. of 'Other communities. A male member is known by the caste Dame as 'Batwal', ",hereas female member ofthe communi,ty is called 'Batwali'. In the foot-note Rose has stated "The Batwals' The Batwal informants in Hoshiarpur had reported fa Ik etymology derives their name from thpt their ancestors had migrated from Kangra betwal, 'son of a daughter'. A Raja's daughter became enceinte by an illicit amour and was mOre than six generations ago. They lack information about their original place of migra expelled from her father's kingdom. A Chuhra took her to wife, but her child fc unded the Batwal tion. caste". (Rose-1911-II.p.67). For the purpose of present study, Batwal households in Kangra 2. Population Distri~ution and Hoshiarpur Districts were contacted in 1962. The informants of the community frOm Hazipur Thana of tahsil Dasuya in Hoshiarpur District Maximum concentration of the community was claimed their descent from Rajputs and further returned from Kangra and Gurdaspur Districts. reported that their anceslor~ Were expelled from Some hundreds each of the community were the community due to some act which was con returned from Hoshiarpur and Kamal Districts sidered as immoral according to norms prevalent whereas in other districts the strength reported at that time. Since then their descendants carne was Very slender. According to 1961 census, to be known by the name of 'Batwal' which q'ut of a total of 11,479 persons, in the Punjab perhaps meant derogatory ill sense. Auother State, 6,412 were males and 5,067 females, from version revealed that the name has been derived which the sex-ratio approximates to 790 females from 'balta' (exchange) marriage ",hich was per thousand males. The population of Batwals said to be prevalent among certain Rajput house in J & K and Himachal Pradesh stood at 12,733 hold who were said to be ex-communicated and and 757 persons, respectiVely according to 1,961 their progeny in due COurse came to be called as census. Sex wise distribution of the community 'Batwal'. The Batwal of Sarah village in Kangra with resPect to rural and mban areas in 1961 3 census a returned from the i2 districts is furnished below:- TABLEr
Population as per 1961 Census
Serial Name of tbe District Rural: Total MaJes Females No. Urban
1. Hissar (R) 4 4 (U)
2. Karnal (R) 473 469 ·1 (U)
3. Ambala (R) 1 J (U) 7 4 3
4. Kangra (R) 5,453 2,943 2,510 (L) 163 87 7(-
5. Lahaul and Spiti (R) 3 3 (U)
6. Hoshiarpur (R) 354 195 159 (U) 4 4
7. Jul1undur CR) 30 3 27 (U) 51 25 26
8. Ludhiana (R~ 85 38 47 CU 172 92 80
8. Ferozepur (R) 21 13 8 (U)
\ 10. Amritsar . . (R) ...... CU) 140 79 61
11. Ourdaspur (R) 4,378 2.380 1,998 tV) 73 37 36
12. Bbatinda (R) 23 16 7 CV) 44 27 17
Total CR~ 10,825 6,061 4,764 (U 654 351 303
The above table reveal that the population of the community is concentrated more in rural areas. 4 than in urban area. A table ill~strating the' distribution of the male and female with respect to age-group is furnished below :- ''PABLE 2
A__ge-group Males Percentage Females Percentage Total Per.centage
(0-14) 2,382 53·15 2,100 46'85 4,482 39·05 (15-44) 2,988 56'60 2,291 43·40 5,279 45 ·99 (45 and above) 1,042 60·72 674 39'28 1,716 14·95 (Age not stated) 2 100·00 2 00 ·01
Total 6,412 55·86 5,067 44 ·14 11,419 100·00
The table reveals that the distributioD ofpopu Tabsil Nurpur lation with respect to age-groups is more or less Ngme of the village :- natural. In Hoshiarpur District their popUlation 1. lawali is sparaeo and there were few scattered households 2. Nurpur in some "mages. In Kangra District, .according 3. Bharmar to ~he local informants B!.twds preponderate It was the general vie", of the informants that at the places shown below :~ the population of Batwal Iud considerably in Tahsil Kangra creased, dUring the last decade. and new house holds were coming up after the split of large-sized Name of the vil1age :- and jOint families. . 1. Sarah 3. Settlement and Dwelling 2. Bhanaia As revealed from the a~ailable literature and 3. Talwata o bserved during ~he field study, Batwals li"e in 4. Relue Kachcha houses situated in the outskirts of the 5. Ladwara village mOre often adjacent to the house!. of other 6. Arjol. Harijans. In Kangra District, their houses 7. Charri consist of Kachcha Walls plastered with mUd 8. Gharoh from within. The roofs are made of rectangular 9. Gbaniara pieces of slate placed on bamboo structure and 10. Yole Camp fastened together with iron wires. The area of a 11. Tramblu house premises usually varies fronl 100 to 200 sq. 12. Jadrang yards consisting of one room with or without a Tahsil Palampur kitchen, small verandah and also a small kitchen garden at tached to the ho uses in the case 0 f rela th;e Name of the vHlage :- ly well-off h()us,eholds. Due to shortage of 1. Pathiar covered area, the accommodation densit) is 2. Lalah considerably high and young boys and girls hardly 3. Chachian get separate room to sit and sleep. Two to tbree 4. Tsnda children normally share the same cot and bedding. In Hoshiarpur their houses were reported to clothes. On special occasions like marriage etc. be situated round a rectangular or square com the women hardly adorn themselves with distinct pound, which is used commonly by all the Batwal dress. The only difference reported was that they households. The dwellings are called 'Chhans' use some new clothes with some embrodiered (huts) when bisloped roofs of straw or 'khar' patterns on them. The popular ornament used grass or thin slabs are raised on the kachcha walls. by women was reported as 'Kokka' (nose-stud) or The dwellings arc plastered from inside with a 'tee/i' (nose-ring) usually of gold or silver. Most paste of mud. All dwellings and huts are guar of the men wrap their bodies in 'Khesis' of cotton ded against the entry of rainwater. The modern thread to protect against cIod. The children amenities of electricity and tap water are conspi normally move about bare footed. Mostly they cuous by their non-existence. Least attention keep shorn hair on the head. Beards are shaved, is devoted for providing light and cross-venti but some keep small moustaches. latioll and there is illvariably poor hygiene and sanitation around the dwellings. During winter 6. I,anguage, Education and Literacy all the members of the household have to sleep The Batwals in Kangra traditionally speak in suffocation. the dailect known as Kangri or Pahari boli which 4. Dietary Habits was observed to be having much in common with Panjabi. Except a few songs or dialogues, there Tn respect of eating habits Batwals are gen is hardly any literature or script of their own. erally reported non-vegetarian. Their daily meals According to Grierson's classification it seems to include chapatis of wheat, or maize flour and belong to Indo-Aryan branch of Aryan.sub-famiIy 'dar (pulses) or vegetables. Tn the hills, rice is of Indo-European Family of languages. A few also consumed frequently. Due to economic words collected during the enquiry are furnished pressure and high cost of living, they cannot afford together with their English equivalent as follows : to take milk, meat and eggs daily. But on imp ortant festive occuasions, they arrangt: non As spoken by the English equivalent vegetarian feasts. Those who keep buffaloes, BalH'al cows and poultry the produce is sold within the village or in the nearest market. Beef is abjured. Bhat Rice Plain tell is served in the morning and ut dusk. The informants in Kangra had reported that Bhujju Curry 'lugra' (a locally prepared beverage) of rice is a special preparation which they relish. Liquor Bhiyaga Morning is said to be consumed on festive occasions and Kuthu Where social functions.
5. Dress and Ornaments Mala Very The male adults usually wear a 'kamiz' or Minjo Me 'kurta' (shirt) together with a 'kachha' (under wear) or 'pyjama' (trousers). They use turban to Tijo You cover the head. 'Pannian' or 'Pahari Joofi' made of ordinary leather forms the popular foot wear. The words above show that language of Bat The dress of females consists of a 'jumper, and wals is an integral part of the Pahari dialect. 'salvar' (baggy trousers) and a 'dupatfa' or 'chadru' According to 1961 Census data, out of a total or (scarf) froms the head wear. They expressed that 11,479 persons, l,llS were returned as literates, they could hardly afford to wear warm and costly revealing the literacy level at 9.74 per cent which 6 nearly equates with the percentage of literacy Himachal Pradesh are 4.58 and 13.47 respectively. (9.64) among the scheduled castes as a whole Break-up of their population into illiterates and throughout Punjab. The corresponding figures literates with reference to educational standard is for literacy percentage of Batwal in J & K and given below :-
TABLE 3
Total Illiterates Literate~ without Education:ll Level Edurationallevcl
Area Primary or Matriculation Junior Baiic and above
Male Female Male Female Male Female ----- ._----
Male Female Male Female --.-.-.- 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 10 11
Rural 6,061 4.764 5.154 4.656 532 71 348 35 2'j 2
Urban 351 303 2,j3 288 40 7 8 4 ----_-_._------,---, Total 6,412 5,067 5,411 4,944 572 78 392 43 31 2
From the above figures, it is calculated that he says, "Like mos~ hill menials they often culli in urban areas the percentage of literacy is 15.75 vate land, and are employed as ploughmen and and 9.38 in rural areas. The reason for the for field labourers by the Rajputs and allied races of mer being higher is that in urban are-as better the hills who are too proud to cultivate with their educational facilities exist and parents also appear own hands. They are true village menialg, ·and to be aware of the various concessions and aids attend upon village guests, fill pipes, bear torches, given by the Government for the education of and carry the bride-groom's palanquin at wedd Scheduled Caste people. ings and the like, and receive fixed fees for doing 7. Economic Pursuits so. In the towns they appear to be common servants" (Ibbetson-1881 p. 338). According to The published literature reveals that tradi the 1961, Census, they were recorded to be mainly tionally they earned their livelihood by working as engaged in jobs like 'cultivation, agricultural 'Chowkidars', peons, coolies and also as agri labour, plantations and livestock care' transport cultural labourers. In this context, Ibbetson is and communication, 'other services', etc., together worth quoting, who has discussed the community with the household industry of making 'pattals' ~nder the heading "Menials of the Hills" where Ii and 'doonas' (leaf plates and cups). 1
The occupational classification of Batwals is given as below ~
TABLE4 I
WOR'KERS
Total Total As Culti- As Agri- In Mining, Quar- At House- Workers vators cultural rying, Live- hold labourers stock, For(.'stry, Industry Fishing. Hunting, Plantation, Orchards and allied Activity Area ------. -----_._ ---- Rural/wrban p M F M F M F M F M F M F
------2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ------Rural 10.825 6.061 4.764 3,607 sIn 1,459 469 530 84 276 164 131 41 Urban 654 351 303 165 14 6 18 2 3 ------_------_------Total 11,479 6,412 5,067 3,772 875 1,465 470 548 84 278 164 134 41 ------
------WORKERS Non-Workers Workers in Special Area In Manu- In Cons- In Trade and In Transport In Other Occupations Rural! facturing truction Commerce Storage and Services Urban other tban Communi- Tanning and SClIrenging household cation currying 0/ industry Hides and skins ------M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F ------15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
------~------Rural 91 4 58 49 174 839 98 2,454 3,903 2 2 Urban 25 3 19 6 37 49 10 186 289 ------Total 116 7 77 55 211 888 108 2,640 4.192 3 2
Source :-C.I. Pb. 1961. Vol. XIII Pt. V-A. The statement reveals that out of a total of 11,479 that they give preference if the fIrst child'is born persons, 4,647' were recorded as workers giving in his/her father's father's house but there is ·a percentage of working force as 40.48. Working hardly any such consideration for the subsequent force among males and females was calculated to births. The male birth is preferred and is a be 58.83 per cent and 17.27 per cent, -res source of rejoicing as compared to a female pectively. Tn rural and urban areas the percent birth. i\ 'singi' (an emblem of Bawa Balak Natb) age of their working force was 41.27 and 27.37, is put in the neck of the new born with the belief respectively which indicates that their participation of safeguarding it against evil spirits or. b"ad rate in economic pursuits is comparatively more sight. Dai (midwife) of their own caste attends in rural areas thav, in urban areas. 59.52 per' cent to the parturient, but in serious cases help of of their total population has been recorded trained 'Dai' from the maternity centre is also as 'non-workers' which includes infants, children, called, who attends the delivery case irrespective students, housewives, disabled persons, beggars, of caste. Customarily 'soofak' (pollution) pensioners, rentiers and employment seekers, etc. was reported to be observed for a Further insight reveals that maximum percentage span of 40 days following the date of delivery: i.e. 41.64 of working force or 16.86 Five days after the birth of a child 'gutar' cere of the population was recorded to be engaged in mony was reported to be performed in which drops 'cultivation'. Secondly 21.43 per cent of the of 'Ganga Jal' (water of river Ganges) are workers or 8.68 per cent of the population sprinkled over the members of the family. I Sidh was recorded to be engaged in 'other services' Dewat is worshipped and girls of the community constituting mainly chowkidars, peons, a feV! below puberty are given something to eat. An 'patwaris' and some in military and police services. earthen 'deeva' (improvised lamp) IS lit and Third important category of occupation was incense is burnt and the child administered 'agricultural labour' in which 13.60 per cent 'janamghutfi' (a liquid indigenous medicine of the working force or 5.51 per cent of their prepared from herbs) by a person who is thought populabon is absorbed. 9.5'1 per cent of the to be of good fortune and pleasant in tempera workers or 3.85 per cent of the population ment with the belief that the child will embrace were recorded to be engaged in cutting stones, all qualities of that person. After 3 weeks, the livestock and plantation, etc. 3.76 per cent of above ritual is repeated and Sidhs are propitiated. the workers were reported to be pursuing the On this occasion the child's maternal unck and household industry which consisted of preparing its mother's father bring 'cholutopu.' whicl1 con leaf plates apd leaf cups. 4.54 per cent of the sis.ts of milk, clothes, one or two ornaments and workers were recorded to be absorbed in 'trans dry fruits, etc. depending upon their economic port storage and communication'. 77 males were soundness. The mother and the new bo~n take engaged iv 'construction work' like whitewashing, path on this day and the mother starts att
also reported that in some cases the first male married establishing the fact that the system of child is taken either to the temple of Chintpurni or e'arly marriage prevailed among them. This Jawalaji where lambs or goats are offered at the system dominates more in the case of female shrines for the welfare of the child. Post-nltal marriages. Traditionally the Batwals married care of the mother consists in giving her milk their girls at an early agc. "The BatwaIs marry and 'pan_iiri' (a sweetmeat prepared from ghec, their girls at an early age, but allow widow-re jaggery, wheat flour, aniseed, thyme seed, etc). marriage, and that too without regard to the husbands brother's claims". (Rose-191 lop. 67). Regarding the institution of marriage 'Batwals', But at the time of enquiry it was reported that are an endogamous ethnic group and i.t was also they had started marrying their suns and daughters reported that some exogamous groupings when they entered the later phases of their adole also ex.ist which function like 'gotra', but they scence. Pre-marital or extramarital relations "'ere expressed ignorance of the knowledge of any be reported to be hardly tolerated. The matrimonial lief and mythology associated with the origin of alliances are negotiated with the help of relatives. these divisions. I n district Hoshiarpur, they Brahman priest sparingly officiates a.t their had named Patial, Bharolar, Narial, Zaril marriage ceremonies. T11 fact their own priest and Sapihia as the divisions, According to Rose, officiates on such occasions. Rose in this connec "In KapurlhaJa the Barwala
Death Rites and Beliefs return. The corllse is put into the pyre and members of the procession also add some According to Rose, "Batwals either burn or twigs and stubbles of dried grass to it and bury their dead." (Rose 1911-p. 67). The dead usually the eldest son sets the pyre on fire. below the age of 3 yesrs are buried while the W hen the pyre is fully ablaze the skull of the dead above this age-group are reported to be deceased is struck thrice with a pole. After cremated. It is believed that if the traditional this the members of the fUlleral procession return rites are not p.:rformcd, the soul of the dead home and take bath. On reaching home the would haunt thl,; other members of the house pitchers are emptied and filled again with hold by appea:ing in the form of ghosts and flesh watcr. 011 the third uay sume bones and witches. If a person breaths his/her last on the ashes of the deceased are collected and thrown cot, it is con.;idercd to be inauspicious and a in some river or stream or in some gorge. In person dying after taking milk is believed to case of ulluatural deaths the ashes are carried reappear among the species of snake. At to Pehowa for the welfarc of the depar1t:d soul. the time of last breath Lhe dying person is laid Pullution was rcported to last for a p~riod of down 011 the fluor and sometimes also made 10 days during which washing of clothes, to touch the tail of a ft..lfleg",d black (Kapila) cutting and dressing of hair is avoided, the wife cow, which is giVen in charity afterwards, which of the deceased puts off the jewellery and h a part of religious beliefs that this cow wou ld no festivals arc celebrated for a Period of one lead the person f10m earth to the doors of year at least. An earthell impiovised lamp is heaven and help going across many bloody lit for 10 days in the house and lin the moining streams and thorny routes that fall on the way. of 11th day it is thru\'t:1 :11to ~omc stream and on The females in the huuse blart weeping and 14th day 'kirya' ceremony takes placl and the beating their breasts as soon the person passes eldest SOIl gets his head and beu:'d sha v(,u., away. The neighbours and relatives come for which is also termed as 'bhadra'. On the 16th mourning after hearing the neWs or message day 'Solah' takes place when relatives, friends sent by the members of the household of the and caste brethren are invited to feast and some deceased. The corpse is given a bath with water articles of daily USe are giv(..u ill charity to to which some Ganges water is also added in the Acharaj Brahman. 'Slzaradhs' or anniversaries belief that this would absolve all the sins com are hardly 0 bserved by the Batwals, mitted by the deceased. The corpse is then though not conspicuous by their omission wrapped in 'khaddar' (coarse) cloth and placed altogether. on the bier prepared from bamboo poles. Some ghee and 'gur' Gaggery) is put into the mouth 9. Religious Beliefs and Practices of the deceased and the face is showu to the According to 1961 cenSus, out of a total of kinsmen and others to have a last glimpse 11,479 persons 6,394 males and 5,060 females and then it is carried to the crematorium which Were recorded as Hindus and 18 males and 7 is usually a bed of stream or river terrace. The females WeTt~ recorded as Sikhs. The enquiry kinsmen and caste brethren follow the funeral had revealed that they mostly followed procession. A man carries fire in an earthen 'Sanatanist (oldest) Hindu religion and believe pitcher. After covering half of the distance in all the Hindu gods and goddesses and propi or at the burning spot itself the earthen tiate SUll, moon, earth, fire and water etc. Prin pitcher is broken. On the way balls of flour cipally, they worship Lord Krishna, Rama, Guru are offered when the funeral procession halts Nanak Saheb, Shiva and the 'Sidhs'. The other for a moment to take rest, and the females important deities were reported to be the 'Lakh usually accompany only upto this spot and then data', Khawaja Pir (god of water), 'Guga' (god of 12 Serpents) and goddesses like lJhagwati Devi Dussehra, Lohri, Shivatatl"!, Holi etc. are cele· of Kangra, Kali of Calcutta, 'Mataran;' brated by this community also. The infor (goddess of small-p.)x). The modes of worship mants in Kangra reported that they attend fairs and propitiation wvre reported as, Lord Rama like 'Raje da mela' held- at Rait Dera 'Shivratri is worshipped on Ram Navami in (Match da me/a' held at Gang Bhairon etc. April) and Lord Krishna on lanamashtami in (August-September) by keeping fasts, Guru 10. Social Status and Control Nanak Saheb on 'Purnima' (full-moon) in Kattik (October-November) and Shiva on 'Shivratri' The Batwals were' repoited to be lower in in the month of layashta (May-June) by offer social status as compared with the other Hindu ing grains of wheat, money, flowers etC. The castes, namely Brahman, Rajput, Jats, Ghumar, Sidhs are worshipped at various occasions Loha'r, Tarkhan, Nai, Ghirath, Doomna, Chamar, but particularly when some one falls ill. Julaha and Sarera etc. in the area. Tradi The Devis were reported to be worshipped. tionally, they have been treated as untouchables during 'N"avratras' of 'Chetra' (April-May) and and Were not allowed to fetch water from 'Asuj' (September-October) both at their res common well. Though there has been a general pective shrines and ~t the house. Dewat Sidh awareness amo:tJ.g the people that untouchability or Bawa Balak Nath is worshipped by off has been abolished by law~ yet the Batwals ering a portion of harvest in the form of 'rate' haVe been cO)l9-itibned to keep themselves prepared from it. 'Khawaja' (god of water) a way from the wells, bowaries (sources is reported to be worshipped by sitting in of dripking water fed by springs) and temples the middle of some shallow dvulet or nullah of swtlrftas. It Was also reported that in Kangra and by offering 'dalia' (3. sweet porridge prepared the school-going children of Batwal Were hardly from wheat flour or rice), curd, 'ghee\ flowers allowed to take water from the common earthen and incense etC. The sun is worshipped in pitchers. They had to ask sODlebody belong early morning by offering 'drgh' (water) to it ing to 'swarnas' t<1 serve them water. How and prostrating before it. Some salt and eVer, the social disability was observed to money is offered' in the name of 'guga' every be disappearing now as compared to the past. Year. Female children are feasted to avoid the Social distance is not rigidly observed, by the displeasure of 'matarani'. Sidh Chano is Y6ung and educated people of the upper· clean propitiated for the welfare of the cattle. Dis castes. The social control of Batwals, was eases, physical and mental, are usually attri in the haUds of-a caste panchayat about 3 buted to the displeasure of their deities and for decades. ago but it was reported by the jnfor their cure, they approach 'ehelas' (disciple fol mants that this 'panchayat' had becoJi1e defunct lowers of the sidhes) who are thought to be now. At the time X)f survey it was reported experts in exorcism and sorcery. For treatment that the hOUSehold disputes were usually set of barrenness and sterility they also approach tled by caste elders and village hea~n or 'chelas' and very often prostrate before the landlords. The complicated matters are re GaddIs' (seats) of 'sidhs', namely, Bawa fetred to the statutory village panchayats. Palohwala, Bawa Luthru, and Bawa Balak Nath. Being small in number and occupying a low Incense is burnt at their 'dhoo'!,is' (bon-fire) and position in the social hierarchy, it was reported their ashes being considered as sacred are that they find it difficult to contest elections eaten and smeared on their bodies and fore of statutory panchayats and usually take a heads with the belief that Sidhs would sMwer community decision to vote and support other blessings on their devotees. Like all other scheduled caste candidate having a parallel Hindus, the important festivals like Diwa.ll, social status with Batwals. 13
REFERENCES AND OTHER BmLIOGRAPHY
Rose. H. A. (Comp). Barwala, Batwal. A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West :Frontier Province Vol. II. 1911.-p. 66-6S. Ibbetson, 0. C. Barwal and Batwal. Report on the Census of the Punjab l8Sl-p. 338. Maclagan. B. D. Batwal Census of India 1891. The Punjab and its Feudatories. Part I Report p. 292.
Kaul, H. K. Census of India 1911, Punjab, Part I Rt:port, p. 449. Pt. AnantRamand .. Census of India 1931 (1 & K) pp.15S. 320-321. Raina. H. N. Anonymous ., Chamba State Gazetteer 1901-pp.163-64. Anonymous Panjab District Gazetteers 1924-25 Kangra District. p. lSI. Anand, R.L. Batwal. Census of India, 1961. Vol. XIII-Pb.• Part V-A.
AN ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON
BHANJRA
A SCHEDULED CASTE IN PUNJAB
CONTENTS Pagt8
I. Identity 19-20 2. Population Distribution 20--22 3. Settlement and Dwellings 22 4. Dress and Ornaments 23 5. Food Habils ibid 6. La nguage and literacy 23-24 7. Economic Pursuits 24 8. Life Cycle 24-26 Death Rites and BelIefs 26-27 9. RelIgious BelIefs and Practices 27 10. SocIal Status 27-28 11. SocIal Control 28
1~. R~ferences Consulted/cited 29
19 BHANJRA 1. Identity they were popularly kn'own as Sansoi. The rela tionship of Bhanjra with Dumna has been expres The Bhanjra has been declared a scheduled sed by Ibbetson as, "The Dumna called also caste throughout the Punjab State and in Hima Domra, and even Dum in Chamba, IS the Chuhra chal Pradesh vide President's Scheduled of the hills proper, and is also found in large Castes and S::heduled Tribes Lists (ModificatlOns) numbers in the submontane districts of Hushyar Order, 1956. In Himachal Pradesh Dumne pur and Gurdaspur. Like the Chuhra of the together with 'Bhanjre' in parenthesis is listed plains, he is something more than a scavenger; separately as a Scheduled Caste vide the same but whereas the Chuhra works chiefly in grass, order. Mahanjra has been reported as a synonym the Dumna adds to this occupation the trade of Bhanjra throughout Himachal Pradesh. The of working in bamboo, a material not avail economic pursuits of Bhanjras and other ways able to the Chuhra. He makes sieves, winnowing of life are very much common with Dumnas. pans, fans, matting, grass rope and string, and While compiling a Glossary on Tribes and Castes, generally all the vessels, baskets, screens, furniture Rose ha5 stated, "Bhanjra, a synonym for and other articles which are ordinarily made of Damna in the lower hills of Hoshiarpur and bamboo. When he confines himself to this Gurdaspur. He makes sieves, winnowing fans sort of work and gives up scavengering, he and other articles of grass and bamboo. Like appears to be called Bhanjra, at any rate in the the Sansois, Sarials and Daolis, the Bhanjras may lower hills, and occasionally Saria! ; and I have be regarded as an occupational group of the included 261 Bhanjras and 31 Sadals in my Dumnas, with whom they intermarry". (Rose. figures. In the lalandhar division Bhanjras were H.A.; A Glossary of the Trib~s and Castes of not returned separately from Dumnas" (Ibbetson the Punjab, And North-West Frontier Province. D.C.J., Report on the Census of the Panjab- Vol. II, 1911. p. 84.) 1881. p. 338). From the foregoing statement In district Hoshiarpur majority of the popu of Ibbetson it appears that Bhanjra is an occu lation reported that Bhanjra and Dumna consti pational group of Dumna, who have strived to tute the same caste, though the former name is confine themselves to bamboo work and have more familiar in the plains, and the latter is left scavengering and for this reason appear to customarily used in the hills which consider look upon the term Dumna as opprobrious. ably support the views expressed by Rose. It The term Bhanjra is considered to be higher in was also reported that Bhanjra is more or less the social hierarchy. ft seems that the bi-nomen a generic name fancifully derived from 'bhanj' clature of this caste has emerged on account of which in the local dialect means bamboo from occupational diversity professed by the two which they prepare various articles like 'chicks' groups. But it is difficult to draw a dividing (blinds) baskets, winnowing fans etc. The enquiry line between the two groups as they overlap each conducted in lullundur District revealed that the other and the social boundaries appear to be community is known by various nam~s at different invisible. However, in common parlance places. In Kangra District they are familiarly Bhanjra appears to be slightly higher in social called 'Doomtn', in Ambala District as 'chiksaaz' !;tatus. Rose writes, "Dumna, a low sweeper (blind-maker) and in Una Tehsil of Hoshiarpur caste, also called Bhanjra, in the hills and in District as Sansoi. However, Sansoi is the name of Gurdaspur, Iullundur and Hoshiarpur. They another Scheduled Caste whkh is primarily en make chiks, baskets, etc. of bamboo and do gaged in the collection of gold particles from the menial service" (Rose. H.A .• A Glossary of the river and stream beds. As so'ne Bhanjras also Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North professed to washing of sand for gold, in the past, West Frontier Province-Vol. II, 1911-p. 250). From this reference Dumna and Bhanjra appear Bhanjra and its origin, the lnfonnants report that to be synonyms. At the time of 1891 Census, they derive their descent from Rajputs. The as in 1881, Bhanjras (also Bhenjar and Bhangra) narration goes that once their ancestors fled were included among Dumna and also the Racha from the battle-field and took shelter in the hills lia 0); weavers, brush makers, in Jalandhar ; and consequently they came to be known by the but Daola and Brar were separately classed in name Bhanjra derived from 'Bhajana' (in Punjabi the returns of 1891 (ref~ Maclagan E.D; Census means to flee). ACCording to another version, of India 1891 Vol. XIX, The Punjab and its t,heyassociate themselves \\-itb bamboos. Accord· Feudatories. Part I. Report on the Census p. 299). ing to a legend current among them, Paras Ram Sirdar Arjan Shah Singh has reported about had taken a pledge to kill all the Kshatrya!., bUI the Bhanjara as, "The Bhanjaras of the plains lord RaIna wanted fo rescue them from Paras are similar to Dumnas of the hills. They are Ram's hands and it is said that He through spi generally Hindus by religon and bamboo-workers ritual powers converted all the Kshatryas into by occupation. Most of the chick-makers come bamboo trees. Paras Ram getting furious, ordered from this caste". (C. Patiala State-1931-p.208). his servants to cut all the bamboo trees, and the~ From this. account it is revealed that this caste is in course of time adopted bamboo industry as I popular by the name of Bhanjras in plains and means of livelihood and the 'Bhanjras' unde Dumna in the hill and that they are Hindus by study claim their descent from those servants religion. During the inquiry it was reported A similar legend with minor variation was Ie at both the places that Dumnas have been follow port~d by the informants in lullundur Districi ing the occupation of beating drums- and parti It is difficult to have historical verification 0 cipating in the band orchestra at marriages and these legends. doing their traditional occupation of bamBoo industry. Bhanjras also play upon musical From the foregoing account t,here seenii instruments at marriages but they have switched to be some justification for treating Bhanjra as on to cultivation, cane industry, agricultural an ethnic offshoo t of
fem~les p~r thousand males. The distribution ot their sex-wise population with respect to rural and urban areas is furnished in the table below:-
TABl,E 1
Population as per 1961 Census Serial Rural! No. Name of the District Urban - --- Total Males Females ------~-- - Hissar · . (R) 1 .. (D) 2 1 1 2 Rohtak · . (R) 40 9 3J (D) I I 3 Gurgaon · . (R) 46 30 J6 (U) 4 Karnal · . (R) 18 1 17 (U) 9 6 3 5 Ambala · . (R) 510 257 253 (U) 195 113 82 6 Simla · . (R) 478 278 200 (U) 32 19 13 7 Kangra (R) 272 142 130 (U) 8 Lahaul and Spiti · , (R) (U) 9 Hoshiarpur (R) 1,149 511 638 (U) 269 151 118 10 JulIuudur (R) 64 32 32 (U) 309 169 ]40 11 Ludbiana · . (R) 7 2 5 (U) 64 36 28 12 Ferozepur · . (R) · . · . .. (U) 12 5 7 13 Amritsar · . (R) 4 · . 4 (U) 7 6 I 14 Gurdaspur · . (R) 11 9 2 (U) 15 Kapurthala · . (R) 26 10 16 (U) 112 49 63 16 Bhatinda · . (R) · . · . CU) 8 8 17 Sangrur · . (R) · . · . (U) 1 J 18 Patiala · . (R) 18 12 6 (D) 37 19 18 19 Mahendragarh · . (R) (U) Total Punjab · . (R) 2,644 1,294 1,350 (U) ],058 ~8~ 474
It is seen from the above table that their population preponderates in rural areas, and in a few districts they have been 1'ecorded sparsely to age.groups and corresponding percenta~ in the urban areas alone. A table giving the proportions is furnished below:- distribution of males and females with respect
TABLE '2
Age-group Males Percent Femal~s Percent Total Percent age age age
(0-1.4) 849 52·63 764 47·37 1,613 43'57 (15-44) 676 46·49 778 S3 :5] 1,454 39·28
(45 and above) 350 55'56 280 44·44 630 17 ·02 (Age not stated) 3 60·00 2 _40 ·00 5 0·13
Total 1,878 50·73 1,824 49·27 3,702 tOO ·00
From the above' table the trend of distribu access to the comm~n source of drinking wat tion of population with respect to a:ge, sex and The huts in the hills are reported to be ml corr esponding percentage proportions appears spacious than those in the plains but labour to' be normal. Age of 5 persons could not be costlier than the construction material. T ascertained at the time of enumeration. stones and earth are required for the walls ani thatched roof is supported OD wooden bea 3. Settlement and Dwelling and rafters. and traditionally there exists reci Usually Bhanjras are found to be living in procity in the matter of manual labour, whi~ thatched huts and houses both in the suburbs has now been reported to be dwindling aw~ of towns and towards one side of the villages. resulting in high costs of new constrLtcti~. Some of them are reported to have taken houses The dwellings or huts are guarded against r . on rent in cities and those who cannot afford water lest these should leak from any side. the rent charges, still live in theii encampments. people believe in the super powers of vario Their dwellings in towns consist of hardly one gods like 'Khawaja' (god of water), 'Gugt' or two rooms. In many cases, the houses are (god of snakes) etc. The evil effects of thesl found in dilapidated conditions. It is very powers are warded off. through some religiolll difficult to maintain the modesty of the married observances before occupying the ,hduse. For couples as everybody sleeps under the same roof. 'shub mah~rat' (auspicious occasion) th~ There is hardly any provision for a ~parate consult the Brahman priests or some 'che/os kitchen. The rooms are dark and dingy from (sorcerers) in the area. At the time of starting I inside and hygienic conditions are very poor. new construction boiled gram and jaggery art In the lower hilly areas the huts are generally distributed and at the time of completion. built on some bulging piece of land in one corner boiled and sweetened rice are distributed amo~ of the main village habitation. They have no the members of the community. 23
4. Dress and Ornaments 5. Food Habit Traditionally, the dress of a male consists Generally Bhanjras are reported to be of a 'kamiz' (shirO. For covering the pubic non-vegetarian. Chapatis of wheat, gram and region a 'kachha' (underwear) is used and for maize; and rice, 'da/' (pulses) and vegetables covering the lower extremitIes a 'pyJama' form their staple food. Beef is abjured. Fish (trousers) of a 'dhoti' (waist cloth) is used. and eggs are consumed. Smoking of 'bidis' A 'saja' (turban) is the traditional head-gear. cigarettes, and hubble-bubble is popular among During winter season they wrap' themselves ill the males, and very common in use on social a 'khes' (a coarse sheet of cloth) or a blanket. gatherings. Liquor is consumed, but hemp Coats, Pantaloons, socks and sweaters are also and opium are also infrequently used. Spices becoming popular among the well-to-do and are used in cooking food. Those who can educated sections of the community. Ordinary afford. take tea once or twice. A few have got local leather shoes is the popular foot-wear. goats and domesticated poultry also. Women usually use 'kurti' (a sort of shirt) or a jumper. To cover the lower extremities they wear 'salwar' and a 'dupatta' (scarf) forms their 6. Language and Literacy head-gear. An ordinary leather shoes, sleepers, or sandals forms the foot-wear of the females. In the plains, Bhanjras are reported to Tattooing was reported to be a common feature converse in Punjabi in their day-to-day matters. particularly among the females about two The Bhanjras in the hills also understand decades ago; but presently it is reported to be Punjabi; but minor linguistic variations are disappearing. The females wear only light reported from region to region. According to jewellery. Finger rings of silver and gold, 1961 census data, out of a total of 3,702 persons, 'koka' (nose-stud) usually 0 f gold, 'nath' (nose 493 persons were retunied as literates giving a ring) either of gold or silver are the common literacy percentage of 13.32 which is a bit higher ornaments) worn by the females. Young and than the percentage of literacy (9.64) among the unmarried grown-up girls wear ordinary metallic Scheduled Castes as a whole in Punjab State. and glass bangles on their wrists. They also The percentage of literacy of Bhanjras in wear 'pazebs' of silver in their ankles. The use Himachal Pradesh approximates to 11.47. of costly jewellery and sophisticated patterns Break-up of the community into illiterates and of ornaments are on the decrease on account literates with and without educational level is of economic pressures. furnished in the table below :- TABLE 3 -----_.------,------,------Educational level fotal Tlliterates Literates without------ Area educational level Primary or Matriculation Junior Basic and above ------M F M F M F M F M F ~------Urban 584 474 412 426 68 27 95 21 I}
Rural 1,294 1,350 1,057 1,314 146 26 8S 10 6
Total 1,878 1,824 1,469 1,740 214 53 180 31 15
The above data reveal that the percentages of literacy in urban and rural areas· aproximate to 20.79 and 10.32 respectively. the reason for facturing otlier than \ Household Industries' the former being higher is that comparatively but the type of industry could not be ascertained bett~r educational facilities exist in urban areas during the survey. 27 persons (19 males as <:ompared to rural areas. It was reported and 8 females) were returned to be working as that now they have felt the need of the educating ~gricultural'labourers, 31 persons (29 males and their children and some of them are taking 2 females) were returned to be engaged initiative in that direction. in 'Construction' and 25 -males were recorded to be engaged in 'Transport Storage and Com 7. Economic Pursuits munication'. Very: insignificant number of workers were engaged in other categories of As already mentioned, the Bhanjras' occupations. It may be alluded that none of traditional occupation is the bamboo industry the Bhanjra(has been reported to:be engaged in pertaining to the preparation of chiks (screens), occbpations like 'Tanning and Currying of Hides furniture, baskets, matting, sieves, winnowing and Skins' and 'Scavenging'. The analysis fans, coupled with allied industries like prepar of occupational structure reveals that the ing 'pattals' (leaf platters) and canning of chairs. 'Household Industrsy' still holds a pivotal position. Some of them are carrying over to cultivation, agricultural labour, 'other services' and also 8. Life Cycle participating in band parties etc. It is to be noted thal their women also participate in their The conception is associated with,the stoppage economic pursuits especially in their household of menstrual flow at the initial stage and bulging industry. The articles of bamboo wood, and of the belly at the advance stage. Barrenness is leaf platters etc. are either sold by hawking in considered to be inauspicious, while prevention of the villages and towns or by setting up evening conception is regarded as sinfur. In the later stalls along the foot-paths in the 1?azar. The break phase of first pregnancy the enceinte is usually up .of popUlation with respect to industrial cate sent to her father's house, where she gets pre-natal gories as returned in 1961 census shows that out care from the old women of the house. Her of 3,702 persons, (40.09 %), were recorded as movement outside the house is restricted, and workers. It is interesting to note that about she is also asked to avoid meeting the widows and one-third of their working force constitutes to see the eclipsed sun or moon, with which is female'll. (40.02 %) and 40.26 % of their popu associated the belief that it will deform the foetus lation in rural and urban areas respectively in the womb. Regarding her diet, she is advised constitute the working force, revealing levels to avoid taking meat, and pulses of 'mash' or of equality in the partiCipation rates of working ,'ura{l' (phaseolus-mungo) and grams; but light force in the two areas. Further, 21.39% of diet enriched with fats is recommended. An their population or more than half of the working untrained but experienced 'dai' (midwife) of their force was recorded to be engaged in their 'House own caste is called to attend the delivery case. hold Industry' of preparing articles of bamboo The enceinte is given hot milk which is further and leaves etc. 9.45 per cent of their population emulsified with addition of 'ghee' to help deliver or 23.58 % of the-working force, whIch is second the child comparatively with less labouring. For in its order was returned to be engaged in 'cul delivery usually a separate place is arranged in the tivation' though very few of the Bhanjras possess house and the male adult are tabooed to go land with occupancy rights and their holdings near the parturient. The umbilical cord is cut are very small. 10.71 % of working force is with scissors ~d buried outside. In case a male engaged in other services con~titllting jobs child is born, who is preferred to a female, mango like clerks, and peons, etc. About 6 % of the I eaves are tied at the door. A pot of water, a workers are recorded to be engaged in 'Manu- match box, a piece of iron and a sieveful of graIns are kept below the parturient's cot, which is 10. Gunariye believed to scare away the evil spirits. At the 11. Jaghial time of biith, some sweet thing hke honey is put 12. Jaswal into the baby's mouth. Traditionally the pollu 13. Jaward tion period lasts for 40 days; but in usual practice, 14. Kalerhiye it is reported that the mother enters the circums 15. Khatiarh cribed portion of the kitchen after 13 days. 16. Narial A child who is born in the month of 17. Narharchey 'Kartik' (October-November) is weighed against 18. Magruriyc grains which is given to the 'dai', so as to count 19. Malpotey eract the evil effects believed to be associated 20. Palia! with this month. For about 10 days after birth 21. Panjoriye the parturient is fed on light diet; but ghee and 22. Salorhiye milk is served in abundance if it is within means. 23. SaUan. A sweet preparation of ghee, wheat flour. ginger, For regulating marriage, names of the exogamous dry fruits etc. is given to the mother of the new groupings are examined. A man does not marry born. On the 13th day after birth mango a woman of the same patronymic grouping to tree is said to be worshipped by the par which his father or mother belongs and .similarly turient who is accompanied by other women and of the same matronymic grouping. Cross the ritual associated with it, is the offering of cousin and parallel cousin marriages are re water, 'parsad' (sacred food) and prostrating ported to be tabooed. Marriage by exchange IS before the mango tree. After Ii month the \lermissible. Bride-price was reported to exist ~ crop of hair at the head of the baby is cut. The but its value could not be ascertained; and in child is fed on mother's milk for about a year. case of divorce, according to the caste sanctions. The child is usually weaned from mother's milk the father of the woman or the new husband pays by applying something bitter at the nipples. The 'riti' (a traditional amount) of Rs 300 to Rs 900 name for the child is suggested by the parents or to the divorced husband. by the relatives. Pertaining to the age at marriage, a glance For negotiating marital ties the help of a at the 1961 census figures shows that from the go-between is usually sought. It was reported age-group (0-14) years, out of 849 boys and that among the Bhanjras there exist several 764 girls; 13 males and 51 females were returned exogamous divisions but they expressed ignorance as married from which it is implied that system of the origin of their names and etymological of child marriage exists among this community. significance. The exogamous division reported From among the age-group (15-44) years which by them with minor variations in pronunciation corresponds to the reproductive age span, out of are furnished below:- 778 females. 645 females were returned as 'married' 1. Ajauriyc 206 males and 90 females were recorded as 'never 2. Amoroiye married', 39 males and females each were re 3. Bhagalu corded as 'Widowed', 8 males and 1 female Were 4. Bhatti returned as 'divorced or separated' and 3 females 5. Chanaunye were recorded of unspecified status. Among 6. Dhadwal the elderly (45 and above years) group of 7. Dhialchu persons out- of 350 and males 280 females only 8. Ghanarsey 10 males Were recorded as 'never married'. 256 9. Gharial males, 165 females were recorded as 'married'. 26 80 malea and 11! females were .returned as which bride's father offers one rupee and.s 'pag' widowed, 4 rruoles and females each were (turban) to the groom's father. Dinner is served recorded as 'devorced or separated'. Age of 3 at night. In the morning marriage is solemnized males and 2 females could not be stated and by conducting 'pheras' (circumambulation) five from these, 2 males and 1 female were returned times round the sacred fire. The Officiating as 'ne'er married' and 1 male and female each priest recites hymns and imparts instructions to were recorded as 'married'. Polygynous unions the couple and after this the father of the bride are also reported to exist among them. performs 'sirjori' i.e. makes the spouses to touch Traditionally, early marriage was reported each other's hands. The items of dowry usually to, be pI evalent, after which 'muqlaw(I,' (connu consist of a few clothes, orramerts and utensils bial co'-habiting of the husband and wife) etc. After taking lunch the marriage party returns ceremony used to be ,performed at a later stage. home along with the bride. Usually the bride But now the pendulum has swung in the o-'ther returns to her parents on the third day. 'Muqlawa' direction and mluiages are mostly solemnized ceremony depends upon·the ages of the spouses-. If' when the boys and girls quite grow up in age. the bride has reached puberty and the groom is fuIJj' Premarital and extramarital sexual· lelations grown up then they start co-habiting after marriage. To keep a girl as unmarried after are hardly tolerated both ~ithin and out
AN ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON
DUMNA, MAHASHA OR DOOM
A SCHEDULED CASTE IN PUNJAB
(31-32)
CONTENTS Pages 1. Identity 35-37 2. Population Distribution 37--39 3. Settlement and Dwellings 39 4. Food and Drink ibid S. Dress and Ornaments 39-40 6. Language and Literacy 40 7. Economic Pursuits 40-42 8. Life Cycle 42·43 Sex and Marriage 43 'Sewar' (Betrothal) 43-45 Death Rites and Beliefs 45 9. Religious Bellefs and Practices 45-47 10. Social Status 47·48 ,11. Social Control 48 12. Por Further Reading 49
DVMNA, MAHASHA OR DOOM I., Identity as the type of uncleanness. Yet ho seems once to have enjoyed as a separate aboriginal race Dumna, Mahasha or Doom has been recognised some power and importance. He is of course as a Scheduled Caste throughout the Punjab quite distinct from the Dum-Mirasi whom I ha.vo State according to President's 'Scheduled Castes classed as "Mirasi". [Ibbetson, 1881-p.338]. and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) From this account it is revealed that Dumna is Order, 1956.' In Himachal Pradesh, Doom or engaged in low type jobs like a Chuhra and adds Doomna, and Dumne (Bhanjre) have been to his occupation the bamboo industry. When separately noted as scheduled castes,-vlde the he gives up handling filth and unclean jobs, he order ibid. The community with minor varia appears to be called Bhanjra which is thought to tions in spellings and pronunciation of its iden be comparatively a prestigious name for the tity from region to region is found almost all community. Domra and Dum are said to be the over the country, as is revealed from the order other names in Chamba for the community. ibid. Whether the community is homogeneous Ibbetson has further stated, "The Dums, how or not the ethnographer finds it difficult to state ever, must be carefully distinguished from the until discerning and authentic data are made Dom or Domra, the executioner and corpse available from different States and Territories. burner of Hindustan, and the type of all unclean The community under the nomenclature Dom, liness to a Hindu ; as also from the Dum of the Dome, Doom, Dum, DUDna/Dumne, etc. is Hill States, whom I have classed as Dumna and noted as denotified tribe in Andhra Pradesh, not as Mirasi, as I understand that the word Dum Madras and Orissa States and is noted as a noma is there applied to workers in bamboo" (Ibbetson- dic tribe in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya 1881-p.289). From the above statement it is Pradesh, Madras, Maharashtra, Mysore, Uttar revealed that Dum in the Hilly areas applied to Pradesh and West Bengal. It would be interest workers in bamboo and corresponds to Dumna ing to examine some of the authentic literature on and that Dum or Domra is occupationally a Dumna caste in Punjab and surrounding areas. different group and simila rly is Mirasi. It may Ibbetson is worth mentioning who has stated, also be noted, "The word Mirasi is derived that "The Dumna called also Domra, and even from the Arabic 'miras' or inheritance ; and the Dum in Chamba, is the Chuhra of the hills Mirasi is to the inferior agricultural castes and the proper, and is also found in large numbers in outcaste tribes what the Bhat is to the Rajputs .... , the sub-montane districts of Hushyarpur and he is also a musician and minstrel ...... The Gurdaspur. Like the Chuhra of the plains he is Mirasi is almost always a Musalman. The few something more than a scavenger but whereas Hindus returned from the hilly and sub-montane the Chuhra works chiefly in grass, the Dumna districts are very possibly Dumnas returned 11S adds to his occupation the trade of working in Dums" (Ibid p.289, 290). While compiling, bamboo, a material not available to Chuhra. the information on Dum, Rose has stated, "But He makes sieves, winnowing pans, fans, matting, though the Dums may overlap the Mirasis and grass rope and string, and generally all the vessels, be in common parlance confused with them baskets, screens, furniture and other articles they appear to be, in some parts of tlie Punjab which are ordinarily made of bamboo. When he at least, distinct from them, and the Mirasis confines liimself to this sort of work and gives are beyond all questions inextricably fused up scavenge ring, he appears to be called Bhanjra, with the Bhats ...... In fact they rank below the at any rate in the lower hills ...... • Chuhra. So too in Ludhiana they are distinct The Dumna is often called Dum in other parts of from and lower than the Mirasi". (Rose 1911- India, as in Chamba ; and is regarded by Hindus pp. 249-250). b At some places Dumna is
-[n M4yaSingh's Punjabi Diety. §Dumna iHaid to-fa ~recle, tlf b~'. 36 synonymously called as Bhanjra as stated, and Maclagan had reported,. "Thc- Dumna ia "Dumn~, a~-Iow sweeper C4ste. also called :Bhan-: called Dum in Chamba according to Mr. IPbe~~on jr.a:, 'in !the ,hills ami'in Gurdaspur, Iullundur'ana. while in Sialkot the Dum (see Mirasi) is said to Hijshii1tpur. 'They make chiks, baskets, etcj be eb.thmonly ca1lett'Dumna", and. tlie Dqmna! of otrna-mODO and do menial- jobs." (Ref. Ibid Sialkot have been cla-ssed by me iD the- retu~nlt p. ;;; 250}. 'Bhanjras' are .s~id to tie 'a 'bit higher as Mirasis. There is procably a confusion bet· in' ~ocial stat11s than Dumnas as, the former ween the two castes in most sub-montane districts ..; hesitate from handling low jobs'like scavenger· The Dumna of Kangra are said to inCluCle besides. ing as already mentioned. It is- to be noted the Dumnas proper (also called S!mhais-, who tIrat Dumna is the more familiar and popular live by making baskets and matting and playing name for the community rather than Mahasha on pipes and kettle drums), the Sansois, or gold or Doom. In Kangra District the name of the washers, and tlie Barars woo make winnoWing cmnmunity is pronounced as 'Dumna' where the pans, sieves, strings or pallet bows, etc., These letter 'u' gives the sound as it gives in the word two latter are separately classed in our- returns" 'plume'. About the ctymolo;gy of the term it (Maclagan, 1891-p.299). A ~egmeDt of 'popul~ was reported that it has been derived from 'Doom· tion' in Amritsar District returned' themselves nn! the name 'of one of their ancestors, which in to be Mirasi or Doom professing Hindu and course of time evolved as Dumna (or Doomna) Sikh religions and following the traditional I~ was:also reported that 'Doomnu' was engaged occupation of the groups as singing, dancing in'bamboo work, and so his desctndants adopted and .playing upon musical instruments and are this occupation. The term 'Mahasha' is also reported to be known for lampooning and pane said to have been coified for the community for gyri sing the individual from whom. they demand about the last two decades which is perhaps. or beg something. This segment may very due to the preaching activities of Arya Samaj possibJy- be Dumnas returned as MirtJ,si or Sect;. and the term is thought to be a prestigeous Doom, and appears to be neo-sociati vely grouped one than the other names, and it is to be noted with Dumna under study. At the time of 191'1 that the term 'Mahasha' is generic in nature census, Dumna were also reported to be known and may include persons of other castes in its as Dum (Ref. c.r. 1911, Punjab, p.454). fold. Randhawa has reported them to be working as Dumnas have also been reported to participate village watchmen. (Ref. Randhawa-Farmers' in band 'orchestra at marriage processions, playing, of India, Vol. I pp. 179, 242). It is also alluded upori kettle drums flageolets and clations, etc. that Machhelu, Lahuru, Chohan, Taware, espe'ciaIly in hiITy areas and are said to be dif· and Narial were reported to be the synonyms, ferent from Dooms. Mirasis who are also musicians generic or local names for the community in but ,Mohammadans by faith. Information of Kangra District,' but these names are yet un thiS'sorLis available as, ,"Like the Dagi and Koli certain as more authentic ibformation is lacking. castes, Dumnas are also a loW' caste people, Similarly in Hissar District they are said to be They are met in Kandeghat Tehsil and live by knoWll by the generic or local name 'Rana' which beating drums on ceremonial crccasions, and by is also not yet confirmed.· About the Dumnas making baskets, when not otherwise engaged. in tne-Jammu, Ibbetson has stated, "Many of the They have nothing in common with the 'Dooms' ])umnas of the Jammu hills and the plains imme· of the plains, who are generally Mohammadans diately below them are professional thieves" by religion and called Mirasis". (Census Report (Ibbetson 1881·p.314). But in recent times it of Patiala.State-1931, p.201). was communicated by the Superintendent of At. the. tiI1le. of 1:S91 census Dutntlas were: Census,Operations,J. 8cK. that they are sweepers, reported to be- sca'Venaers and bamboo workers,. T.o' identify the community with reference- to 31
O,;;,:upltio,ul Jimellsions it appears appropriate tehsil of Kangra District, and Haripura and to say that they are still considerably engaged Kot Khalsa villages in Amritsar were selected in their traditional occupation of bamboo indus as the spots of study. try and at the same time occupational mobility 2. Population Distribution is also pronounced in diversified pursuits like 'cultivation', 'agricultural labour' and 'other As already mentioned the community under services' to which singing, dancing and playing the nomenclature Dumna, Doomna, Doom, upon musical instruments is also attributable. Dom, Dum, Dome, DUlUne is spread almost all A female of the community is familiarly called over the country. According to 1961 census as Dumni (or Doomni) and the people figures, the population of the community in usually say "Mauqa Chuki Dumni, gavae aaf Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal pafaa!". English version of which corresponds Pradesh is 95,609, 57,871 and 19,297 persons to "A Dumni after losing the occasion sings respectively. The community is also spread meaninglessly". 'Dumra' is used as a diminu all over the Punjab State. Maximum of their tive of Duama. According to the general number was returned from Gurdaspur District. consensus, Dumna (or Doomna) is the familiar Out of a total of 95,609 persons, 51,047 were name for the community and for the purpose of the males and 44,562 were females from which present study the informants were contacted in sex-ratio approximates to 873 females per Kangra and Amritsar Districts, perhaps dUring thousand males. The sex-wise distribution of 1962. Village Deol (Teeka Phatar) near Baij the community with respect to rural and urban nath, Ujjain and Beerta villages in Kangra areas is given in the table below :- TABLE
Population as per 1961 census Serial Name of District Rural/Urban No. Total Males Females
1 Hissar CR) 3,060 1,407 l,6S3 (U) 87 , 44 43
2 Rohtak CR) 466 249 217 (U) 24 10 14
3 Gurgaoll CR) 87 47 40 (U)
4 Karnal (R) 393 20& 18S (U)
5 Ambala (R) 145 76 69 (U) 63 42 2~
6 Simla (R) 1,012 6S0 362 (U) 109 62 47
7 Kangra (R) 15,462 8,106 7,356 (U) 99 46 S3 -38
Population as pe 1961 census Name of District .1(ural/Urban ------Total Males Female Labaul and Spiti (R) 2 2 (U)
9 Hoshiarpilr (R) , 5,95'5 3,215 2,740 (U) 811 490 321
10 JuUundur (R) 130 30 100 (U) 103 66 37
11 Ludhiana (R) 301 160 141 (U) 626 331 295
12 Perompore (R) 253 ~45 108 (U) 6 1 5
13 Amritsar (R) 1,106 570 536 (U) 2,858 1,611 1247 14 Gurdaspur (R) 53,423 28,515 24,908 (U) 8,059 4,383 3,676 IS Kapurt_hala (R) 1 1 (U) 1-6 Bha,inda (it) 98 56 42 (U) 6 6 17 Sangrur (R) 424 235 189 (U) 158 91 67 18 Patiala (R) 142 99 43 (U) 1 1 19 Mahendragarh (R) 136 89 47 (U) 3 3
Total (R) 82,596 43,860 3S,736 (U) 13,013 7,181 5,826
-It is apparent from this table that this com areas. The table below giVes the age-group-wise munity is predominantly concentrated in rural distribution together with percentage proportions. TABLE - Age-Gr~t1p Male Percentage Pemales Percentage To tal Percentage
(0-14) 21,495 53·00 19,068 47·00 40,563 ·42:43 (15:;-44) 21,084 Sl-SS • 19,552 48-12 40,636 42:50 (4S and abo ve') 8,4S4 38'81 5,920 41 ·19 14,374 15·03 CAge not stat&'- 14 38 ·89.- 22 61-U. 36 0·04
To,tal 51,041 53 -39 44,562 ... r 46 ·61 95,609 100 ·00 39 It is clear from this table that in the age-group new house after the family 'Brahman' has per (0-14) comprising of 'infants' children. boys formed 'puJa' (worship) and a community feast and girls' the males preponderate over the fe is arranged. males and similar is the position in the age group (15-44) comprising of 'young men and (n Amritsar District they were found to be women' and in the age-group (45 and above) living in tents or huts made of cloth wrapped on comprising of elderly persons. On the whole the bamboo sticks giving a semi-cylindrical appea trend of distribution of population with respect rance. These huts are erected in open ground to age-groups is more or less in the normal range. outside the main habitation of the village, town Age of 36 persons could not be ascertained during or city. enumeration and the reasons for low-sex-ratio 4. Food and Drink are lacking. The informants expressed the view that their population is multiplying rapidly. Rice, wheat and maize form the staple food of Dumnas. Pulses and vegetables are also 3. Settlement and D\feIliDl~ consumed. In the morning they usually take Usually Dumna households are found to be in 'nachoi', or 'pitchh' (boiled rice water) and at a secluded place at a distance from the main habi some places take one or two chapatis with tea. tat of the village. Double storeyed houses At about 12 noon they take the full meals consist having two to three rooms are met in Kangra ing of chapatis or rice with 'dal' (pulse). Even District, but normally the house of Dumna has two ing tea is also taken by those who can afford it. rooms having dimensions from 12' X 12' to Tn the evening chapatis or rice with pulse or 15' X 20' with or without a kitchen or verandah. Vegetable is taken. On festive occasions, several Tbe upper room is locally. knowrr as 'bohr' and of them butcher a goat and take its meat. the lower one as ·owan. 'Bohr' (upper room) 'Karah' (sweet porridge) and 'rotet (sweet is used as a sleeping room for the women while chapati) is also prepared. Apart from vegetable lower room is used as workshop, store room, ghee mustard oil is also used for cooking and guestroom, and sleeping (oom for the men. frying purposes. Beef is abjured. Many of the Ventilation is provided through the holes in walls. Dumnas are given to smoking and their women The roof is made of slate and the walls are made use snuff. Spirituous drinks are not common of stone and mud. The rooms are usually dark but 'lugri' (a local beverage prepared from rice) and dIngy and without adequate ventilation. is frequently used in hilly areas. Mango, 'Shisam' (Dalbergia Sissoo) and bamboo 5. Dress and Ornaments wood is commonly used in house construction. The dress of a male of the community usually The foundation of a house is laid after consulting consists of 'topi' (cap) or safa (turban) a 'kurta' Or a Pandit as to its time and date (Mahurat). kamij (shirt) kachh (short breeches) or pyjama in 'Halwa' (sweet porridge) is distributed among . the summer and in winter is added a blanket Or the 'virgins' at this time. One rupee and one a coat of coarse woollen yarn. Ordinary leather red handkerchief are placed on the foundation shoes form their foot wear. The females of the stone which are picked up by the mason. commUlllty wear 'salwar' (baggy trousers), jumper On completion of the house, the mason or kamiz (shirt) and'dupatta' (scarf) forms their is given '[ota!garbi' (tumbler of water. The head wear. Ordinarily sleepers of rubber tyre mason stands on top of the roof and pours are used as foot-wear. Well-to-do as well as this water on the grollnd while the occupants of newry married women wear sandals. In Am the house stand with folded hands. The mason rUsar District the males are reported to wear is offered Re. It on this occa~ion. The 'tahmat' to cover the lower extremities and also head of the hiusehold starts taking meals ill the keep unshorn hair ut the head, grow beards and 40 moustaches. The male members of the com local dialect familiarly known as 'Pahar; boli' munity hardly use any ornaments except ear and aslo understand and speak Punjabi, Urdu rings Or finger-rings of gold and silver. The and Hindi. In Amritsar District they are re newly married women adore their ears with Educational level Total Illiterates Literates without Area educational level Primary or Junior Matriculation and ------Basic above M F M F M F M F M F Urban .. 7,187 5,826 5,821 5,596 543 137 745 91 78· 2 Rural ----43,860 38,736 37,163 38,017 3.732 528 2,731 182 234 9 Total .. 51,047 44.562 42,984 43.613 4,275 665 3,476 273 312 11 From the figures given in this table, the pe~ other occupations like cultivation, agricultural cent ages of literacy in urban and rural areas labour, 'other services' and working as minstrels were calculated to bt;l 12 ·26 and 8 ,98 respecti etc. Women and children also assist in splitting vely. the former is higher owing to the exi~tence bamboo into strips and splinters. Objects of of better educational facilities in urban areas. material culture prepared from bamboo are : Broadly speaking even less than one-tenth of the 'dallan' (baskets for carrying rubbish), 'topk;an' students entering 'Primary or Junior Basic' level (small containers for keeping chapatis), 'tokr" reached the 'Matriculation and above' as is evident (basket fOr carrying grain), 'peri' or 'peru' (storin~ from these figures. For a general low level of vessels), 'Changeran" (flat' type of baskets fOI literacy prevailing among them, poverty was re cleansing rice with water) 'chhikkas' (for coverin~ ported to be the main reason. The school-going mouths of oxen), 'kherian' also called 'sup' (win. age children start participating in the household nowing pan), 'kirnu' (for protecting the plant), industry with their parents so as to augment the 'chik' (blind), 'odian' (small baskets ·for keepin@ income of the household. grains, fruit etc.), 'gudki' (a small deep basket] 7. Economic Pursuits and 'chhatroo" (a sort of umbrella) 'bathrala' (a Primarily the Dumnas were found to be en big basket for storing rice). The different varie gaged in their traditional bamboo work, but ties of bamboos used for preparing the abOve arti presently they are also striving to pursue cles are locally known as 'magar' bamboo, 'mauri' 41 bamboo, 'haunt/oo' bamboo, 'phaglu' bamboo, For making various articles, they avoid cut 'nal' bamboo and at the time of survey they were ting bamboo on Friday, Saturday, and Monday reported to be locally available at a price ranging and during the 'panchak' (five days of the month from Re. 1 to Rs. 2 per bamboo. Facilities which are said to be inauspicious). The like an organised market for the sale of their informants expressed the view that this craft was products hardly exist in hilly areas. Custo hardly lUcrative now and consequently the marily, these craftsmen supply their products younger generation was losing interest in it. to the agricultural households and in return receive one maund of grain at the harvest time Menibers of this community in Atnritsar District besides free meals on marriages in the house- were reported to be minstrels and also acting as holds. The important tools/implements used messengers, 'laggia' (attendants) to their respective for the bamboo industry are mentioned below:- 'jajmans' (patrons) from whom they get a six- Darato-It is a sort of big sickle to cut the monthly payment partly in cash, but mainly in bamboos from the land. the form of grains. They also beg alms. They Chako-It is a big knife to split the bamboos are glad in panegyrising or lampooning the indi- into strips and splinters. vidual in order to extract some money from the Guhr-It is a big and sharp iron piece for person. The trend of the economic pursuits of knitting the strips and splinters together. the community is revealed from their break-up by Lehni-It is a thin bamboo rule to smoothen industrial categories as recorded in 1961 census the pieces of strips and make them plain. which is furnished in the table below ;- TABLE Status Total Total workers As Cultivators As Agricultural Labourer p M F M F M F M F ---- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ------Rural 82.596 43.860 38,736 23,860 4.258 3.885 1,391 4,780 230 Urban 13.013 7,187 5,826 3.942 251 73 2 104 2 ~~~- -~------~- Total 95.609 51.047 44,562 27.802 4.509 3.958 1,393 4.884 232 ------III IV V VI vn -- -- In Mining. Quarrying, At Household Industry Yn Manufacturing other In Construction In Trade aud Livestock. Forestry, than Household Commerce Fishing, Hunting and Industry Plantation Orchards and Allied Activities M F M F M F M F M F ~ ---~ .. - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ~--~-- 384 41 4.042 2,159 701 65 418 198 7 56 173 93 712 75 168 2 161 2 440 41 ,,215 2,252 1,413 140 586 2 359 9 ~-~-~---- VIII Worker in special occupations IX ------X In Transport, Storage In Other Services Non-workers Tanning and CurrY/nk Scavenging and Communication of Hides and Skins ----- M F M F M F M F M F 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 580 8,872 364 20.000 34,478 29 2 25 23 606 1,889 75 3,245 5.575 3 4 ------14 4 1,186 10,761 439 23,245 40.053 32 6 39 27 42 A glanpe at the census data reveals that out of milk for 5 days. After the birth of the child, 95,609 persons, 32,311 were recorded as workers 'kuth' (costos) is rubbed on stone and applioo or in other words 33 ·79 per cent of their popu on the nose of the child. lation constitutes the working force. 13 ·95 At the time of birth mustard oil is boiled it} per cent of fhe working force constitutes the a frying Pan with the belief to ward off evil spirits femalt.s, which shows that their women folk from the house. Leaves of 'sanspayan' (a local also lend a hand in augmenting the income of wild plant) or 'siris' (Albizzia lebek) and flowers the househOld. 3f1. ·04 per cent and 32 '22 per are tied to the door to announce the birth of a cent of their respective populaticns in rural son and also to ward off evil spirits. The child and urban areas constitute the working force is given tbe bath on the same day. 'Naroo Molia' frpm whicb it is apparent that the proportion is the ceremony associated with the disposal of of working force in lural and UI ban areas is placenta and umbilical cord. The '71aroo' nearly equal. Break-up of 66 '21 per cent non (umbilical cord) is cut with a sickle. A portion workers into categories has not been indicated. of the 'narDo' is tied to the neck of the child WitIl A deeper insight into tlle ~ensus data reveals tbe help of a thread. When it dries and breaks, the structure 1)f the working force. Maximum the thread is taken away from the neck. Part of proportion, i.~., 11'71 per cent of the total popula umbilical cord is preserved and whenever the tion Or 34 ·66 per cent of tM working force was child falls sick, the cord is rubtJed on stone and recorded to be engaged in the category of 'other applied on the aching portion. Th.e placenta services'. The next important categorY of and the otber portion of the umbilical cord is industrial classification is their 'household indus buried on the house premises by the mid-wife. trY' in which 6 ·76 per cent of th~ total popu The mid-wife gets one rupee and the sickle witt) lation or 20 ·01 per cent of the workers are re which 'naroo' is cut, as ber remuneration. corded to be engaged. 5 '60 per cent of tbeir population Or 16 ·56 per cent of the workers It is believed that if any issueless wo~.an eats ale recorded to be engaged in 'cultivation'. a part of the 'narDo' , she would start bearing 5 '35 per ce.nt 0 f their population, or 15 ·83 per children, while the women whose child's 'naroo' cent of the working force constitutes those of has been\ eaten would stop bearing children in the 'agricultural labourers'. FeWer number of future and for this reason the placenta and 'naroo' persons were recorded in other categories of is buried on the premises. industrial classification as shown in the table. 'Sootak' (pollution) is observed for J ~ days From among the workers, a few Were recorded to during which the parturient remains inside the be engaged 'in special occupations' like, 'tanning house and avoids entering the kitchen. Afier and currying of bides and skins' and 'scavenging' this period tbe mid-wife is given a shirt and rupees etc. as shown in tbe table. two to five. She is also given rice equal to 8. Life Cycle the weight of the chUd on the first day_ The birth of a child may occur either in its 'Guntar' is the ceremony related with the father's house or mother's house. For pre-nata] purificatory bath by the parturient. After tbe care, some old wom.en from 'the house or near observance of'Sootak' for 13 days, the mother is kinswom~n attend to the expectant mother. administered bath and allowed to move. The She is fed on 'karah' (sweet porridge) till she gives rOoms of the house are smearec:l with cow-dung. birth to the child. Aniseed, thym.eseed 'itaichi', Jaggery and grains are distributed to the caste ginger and jaggery are consumed by her. After brethren and incense is burnt in the house. A the birth of tbe child the parturient is given big 'rote' (loaf or sweet chapati) and 'karah' 'giri' (cooonut), 'chhuara' (dry dafe fruit) and (sweet porridge) is prepared and offered to the 43 deity'dewat Sidh'. The relatives are also invited when a girl reaches PUbelty, she is given ghee and to a feast. With the performance of this pudding to eat on her first menstruation. Durin£ ceremony pollution is believed to have ended. menstruation period, she is tabooed to enter the The mother and the child Wear new clothes. The kitchen and neither she changes clothes nor takes clothes worn by the mother and the child are bath. Such practices are rarely reported from given to the mid-wife. The child is not taken Amtitsar District. outside the house for 40 days during which Among the Dum,nas ill Kangra District, som~ period, water, iron, mustard seeds, and Ching' exogamous social units have been reported, namely, (asafoetida) are kt,pt under the mother's cot. Chanauria, Babd and Nania1. Rose has reported Father's sister brings' kangan' (silver bangles for about their clans as, "Th"ir clans are Kalotra, the wrists) and a few clothes for the child and in Manglu, Pargat, Drahe, and Lalotra" (Rose- return chUd's father also offers her some clothes. 1911-p. 250). For regulating marriage, the 'Ram Jhunjnu' (birth SOllgS)are sung by the females clans of the spouses are scrutinised and on this occasion. they are required to be different for' After about a week of 'Guntar', another similar ceremony called 'Panjap' is performed. Tbe establishing the matrimonial alliances. Cross rolatives bring new clothes for the child. The cousin and parallel cousin marriages are prohi mother and the child put on new clothes after bited. ~egotiation is the usual mode of taking a bath. From this day onward, she starts acquiring the mate but marriage through participating in household duties. A feast is exchange is also prevalent. arranged for the members of the community. 'Sewar' (Betrothal) . On this day the local 'pandil' is consulted for naming the child who suggests to the parents Traditionally it has been the practice, that some rames, from which the palents select one the parents of the boy start looking for a girl name of their choice. In Amritsar District the within a certain radius. When some suitable ohild is named according to the Sikh scriptures. girl comes to their notice, the father of the boy The ehild is taken to the 'Gurtlwara' (Sikh Shrine) approaches the girl's father with two-three caste and Guru Oranth Saheb is recited at random and elders or relatives. They bring 'bhuji" (fried up the first letter of the Shabad(maxim) is selected as vegetables, pulse, curd and a basketful of chapatis) the first lettar of the name. Some c{)ins and along with them. The party requests the gIrl'S sweets are offered in the shrine. father to engage his daughter with the boy. The In Kangra District it was reported that 'Jamalu' caste brethren at the girl's place are invited to (tonsure) ceremony is performed after the child is partake the food of boy's party. 21 years ·old. The barber or maternal uncle of the child usually cuts tIle bead hair of the child. After sometime the boy's party revisits the The ceremony may be performed either at house of the girl and again take along with them home or at 'devi's' temple in Kallgra . 'Timo/' food and meat so as to give a feast to the caste brethren at girl's place. At this occasion they which is a remun~ration consisting of Re Ii and 3 yards of cloth is given to the barber. The also bring a dozen basketfuls of wheat, some maternal uncle presents golden ear-rings to the quantity of 'batashas' (sugar puffs), and two child in order to ward off evil spirits. The sister seers of oil to be presented to the girl. One or of the child applies 'tilak' (sectarian mark) at the two ornaments and a few outfits of clothes are forehead of the child and ties a turban on its head also offered to the girl. Bride-price was reported and in return she receives rupees five and some to exist and its monetary value ranged from olothes. Rs. 300 to Rs. 1,000 which is also paid at this Sex and marriage occasion. This ceremony is locally termed as In Kangra Distriot the Dumnas reported that 'kurmai' or 'chhoti shadi'. 44 During the present enquiry- a change from takes place, in which money, c1othes, and dry the tra(litional 'pattern was observed to be taking fruits are presented to the groom by the relatives. place. It was reported that the rigid traditional He is made to sit outside on a matting or carpet norms are loosening and cases are met where while the members of the community are served initiative for negotiation has been taken by either with 'bhal' (rice and pulse), At the time of de side. parture of the 'barat' the groom's elder brother's wife applies collyrium (antimony) or lamp black Regarding the age at marriage, the perusal of th.e 1961 census data reveals that in the age to his eyes, and pours some oil at his feet. Groom's group (0··-14) years out of 21,495 boys and 19,068 mother's brother's wife dresses his hair after girls, 72 males and 387 females were recorded applying oil. The marriage procession is led as married which indicates that early marriage by an orchestra of musicians consisting of'snehnai existed among thein though the number of such (clarion) players and drum beater. 'Torna' unions was small and it further reveals that girls ceremony is performed in which the groom and are married at a comparatively lower age than the members of the 'barar' are made to pass under the boys. In Amritsar District early marriage a 'lorna' (gate) made of bamboo poles covered was hardly reported. The marriage date is fixed with red cotton thread and yellow clothes. When by the local Brahman priest. According to the the marriage party has gone a few yards the Dumna informants of Kangra District the months groom's mother runs to give her breasts to be of , Biz adon' (August-September) and 'Chel' (March sucked by the groom. A similar ceremony is April) are considered to be inauspicious. Pre observed at the time of departure of the bride parations for marriage usually start one month from her home for the groom's house. Groom's before the due date. The marriage functionaries party also takes along with them a goat, rice, abd as musicians, barber, 'lhewar' etc. are contacted wine to be served to their own party and bride's in advance to discharge their functions at the relatives. The groom is generally ~eated on a occasion. mare and other members of the 'baral' follow on foot. When the 'baral' reaches bride's village, Seven days before the marriage the girl's it is given a warm reception by the bride's father mother's brother and other members of his family and other relatives. Bride's father gives a turban bring 'chhak' which consists of 4 logs of wood, to the groom's father and helps him tie it. They bedding, cot, i maund of rice, 5 seers of pulse embrace each 'Other and offer rupee one each by and one goat, which is a sort of help to meet partly doing 'sarwarna' (moving ill a circular way the marriage expenditure. On the day of de over the head) to be given to the accompanying parture of 'baral' (marriage procession), 'batana' musicians. Dinner is served at night. A 'chowk' (an abstergent paste prepared from mustard oil, (quadrangle) is prepared with flour around which turmeric powder and flour) is rubbed on the four stJcks are fixed in the earth and a red body of the bride by her mother's brother's wife cloth is tied on it. A stool is arranged under with a view to giving a shine to the complexion. it for seating the couple. This is cane:! 'bedi' After thi~ she takes bath. Similarly the 'batana' The priest lights' the 'havan' (sacred fire) and fire paste is rubbed on the body of the groom. The offerings are made with the chanting of 'mantras' family deity 'Dewal Sidh' is also worshipped (hymns). The bride and the groom are made to on this day. 'Tel sand' ceremony is also per circumambulate seven times round .the sacred formed at the groom's house on the day of de fire and the Brahman reads out vedic scriptures. parture of 'barat'. Tn this ceremony mustard oil In Amritsar District the marriage. is reported to is poured on the head of the boy and sO!lle coins be conducted according to the Sikh scriptures and are placed in the oil. These coins are taken away the ceremony is popularly called 'Anand Karaj'. by the ·pandit'. After this, the 'timol' ceremony Tn case a 'Granthi' (Sikh priest) is not available, 4S marriage rites correspond to those described above. the ntual performed in the midway where the The Brahman gets some money as 'dakshillo' hearse is placed in the ground and axe blows (charity). Traditionally the 'barat' used to stay are given on the ground on all the four directions at bride's house for 4 days; but these days groom's of the bier. Women hardly attend the funeral party departs with the bride and dowry on the procession upto the cremation ground. The next day after taking the lunch. The bride is eldest son or some other near kin carries a burn seated in the 'doli' (palanquin). When the ing wooden stick. A pyre of wood is prepared 'doli' reaches the groom's house, women of the in the cremation ground to which twigs of 'chandan' household and neighbouring area receive the wood are at times added. The corpse is placed couple. The family deity is worshipped and a on the pyre and the eldest son or the near kin sets goat is butchered and meals are served to the it on fire. When the corpse is fully ablaze, the members of the party. After a day the bride is skull is cracked with the stroke of a pole and the sent back to her father's house. With these performance is called 'Kapa{ Kirya'. The ashes rituals etc. the marriage bond is reported to be are collected on the 4th day, which are either sent strengthened. to the Ganges river for immersion or thrown in some gorge. 'Ghar Phera' (final home coming of the bride) Other post mundane practices reported in is the ceremony when after some period ranging Kangra District include lighting of lamps on the from weeks to months the groom goes to bride's place of 'rakh' for ten days following the death. house with bread and other eatables and brings On the tenth day the head of the son is shaved the bride with him to his house. and clothes are washed. Mourners continue Death Rites and Beliefs visiting the house upio the thirteenth day, and are served with bhat (rice) and dal (Pulse). Death is believed to be caused both by physical 'Patak' (pollution) is observed for l3 days. During and mental ailments as well as by poltergeists this period usually the sister of the head of the and other magical influences. The dead below household prepared meals which are served only three years are buried and those above this age once a day. During this period taking of meat are burnt. Persons who die of smallpox are is prohibited. Purificatory rit~s consist in also buried. The death of a person is announced, cleansing the house with a paste of cow~dung by loud shrieks by the members of the family of and mud. At this occasion a goat is butchered the deceased. A messenger goes around to call and a community feast is arranged. The post the near kins and other aguates living in the mundane oblations made by the head of the house neighbourhood. They usually bring 'kaffan' hold to the priest consist of an umbrella, a cot, (shroud) and Re.O ·25 to Re. 1 each. The corpse a fan, a sheet of cloth, and two or three utensils is given the final bath and wrapped in 'kaff~n' and their efficacy is believed in providing some which is usuaJIy red or white depending If it is of the necessities of the deceased in the life after of female or male respectively. The corpse is death. After a year 'barsi' (first anniversary) not cremated after the sunset. Some coins and after four years 'chawarkhi' (fourth anni are placed in the mouth of the deceased. 'Ganga versary) are performed at which relatives partake jal (Ganges water) is sprinkled on the body of lunch with the members of the household and the deceased. 'Murdani' (bier) is prepared from again offer a few utensils to the priest. bamboo poles and the corpse is placed on it. The clothes of the deceased are placed on the bier 9. Religious beliefs and practices and the 'kaffan' brought by the relatives is put The informants in Kangra district reported on the corpse. The face of the deceased is nor that they believe in the super powers of all the mally kept towards the west and the hearse is gods and goddesses of Hindu pantheon. They thus carried to the cremation ground. 'Ralch' is the are chiefly Shaivites, and venerate Lord Shiva as their chief deity. "Dewat Sidh' and 'Nllg Devta' in cases of curing snake bite. The clay is also or 'Gugga' are the' important gods on the upper given to the members of the household as 'parsad' steps of hierarchy of gods. Goddess Bhagwati, (sanctified food). Some portion of the clay is Ajya'pal, Seetla Devi are also worshipped. Lord dissolved in water and sprinkled on the house Shiva is worshipped on the occasion of Shi vratri premises with which is associated the belief that in the month of 'Chaitra' (March). The adult it would prevent snakes from entering the house. members of the household observe fast on this day. Bhagwati Devi is propitiated by offering In the evening a white flower of a local 'barah' sweet 'rote' (chapati) weighing a quarter seer tree is hung from the ceiling with a cord and the on Sundays and Tuesdays during Chaitra. ground floor below the flower is smeared with a paste of cow-dung and mud. Flowers of Ajyapal is offered grain, pudding and a different varieties, rice, ghee, curd, milk and 'rote' at the harvests. It is believed that if the other food preparations etc. are placed on the deity is not propitiated by offering grains of new cleansed floor, whose boundary is already marked crops the malevolence is manifested in destruc with a solution of turmeric and some sour tion of new crops with excessive rains and hail solution. They propitiate the deity by prost storms. rating before these things, and pay obeisance after this. When the hanging flower naturally Seetla (goddess of small pox) is worshipped swings towards the right it is believed to be aus to safeguard the children from the disease. Sweet 'rote' (chapati), pudding and rice is offered to picious' and If it swings towards the left, it is be lieved to be inauspicious and in the latter case the deity on every Tuesday of Jaishtha and Asadha (May-June). they invoke the deity's mercy so as to avert the befallin,g misfortune which is feared by them. 'Parian' are worshipped particularly by Dewat Sidh is believed to be a malevolent women. There is 'Achhrakund' (tank of Achhran) near Kangra where women have a dip. In the deity. To mollify the deity 'ehelas' (sorcerers) vicinity there is also a temple where the pilgrims are contacted at whose advice a he-goat is usually offered at the deity's shrine. Incense is burnt offer coins of money and clothes, which are col before a stone upon which is inscribed the figure lected by the 'pujari' (functionary priest) attached to the temple. of Dewat Sidh. The members of the household pay obeisance to the deity by having a grass The informants in Amritsar Dist rict reported rope "in their necks and 'dhrub' grass in their that t~ey have faith in Sikh Gurus and their tenets mouths. 'Rote' (sweet loaf) is offered to the and venerate Guru Granth Saheb at their birth deity. and marriage ceremonials. 'Nag Devta' is worshipped on all Saturdays They celebrate important festivals liKe Dussehra, of the month of 'Sawana' (July-August). 'Nag Diwali, Holi, Baisakhi, Lohti, Rakhi. Sagrand melas' (fairs commemorating god of snakes) of 'Bhadon' (August-September) locally 'Called are held" on these Saturdays' near Rani- Tal and as 'Sail' in Kangra District is celebrated with some other places. In the temple of Nag there enthusiasm. 'Chhalli' (cob of maize), cucumber, is placed a sto"ne on which the line drawing of guava and stalk of rice are placed on the pre a snake is- carved. Grains of wheat and coins of mises of the house. The local 'nai' (barber) comes money are offered to the deity and the devotees to 'Officiate at this ritual and the membel"S of the prostrate before the deity. "From near about the household prostrate before the things and a sh_rine they get 'Chik 41 mitti' (clay soil) and a prayer is offered in the name of God. The barber thread. The thread is worn round the neck collects the things and also receives some money and the clay is preserved in the house and used as his remuneration. The meals are also served 41 at this occasion. The informants in Amritsar a person carrying a pot of water or meals is believed District reported that they celebrate 'gurpurbs' in to be an auspicious sign towards the fulfilment of the memory of Sikh Gurus. According to 1961 purpose. census data 50,781 males and 44,375 females were recorded to be Hindus, 266 males and 187 females However in Amritsar District the informants re as Sikhs both in rural and urban areas in Punjab. ported that such prejudices or superstitions Apart from the above mentioned beliefs and have been renounced by them. practices, there have been reported to be observed 10. Social Status some prejudices and superstitions by the Dumnas in Kangra District though hidebound to a lesser In social status Dumnas rank in the lower middle extent than in the past. The most common zone of social hierarchy of scheduled castes. They prejudices and superstitions are mentioned be are reported nearly equal in status to Batwal, low:- Bhanjra, Dagi, Koli, Sanhai. Sansi, Daole or (1) Bamboo is avoided to be cut on Friday, Dauli, and higher than Barad, Dhaya. Gagra, Saturday and Monday and during 'Panchak' Bangali, Chuhra and Gandhila who are reported (certain five inauspicious days in a month). to rank in the lowest zone of hierarchy of castes. (2) Hooting of a jackal is considered to be an They are considered to be much lower in social ill omen which is thought to be an indication of status than Brahman, Baniyas, Kashtryas, Jats death of a person suffering from any disease. the so called clean castes and slightly lower than Ghiraths. Lohars, Tarkhans. Minor variations (3) If a dying person at his last breath happens also exist from place to place in the hierarchy to see a dog, he is believed to take birth after death described above. They have been suffering from in the species of dog. social disability, which is still rampant at certain places in hilly areas where they have their separate (4) If a person is ill and a doctor is to be called, 'bowaries' (sources of drinking water fed by na the persons sent to call the doctor are even in tural springs) and they are conditioned to avoid number. An odd number of person going to entering the circumscribed portions of the kitchens call a doctor is believed to prolong illness or of Swarnas. Untouchability is on the wane these patient's life is exposed to danger. days. Previously the Dumna was treated like a (5) If the left eye of a person suddenly feels Chuhra. They are considered to be lower in jerks, it is considered to be an ill omen. In social status than Gaddis. They receive cooked order to stop it the person concerned spits over a food from the castes superior in social status bamboo twig and then waves it over the eye. to them; but only uncooked food articles from the castes lower to them. They can sparingly go (6) If the person commencing a journey comes to the idols in temples of the so called high caste across a Nai (barber), Brahman, village headman Hindus, whereas they can go to a Gurdwara (Lamberdar), a person carrying fuel wood, a Sahib (Sikh shrine) without any inhibition. snake, it is considered advisable to postpone the journey or wait for a moment as unusual hap Regarding their day to day· behavoural aspect, penings are likely to occur enroute otherwise. it has been reported that they have a submissive attitude before the persons of the so called upper (7) Sneezing or a call from behind at the castes. A Dumna usually sits on the ground ra startmg of a journey is believed to be an ill omen. ther than on the cot when a person of upper caste The journey is either postponed or delayed for comes to him for anything and listens to him sub an interval so as to avoid imaginary evil happenings missively. In Kangra District it was observed cnroute. to be ··a behavoural trait that a Dumna is in the (8) Sipt of Bhangi with a basketful of rubbis}?. habit of moving his hand towards his thigh in order to highlight .his point during the, course of to the community panchayat is made unanimousI) conversation, with another person. When he on the occasion of some marriage or other som~ meets a person of an upper caste coming from the such social function when persons from different opposite direction, he usually detours from the vilI~ges in the area get together . The caste Viay towards the Jeft side, as a mark of respect. panchayat is vested with powers by the Baradr, In his own household, the head is respected most. to decide all sorts of cases ranging from civil to The social and economic status of woman is re criminal. Parties in a dispute are summoned garded inferior to the man ,and sometimes through a messenger and then the caste panchayat she gets thrashing in case she goes against her convenes its xp.eeting. Proceedings are conductec husbano's 'wiil. A newly' wed bride' custo in open. Precedents are cited and witnesses marily observes 'purdah' (veil) from her ~re heard.· The assessors try to arrive at a d~cisioh husband's father and other elderly males. through general consensus, which is pron~)Unced verbally on the spot, keeping in view the caste Elderly women are' respected by the young~r ones sanctions and norms. The parties usually respect and similarly elder brother is resp~cted by his younger brother. the dt!cision of' the panchayat and thinking of further proceedings is rare. If a party challenges 11. Social control the caste panchayat's decision, it may approach 'a For smooth functioning of the caste and main court of law ; but the appellant loses further support from the community panchayat. The wrong d{ler taining social cohesion among its members, 'is either ostracized or fined upto Rs 100. I?umnas have caste panchayats on regional It was reported that presently importAnce of the pattern. Tenure of office of an¥ member is -traditional caste panchayat was on the declin~. neither fixed nor herer;litary, The members of the panchayat are generally elderly persons and wield Jurisdiction of a caste panchayat usually extends influence and if the performance of any to a radius of 15-20 miles 'and its members are member is un~atisfactory, he is liable to expulsion selected from various villages scattered in that from the body of the panchayat. The~r selection area: 49 FOR FURTHER READING Crooke, W. Dom The Tribes and Castes of N. W. P. & Oudh Calcutta, 1896-Vol.II-pp. 312, 340,342. Dom Mirasi The Tribes and Castes ofN. W. P. & Qudh Calcutta, 1896-Vol. Ill-pp. 496-497. Dalton, E.T. Doms Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal Calcutta-I872 p.326 (Reprinted 1960) p.314 Randhawa. M.S. .. Dums Farmers of India, Vol. 1. 1959-p.242 Rose, H.A. Dom, Domb, Domra A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the 'Punjab and North-West Frontier Province, Vol. II-1911-p. 247 Rose, H.A. Dum, Dumna A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab North-West Frontier Province, Vol. II-I911-pp.249-250 Russell, R. V. & The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces ofIndia 1916-Vol. I, p. 361 Vol. III, Hira LaI p.336, Vol. IV, p. 215 Sherring, M.A. .. Dom: Hindu Castes and Tribes as represented in Benaras Cal. 1872-Vol. II-p. 8,158 Vol. III-p.64 Ibbetson, D.C. ., Dum and Mirasi Report on the Census of Punjab. ISSI-pp. 289-290. Ibbetson, D.C. ., Dumna Report on the Census of Punjab l88l-p. 338 Ibbetson. D.C. ., Dumnas and Chuhras Report on the Census of Punjab-18Sl-p. 314 Maclagan, E.D. Dumna Census of India 1891 Punjab and its Feudatories Part I, Report p. 299. Kaul, H.IC. Dumna (Domra) Census of India 1911-Punjab Part I. Report, Vol. XIV-1912-p.454 Khan, M.M. ., Dum Census of India, 1911, Vol. XX. Kashmir, Part I, Report, Lucknow. 1912, pp. 86. 221. Ft. Anant Ram and Doom Raina, Hira Nand Census of India. 1931. J&K " Voll XXIV, Part I-Report, pp.320-321 Sirdar, Arjan Shah Dumna Singh Census Report of Patiala State 1931, p. 201 Khan, A.H.K. Dumna Census of India 1931, Punjab, Part I~Report, Vol. XVII, pp. 337~338 Turner, A.C. Dam Census of India 1931 United Provinces of Agra and Qudh Part T, Repart·1933. p.556 Anand, R.L. Dumna, Mahasha or Doom Census of India, 1961, Vol. XIII. Pb., Part Y-A AN BTHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON GAGRA A SCHEDULED CASTE IN PUNJAB CONTENTS Pagu 1. Identity 55 2. Population Distribution 55-56 3. Dwellings, Dress and Hygienic Habits 56 4. Food Habits 56-57 5. Bducation and Literacy 57 6. Occupation and Bconomlc Pursult. 57-58 7. Life Cycle 58-59 8. Religion and Social Status ~9 9. Social Control ibid 10. For Further Reading 61 GAGRA 1. Identity of neighbouring communities. The house holds under study, were reported to be the mig According to President's 'Scheduled Castes rants from Pakistan who traditionally foIlow the ani Sch~duled Trib~s Lists (Modification) Order. occupation of catching, keeping and apply ng 1956' Gagra is treated as a SCheduled Caste leeches and 'singis' (h<...rns), and also deal in the Q,nly in Punjab. Their population in the State preparation of winnowing fans from reeds. They is sparse and only an insignificant number. i.e., were reported to be ranking low, like Balm!kis/ 31 persons Were reil rned aCCording to 1961 Chuhras in Social Status. They were repvrted Census figures. A rapid survey was Conducted to be leading a semi-n(·madic life; as seasonally in early sixties, when a couple of househvlds they go for game and collecting material for Were reported to be traced in district Hoshiarpur. preparing winnuwing fans, and their women Prom t he enquiries it appears that Gagra was partially beg. Information about origin and probably a Muslim caste, though svme Hindus history is lacking. were returned as Gagras. According to previous census records, it has been recorded as a low 2. Population Distribution. caste, who catch worms and other insects. "Heredi ary occupation in catching, keeping The populatiqn of the C(.mmunity is highly and applying leeches" (C.I.1931-Patiala-p.2l0). sparS ed, and they were returned only 31 persons, At present they are familiarly known by another i.e., 13 males and 18 females throughout the regional generic name 'Jukeru' (one who applies State giving thereby a sex-ratio of 1,385 females leeches). The members of the cvmmunity under per 1000 males. They were returned only fr(!m study returned themselves as 'Chhajwala' (one the seVen districts, and the sexwise distribut:on who deals in winnowing fans) whereas they are of the community is furnished below both with known as Gagra or 'Jukeru' among members respect to rural and urban areas : Population as per 1961 Census Serial Name of District No. Persons l\:1ales Females Ambala (R) (U) 5 4 2 Kangra (R) 1 1 (U) 3 Hoshiarpur (R) 8 3 S (U) 4 lullundur (R) 2 2 (U) 5 Ferozepur (R) (U) 6 3 3 6 Amritsar (R) (U) 3 2 7 Sangrur (R) 6 5 (U) Total 31 13 18 (Source: 1961 Census dEl. ta). Th' p,rugal of h'! Ce~~us data from the above table reveals that Gagtas are concentrated more in rural areas than fu urban areas. 56 lfurther more a table giving age distribution of the males and females is furnished below :- Males Percentage Females Percentage Total Percentage (0-14) 7 41'75 9 56 ·25 16 51 :61 (15-44) 4 30 ·71 9 69 ·23 13 41 ·94 (45 and abo\'e) 2 100·00 2 6'45 Total 13 41·94 18 58·06 Ioo·OO It appears from., the table tha,t there is a protect them from rains. During heavy rains surplus of. females, in the age-g~oup (15--44) they take shelter eithe~ in some public places or years, and on the other hand ,in ~he elderly segment verandah~ of houses of private persons. These of population, i.e., in the age-group (45 and huts serVe for accommodating the members of above) ,there are only two males without their the household and keeping the other articles of female counterparts. There is preponderance daily life. The hearth is made by erecting two of infants, children, boys and Cirls as compared bricks or stones outside the hut. The cooking to the persons of the yo:ung and elderly segments utensil is called 'handia' which serves the purpose of population, i.e., in 'the age-groups. (15-44) of COoking Vegetable. 'dal' (pulse) or meat. The and (45 and above). surrounding of the hut appears to be dirty and they haldly care for clean hygieniC habits. They 3. DweiJing, Dress and Hygienic Habits were observed to be wearing dirty and torn clothes, either begged or purchased second hand N)rmally the members of the community ones. They rarely clean their teeth and fhe use of erect their huts outside the village or town soap is also considerably low. habitat in the open space. As they have been 4. Food Habits foIloViing a semi-nomadic way of life, they make temporary buts and dism .ntle them when leav They are non-vegetarians. Cereals 'like 'ing· for other places. The huts or shelters are wheat, maize, rice form their staple food. It erected by stretching old rags and sheets of cloth was reported that they also hunt wild animals on the bamboo bows, thus representing a semi and birds like lizards. frogs, tortoises. iguanas, cylindrical appearance suppoued on bamboo jackals, fish, pigeons, partridges. Por catching poles on either side. These huts serve the purposes the gam~ tl_1ey keep hounds, and nets. aeef is of protCQliDS. asainst the IUD, but can 'hardly abjured; Vthereas, meat of sheep and goat, .is S7 onsumed. Liquor is said to be consumed at 'nee/sar' cow, which they procure from hunters. marriages. The '&ingi' is applied to suck the impurities in large quantity by first plicking the skin with a 5. Education and Literacy sharp razor. The 'singi' is placed with its base ACCQrding to 1961 census figures out of a on the part of body from where poisonous bloo"d total of 31 persons, only 2 persons have been is to, be sucked. Then the air inside the 'singi' returned as literates among them giving tbereby is sucked with the mouth through the narrow a percentage of literacy as 6.45 against 9.64 aperture, so as to create vacuum inside the among the Scheduled castes as a whole in Punjab. 'singi' and then the apert ure is closed "ith wax It is to be noted that there was only one male applied with t6ngu·e. After some interval, it literate with primary or junior basic standard is picked up and tbe poisonoub blood is thrown and' also there was only one female literate with away. Their household industrY consists of O.nt educational level, and both of them were preparation of articles like winnowing fans, from urban area. These people pal ticularly baskets, mats, ropes, brooms and chicks from in the rural area hardly showed any interest of reeds and grass. Both men and women go to educating their children, which was due partly sell Chese articles from village to Village. The to poverty, ignorance on the part of parents women folk also help in t he preparation of Such and the semi-nomadic way of life. articles. It was reported that some of the males have started carrying over to jobs like cultiVa 6. Occupation and Economic Pursuits tion with other farmers; construction wo rks As already mentioned, they lead a semi etc. Some of their men were reported to be nomadic way of life. For catching the leeches, committing petty thefts, while their Vlomen were they have to go to village ponds, riVer or a reported to be lax in sexual matters. It was marshy place where the leeches are expected. reported that yo unger generation is losing For catching the leeches, first they apply the interest in the traditional cccnpation, as it js blood of a he-goat to their legs, and then stand in becoming uneconomic due to rising prices and knee deep water. The leeches from within the advancement in medical researches. An idea water, come to suck the blood and s~ick to the of such a trend can be had from the break up of legs. They are removed from the legs and are community by industrial categories as recorded pressed with fingers to squeeze out the blood in 1961 census. so sucked. TIley are then tamed in an earthen According to 1961 census data, out of 31 pot in damp environment inside it by putting persons 13 were recorded as workers, i.e., about some aand and water into it. The leeches are 42 per cent of the population of the community applied to an ailing or aching portion of the body constitutes the working force. SeX-wise break or on an ulcer on the body in order to get rid up of the working force reVeals that 8 out of the of the poisonous substance or foreign element 13 males and 5 out of the 18 females were re in the blood. The leech sucks the impure blood corded as workers. In rural area out of 17 and swells itself. The leech is again pressed to persons, 9 persons (4 males+5 females) were squeeze out the sucked blood and it is again returned as workers, whereas in urban area oul preserved in the earthen pot. To perform the of 14 persons (8 males+6 females), only 4 males same function they have another improvised were recorded as workers, which shows that in sort of contrivance called 'singi' (horn), which is rural area their working force constitutes more hollow from inside and has a narrow aperture than 50 per cent, but in urban area it is lesser at the apex. Such type of 'sing;' is said to be than 30 per cent. From these figure.s we obserVe prepared from the horns of a loc&111y called that there is considerable difference jn the COfreS- pondina plJ,tticipation. rate or. \lorking force regulating OlArriage \tell they hardLy set utinize in rural anCl urban areas. Break up of 18 non 'galra' or clan about -which they had ratherj worke~ among them, with respect. to any ac~ivi- , expressed i6norance. Cross-cousin and' p~r~l1ell ties have no'~ been indicated separately in census cousin marriages were reported to be prohlblted' i da tao tho ugh sucJl persons are supposed to Bride price was reported to exist. but its tradi· include children, o·ld and disabled persons and tional amount could not 'be ascertained. beggars, etc. Further insight into the figures Regarding the age at marriage 1961 cenuss reveals t he structure of the' working force. Out data rev~als that in the age-group (0::-14) years of a total of'13 (8 males+5 fem.ales) workers out of 16 boys and girls, 2 females were recorded 3 males Viere recorded to be engaged in cultiva as married, 'which suggests that in those days tion in rural area only. One male each m rural the~e existed early marriage to a certaIn extent. and urban area and S females in rural area, were In the a,.ge-group (15-44) years, ouf of 4 men and recorde~ to be engaged iii thei! household' in 9 women, 3 men and 8 women were married. dustry. Two males were record,ed to be engaged while i man and 1 woman each were recorded in construction wOTk in urban area.·only. Only as "never married'. In the elderly age-group 1 man was recorde4 dOIng other seryice in urban (45 and above), there were only 2 men wh,o were area; but the type of service could Dot be a.s recorded as marrIed. Non'e 'Yas ,reported to 'be certained. 'It is to oe noted that none of them divorced/separated or widowed. Out of a total was recorded to be engaged in special occupa of 31 persons, 8 males and 8 females were re tions like tanning and scavenging, etc. From corded as 'never married' whereas 5 males and 10 the c~nsus data it appears that their econe-my females were r~corded to be enjoying the married looms iargely on their househoJd industry, and life which s.uggesls tha.t there ~ere either soke wolking as cultivators. polygynous families among them or some of, the 7. Life Cycle male counterparts of married women had 'moved to the neighbouring States at the time of enumera On the Qccasion of child birth, a 'dai' (mid tion or s~nie married females had temporarily wife) who is usually an unqualified old women migrated to Punjab without their male counter of their own ca'ste or Balmik caste attends to the parts. The surplusage of married fema~es over enceinte. Some other women of the .community their male counterparts poses a difficulty to state were reported to assist the parturient regard definitely whether one or more than one of the ing the postnatal care of the new born and house~ above factors is responsible for such a trend. hold duties.. Pollution period was reported to be sparingly observed. An iron 'talisman' For soIe!11nization of marriages usually i_s put round, the neck of the new born with the the members of, 'dera' (encampment) of groom belief of safeguarding it from evil spirits. move 'to the 'dera.' of the bride. Priest and 'Ghungrus' (miniature bells) 'Of .silver w.ere also barber either of their own community or of reported to be worn by the child in its feet. for Chuliras officiates at their marriages as the decorative purposes. When the parturient is enquiries h.ad revealed. A community feast is able to move away from the bed a feast is given said to be arranged. by both the parties at bride's to the community's female children, and after house, where m~at, ric~, and liquor is consumed. this she starts doing the household activities. At t.he occasion of marriage 'ghoris' (ball ads) 'Mundan' (tonsure) is usually performed at are sung and their deities like Balmik, Dala Shah home but some may perform' it' at the temple of are said to be worshipped and "gugga' (god of lawalamukhi in Kangra District. serpents) is. propitiated and both the parties greet each other. After marriage both the . Caste eld,ers or relatives ac~ as g~betweens ,parties .start living ~djaceni to e,aoh oth~r; but fol' negotiating matrimonhii alliances, For the bride moves to the hui ortb" groom'~ father S9 which determine:. that the marriage it,. patri deities propitiated by them were reported to be local. A widow is allowed to remarry and Bala Shah, 'Gugga' (god of serpents) and goddess levirate is also permissible. It was reported that 'Jawa/amukhi' or 'Lattallwali devi', '" hose shrine the rules regarding marriage. divorce, remarriage, is reported in Kangra District. etc., are governed according to th~ traditional caste norms by the caste 'chaudhrfes'. All the Qagras were returut,.>d to be professing Dead infants and children are generally Hindu religion as the 1961 Census figures indi buried. The adults are cremated. Customarily catc. the persons in the household of the deceased observe mourning and pollution for the follow 9. Social Control ing ten days after death. A community feast was reported to be arranged on the eleventh day They have been maintaining their social which marks their purificatory rite and with which norms and group cohesion among its members is also said to be associated the belief of scaring through the traditional functioning of a statutory away the grief and sorrow. body of its own in the form of a caste panchayat to which the disputes and other matters concern 8. Religion and Social Status ing the caste are referred. It is through its Gagras reported that they are akin to the sanctions that law and order is maintained. Balmik/Chuhrasj but claimed to be of slightly Ordinary family disputes arc settled by the caste higher social status than the former in view of elders. For settling disputes, between different the fact that they neither lift night soil nor arc households. both inter-'dera' or intra-'dera' engaged as sweepers but according to the genera) caste meeting in the form of a panchayat con consensus both were reported to be nearly equal sisting of caste 'choudharis' and other members in social status and both have their position in is convened. Both the defendants and plain the lowest 7.one of social hierarchy. They have tiffs throw open their grievances and allegations against each other before the caste 'clzotldharls' been conditioned to live in segregated place~ who act as the assessors in the meeting. The away from the 'sfllamay' or twice·born caste'! '>tatements and evidences are given by taking ao and their entry to the Hindu temples has re mained barred, whereas entrance to a Sikh oath in the name of Balmik or Bala Shah. After listening to the statements of both parties and shrine has wU'lined oJ_).m to all irr~spective of other discu~sion of th::: trial they approach a the caste. However at present the shackle~ of decision through general consensus which is social disability wer~ reported to be loosening as compared to the traditional way of life, and advanced to the parties, to which they usually agre~. They rarely approach the law courts in social.distance is le35 rigidly observed though it the \tters of caste. The common types of was said to be alive at certain places. m punishments consist of inflicting some fine on As mentioned earlier, Balmik is rcgardeJ the defaulter, and he is made to apologise before as their chief deity, and they celebrate Balmik the caste m~mbers and the aggrieved party is Jayanti which generally falls in Asuj-Kartik paid some compensation by the defaulter. It is (October-November) and they worship Bllmik to b~ noted that the proceedings of the caste at their various rit,,-d~-passage Th". other are rar.:ly re~rdod. 61 FOR FURTHER READING Rose. H.A. (Comp.) Gagra A GlossarY of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province based on Census Report, Punjab 1883 by the la te Sir Denzil Ibbetson, and Census Report for Punjab, 1892. by Sir Edward Maclagan-Volume II-p. 273 Sllerring, M.A. Gagta Hindu Tribes and Castes as represented in Benaras-Vohlme 1I p. 239, Cal. 1872 Ibbetson. D.C. Gagra Report on the Census of the Punjab, 1881. Calcutta--1883--p. 313 Maclagau. E.D. Gagra Census of India, 1891, Volume XIX-Punjab and its Feudatories Pt.I., Report Cal. 1892-p. 301. Kaul, H.K.. Gagra Census ofIndia. 1911. Volume XIV-Punjab Pt. I Report. Labore 1912-p. 455 Singh, Arjan Shah Gagra Census of Patiala State, 1931-p. 210 Anand. R.L. Gagta Census of India, 1961-Volume XlII-Pb.• part V-A AN ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON GANDHILA OR GANDIL GONDOLA A SCHEDt)LED CASTE IN PUNJAB CONTENTS Pages 1. Incientlty 67-68 2. Population Distribution 68-69 3. Settlement and Dwellings 69-70 4. Dress and Ornaments 70 5. Food Habits Ibid 6. Language 70-71 7. EducatIon 71 8. Occupation and Other Economic Pursults 71-73 9. Life Cycle 73-75 10. Rellglon 75 11. SocIal Status Ibid 12. Social Control 75-76 13. References and Other BlbUography 77 67 GANDHILA OR GANDIL GONDOLA 1. Identity at Ludhiana have revealed that in the economic field they have occupational overlappings According to the Constitution (Scheduled and have professed ways of life which are Castes) Order, 1950 'Gandhila' was declared as common among other ethnic groups like Deha, a Scheduled Caste in the then Punjab and Pepsu Dhaya, or Dhea, Sansis Bhedkut or Manesh States and later according to the President's , Gagra etc. ; who are said to be nearly of the same Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956, Gandhila together social status as Gandhilas. However connubial with its synonym as 'Gandil Gondola' was relations with these ethnic groups were denied notified as Scheduled Caste throughout the by the informants in Momian village; whereas Punjab. However, this Caste is treated as commensal relations were reported to be exis ting to a considerable extent at both the centres denotified tribe both in the States of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh since the repeal of the Criminal of study. A similar position was also revealed Tribes Act. For the purpose of conducting an during an interview with a group of persons ethnographic study of Gandhilas two centres of generally called 'Bagri Sansis' in Amritsar, their main settlement, one in Ludhiana and who expressed the view by a local saying "barah another in Momian village in tahsil Samana in Jat Sansat" by which they meant that a Patiala District were visited in early sixties to dozen of castes are akin to Sansis ; and some collect data on the socio-economic facets of their of such ethnic groups mentioned were 'Gandhila' way of life. The total population of the 'Kutchband', 'Badhia', 'Dhaya', Batwal', 'Barar', community according to the 1961 census is 901 'Nat', and 'Bazigar' etc. It is to be noted that persons found to be thinly scattered in various commonness of ways of life among these ethnic districts of the state. Some of their clusters groups was reported to be more in the occupa were reported in Patiala and Ambala Districts. tional sphere. As mentioned by Ibbetson, As scanty data are available on this caste it is they clean and sharpen knives and swords. But dim cult to produce an exhaustive paper on it, cleaning and polishing of knives and swords is said yet it will be of great value to examine whatever to be the traditional occupation of 'Siqligar', bits of ethnographic information are available with another Scheduled Caste in Punjab as well as in some other states. Commensal and connubial a view to drawing up as clear a picture as possible for the reader. relations of Gandhila or Gandil Gondola with SiqIigar have hardly been established in this study. According to the 1931 census report of the It is to be noted that Gandhila is the popular then Patiala State, a reference to this caste was name of the community used for ethnic identi made as follows : "Gandhila are low caste people fication by the people; the caste members also of vagrant habits. Their occupation is begging admitted that this is the general nomenclature to though they make articles of straw and reed establish their ethnic identity. also". (C.I. 1931-Patiala p. 210). In the same year in Punjab the Gandhila was stated to be a About the etymological significance of the minor and untouchable caste with an unimpor name of the community it was reported that the tant numerical strength (C.I. Pb. p. 374 !'). name has probably been derived or evolved from Earlier to this, Ibbetson had stated "Gandhila 'gadhi (donkey) as traditionally they used to keep is a low vagrant tribe. They wander about donkeys for carrying their luggage and other bare-headed, bare~footed, beg, work in grass and household belongings from place to place. straw, catch quails, clean and sharpen knives and While writing on this community Maclagan has swords, cut wood and generally do odd jobs" said "A vagrant tribe : Also spelt Gadhela" (Ibbetson, 1881-p. 317). The studies conducted (Maclagan, 1891-p. 301). The enquiries have GS her. This led to a fight between Sedo's family also revealed that in the past, the members of their and the Rajput king. Sedo along with her brother community were involved in thefts and burglaries Sabbal Singh fought against the king very and they used to live near forests for hunting wild life and getting fuel wood. From the valiantly; but she was killed. The king was victorious and Sabbal Singh was believed to have present enquiries, it appears that at present they are shifting to other economic pursuits like fled away to jungles and adopted a nomadic way cultivation, agricultural labour etc. and are of life. The Gandhilas under study reported striving to dissociate themselves from their themselves to be the descendants of Sabbal Singh traditional vagrant way of life. and they regard him their ... ancestor for whom they show reverence. During the inquiry, precious little information could be gleaned about the origin of the commu 2. Population Distribution nity and in fact they expressed ignorance about. The Gandhila population is thinly scattered the time and place of the following legend. except for a few sizeable clusters in the dis~ricts of According to them, this caste traces its descent Ambala, Ludhiana and Patiala. According to the from Raja Rasalus's family, who is regarded 1961 Census they numbered 901 persons, 457 as a ledgendary king. It is said that there was a males and 444 females giving thereby a sex-ratio beautiful virgin named Sedo in his family. A of 972 females per 1,000 males. The sex-wise Rajput king asked for her hand, but Sedo did not break-up in rural and urban areas in various consent. At her refusal, the king tried to abduct districts is furnished below ;- TABLE 1 Population as per 1961 Census Serial Name of District Rural/Urban No. Persons Males Females Hissar (R) 1 1 (U) 2 Rohtak (R) (U) 1 1 3 Gurgaon (R) 9 5 4 (U) 4 Karnal (R) 14 11 3 (U) 12 5 7 5 Ambala (R) 305 163 142 (U) 6 Kangra (R) (U) 2 2 7 lullundur (R) 15 3 12 (U) 8 Ludhiana (R) 34 34 (U) 1 1 9 Ferozepur (R) (U) 7 1 6 10 Gurdaspur (R) 4 2 2 (U) II Bhatinda (R) 2 1 1 (U) 12 Patiala (R) 429 213 216 (U) 40 26 14 13 Mahendragarh (R) 25 25 (U) Total (R) 838 423 415 (U) 63 34 29 (Source.-C.I. 1961-Pb.• VoL XIII-Pt. V·A). It is evident from this table that Gandhila The distribution of the community with or Gandil Gondola preponderate in the rural respect to age groups and sex has been furnished areas than in urban areas. as under:- TABLE II Age~group - Males Percentage Females Percentage Total Percentage -----~------. (0-14) 169 43·78 217 56·22 386 42·84 (15-44) 223 54·79 184 45·21 407 45'17 (45 and above) 65 60 ·19 43 39·81 108 ] I ·99 ._----- Total 457 50 ·72 444 49·28 901 100·00 ------From the table it is revealed that in the age were hardly over one meter in height and they group (0-14) years the females preponderatc were covered with a bisloped thatched roofing over the males, whereas in the reproductive and there was hardly any separate provision for age-group, i.e. (15-44) years, there is a surplus kitchen. However, an open space of about 25 sq. of males over the females; and same is the posi meters was reported to be serving the purpose of tion in the elderly group of persons, i.e. (45 and a common courtyard in front of the huts, which above). The trend of population among the served as a platform for holding meetings, where segments of 'infants, children, boys and girls'; they discuss their day-to-day matters, and take 'young and women' and 'elderly persons' appears community decision. In Ludhiana District to be natural. different types of huts were observed which appeared semi-cYlindrical in shape, being 6 feet The villages of Sona, Sadhanpur, Bakraha, wide, 9 feet long and about 6 feet high at the Naiwala, Netu, Paind and Momian in Patiala middle. The huts were erected by stretching District were reported to be some of the places old sheets of cloth _or pieces of terpaulin on where members of the community could be traced, bamboo bows supported on wooden sticks or though insignificant in number. bamboo poles on all sides. The material for 3. Settlement and Dwelling the roofs is usually said to be collected throUfh begging and if purchased it is generally second As they indulged in vagrancy till recently, hand. Very often a number of sheets of cloth the used to erect huts outside the village or town. are sewn together to form a thick layer for the Most of them are still leading a vagrant way of roof. The cost of such a hut is estimated to be life. In Momian the huts were observed as rupees forty and its capacity is just to put in made of mud. The huts were constructed two charpoys. The hut has small entrance and without au)' planning or special design. The huts without any provlSlon fer locking. The v.ere reported to be covering an area of about 4 huts are preferably erected on a sloping sq. meters each. The side walls of these hLts ground to safeguard against rain water. ~o Por the same objective a sort of small (a necklace of silver), 'tilli' or 'Koka' (a nose stud parapet wall of mud is erected alound the usually made of gold); 'hallies' (either of gold hutment. The open space in front of the hut or silver) said to be woni in the lobes of th~ ear. provides room for bath, hearth, and tethering Rings either of gold or silver are worn by donkeys, hounds etc. It was reported that a males and females in fingers and ears by relatively Gandhila hut preferably faces the rising sun. well-to-do members of the caste. Ceremonies or rituals are -rarely performed 5. Food Habits when they erect the hus or shift from one pla«e to another. However to celebrate the new The Gandhila community is invariably non construction a few kgs. of jaggery is distributed vegetarian. Chapatis of wheat, or maize fom among the caste brethren when they move into their staple food. They also occasionally con a new hut. The floors of the huts are smeared sume seasonal vegetables, soups, rice, etc. It with cow dung paste on the occasions was reported that they hunt wild animals and of marriage, of birth and death. Vegetable birds like tortoise, wild cat, wild pig, jackals, oil or Kerosene oil is t sed for lighting iguanas, fish, pigeons, partridges, quails, for purposes. Articles of daily use lie niggledy which they keep hounds, nets, traps etc. piggledy inside the hut. They do not have any It was reported that t.hey abjure beef, carrion and clean hygienic habits. They also do not bother flesh of hare. ~eat of goat, sheep and dear is about their environmental pollution of all' klnas. relished with liquor at marriage and other festive occasions. Chewing of betel leaves, areca nuts and 4. Dress and Ornaments smoking of tobacco is common among them. The traditional dress of Gandbila male 6. Language adults consists of 'Kamiz' (shirt) and 'tahmat' or 'dhoti' (sheet of cloth tucke.d round the waist) Gandhilas speak Panjabi ordinarily in their to qover tlie lower extremitie~ and a coloured daily life but with outsiders they would talk in 'safa' (turban) as their traditional head gear. Hindustani mixed with Urdu, Panjabi, and The females wear a lowly hanging 'kamiz' Gurmukhi words. The study reveals that they (shirt) and 'salvar' (pair of baggy trousers) and" a have some code words, which they call P&.rsi 'chunn;' or 'dupatta' (hl'lad dress) of ml.Jslin cloth. dialect and which scarcely seems to have any The traQ.itional 'lehanga' or 'ghagara' is reported vocabulary references and eqt ivalents "with to be out of fashion these days. It is to Q_e actual Persian language. It was perhaps used noted, that while they ar!) on" begging rounds, with criminal intents in the past. The code words they are usually seen dressed in rags. Many of their Farsi dialect are altogether unmtelligi of the males weal;' long hair and keep moustaches ble to the outsiders and it hardly has any script. and their women either make plaits or buns of Some of the code words of their phraseology the head hair at}he occiput. Boys of the school collected at Momian village are furnished below going age wear shirt and "'pyjama' and generally together with their Bnglish and Panjabi equi remain bare-headed. Tattoo~g was said to be a valents. favouri~e thing with these people; bllt it is As spoken by Panjabi English now vanishing fast. It was revealed that pre Gandhila viously their marrjed women used to adorn themselves with light jewellery of gold and silver 'Manso Awi jo' 'Admi aunda The man is but· now they are unable to do so owing to higher hai' coming prices and other economic pressures. Oommon Lotial Kutta Dog type of ornaments worn by some of ~eir wom~ are 'churas' (plastic wrist bangles) 'haar' :Sawan !stari Woman 71 As spoken Punjab; English 7. Education: by Gandhila According to the 1961 Census data, out of a ChheIi Bakari Goat total of 901 persons, only 47 persens were re Khasro Jutti Shoes turned as literates alUong them, giving thereby Kataka Roti Chapati a percentage of literacy as 5.22, wheleas per Bachhal Sap Snake centage of literacy among the scheduled castes Baier Apni aurat Own wife as a whole in the Punjab state works out to 9.64. Mamma Maan Mother The break-up of the population by educational KhatIa Manji Cot standard is furnished below :- TABLE III Educational Level Area Total Illiterates Literates without Primary or Matriculation educational level Junior Basic and above M F M F M F M F M F Urban 34 29 29 27 5 1 1 Rural 423 415 383 415 25 14 1 Total 457 444 412 442 30 14 1 1 The parents have hardly shown any interest trade in which the yare engaged could not be pin in the education of their children, rather they pointed during this rapid enquiry. The informants have H·e It st to absorb them in homely duties so as reported that a t present 'cultivation' and agri to assist in increasing the income of the household. culturd labour had considerably entered their Poverty a.nd vagrant way of life coupled with domain of occupation, though tbe making of ignorallce on the part of parents were attributed articles of grass and straw still holds its pivotal to be the reaSOllS for low level of literacy. Some position in the category of household industry. of them are gradually changing their attitudes The informants at Momian reported that some towards education and have started sending boys of their brethren were possessing land. R.R., a to school, but no attention is being given to Gandhila. resident of Naiwala village was re education of girls. ported to be possessing 40 bighas of land, while 8. Occupation and other Economic Pursuits some had taken land on lease and some others were engaged in cultivation on partnership basis, The previous cellSUS records indicate that locally termed as 'sel-ris' (partners) being involved the.ir traditional occupation of making articles of in cultivation, supervision, and bearing profit grass and straw along with beggary formed the and loss; but being devoid of occupancy rights core of their economic pursuits. Further, o"Ver the land. Some of them were found to be Ibbetson has stated, "TIley also keep donkeys, possessing stock like cows, buffaloes, bullocks; and even engage in trade in a small way. It is donkeys, goats and hounds and agricultural said that in some parts they lead about perfor implements like ploughs, rollers, bUllock-carts, ming bears; but this I doubt." (Ibbetson- yokes, sickles, etc. Economic structure of the 1881-p. 317). The field enquiry has revealed community by industrial categories as recorded that some of them still keep donkeys and hounds; at the 1961 Census shows that out of 901 persot1s, whether they perform bears could not be ascer 39S (43.82 per cent of the total population) are tained during this rapid survey. The type of engaged in different occupatiional pursuits ; 72 TABLE IV . Industrial Classification of Persons at work aDd nOl1~workers by Sex Workers Total Total workers .:..------As Cultivators As Agricultural Labourers Total Rural/Urban- ---- P M F _M F M F M F __:..--- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rural 838 423 415 277 87 60 6 40 Urban 63 34 29 28 "3 19 2 Total 901 457 444 305 9Tl 61 6 59 3 Workers InMining, Quarryjng, AfHousehold Industry_ In Manufacturing other In Construction In Trade and Livestock, Forestry, thari Household Industry Commerce Fishing, Hunting,-Plant- ation, Orchards and Allied Activity ------_----..-,.;._------,--- M F F M F M F M F 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ------.------~-----___v_- 144 78 2 6 19 4 2 144 78 6 8 19 Workers Workers in Special OccupatIons Non-workers In Transport, Storage In Other Services Tonini ng and Curry- Scavenging and Communication in, Of flids and ~kins M F M F M F M F M F 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 4 ~ 1 146 328 2 6 26 , .. ------4 3 152 354 perusal of occupational detJlils from table the delivery takes place in the husband's but. To No. IV reveals that 305 out of the 457 males and assist the parturient for post-natal care, the 90 out of the 444 females were returned as m;l.rried daughter if any is also called to the workers. Further in rural area out of 838 persons house, 'Sootak' (pollution) was reported to be 364 persons (277 males+ 87 females) were rcturn observed for 7 days durin,; which the mother dnd edas wOrkels and in urban areaout of 63 persons the lie", bOl n remain confined to the hut and father 31 persons (28 males + 3 females) wele returned of the new bOI r. remains away from .he partUlient. as workers. In rural area 43.44 per cent of the Aftel the pollution period is over, the mothel and population arC workers and in urban areas the new born tdke pmificatory bath and the corresponding percentage is 49.21. These wear new clothes and thc floor of the hut is figure, l'eveb.l that participation rate of working smeared with cow-dung. Birth of a male is force in rural and urban areas differs to a small reported to be preferred to a female birth and tbe extent. 506 persons out of a total of 901 persons, folmer is manifested with ll!joicir.g associated with i.e .• 56.16 per cent were returned as non-workers serving two or more bottles of liquor to lone whose break-up with respect to any activity t.as caste brethlen. A commur... ity feast is also not been indicated separately in census dat~ and arranged by the father if he can afford it. The it is presumed that they include children, old and name of the new born is suggested by the 'daj' disabled person<;, housewives, beggars, pensioners which is generally approved by the parents. Sbe and rentiers. students, persons seeking employ is given a remuneration of Rs 1.25 for a female ment etO. Further the table reveals that maximum birth and Rs 10 for d male birth. If a son is 24.64 per cent oftbeir popUlation or 56.20 per cent born, the husbar..d's sister or the eldest daughter of the working force is engaged in their house hold hangs 'neem' lea. ves at tbt.. entrance of the hut in industry exclusively in rural area from which it the belief of sc ... ring away the evil spirits. Tbe appears that avenues for their craft exist mOre in mother is given a nutricious dish called 'panjiri' rural area. Second important category of occu (a s"eetmeet prepared fiomghe;;,jaggery, wheat pation was reported to be cultivation, in which flour, aniseed, thYme Seed etc.) from the day 16.96 per cent of the total workers were returned following birth and the cbild is usually fed on to be engaged. 6.88 per cent of their popUlation breast, with occasional dozes of 'jana mg-butti' or 15.70 per cent of the workers Were reported (a liquid indigenous drug prepared by boiling to be absorbed in agricultural labour. In 'trade some herbS with watel). and commerce' only 5. 06 per cent of the workers For further post-natal care of the child, an were reported to be engaged. Number of persons iron piee:: and smouldeting fire is kept neal the engaged in other categories of occupation was. parturien.t ",ith the belief of safeguarding the insignificant and none of them was reported to be child from evil spirits and evil eye for th.. filst engaged in tanning and scavenging etc. three or four days and some body from the household keeps vigil (.n these nights. The 9. Life Cycle I,..hild is also made to "ear an amulet with tbe same belief. Any pre-natal practices are hardly reported amongst this caste. Up to the last phaSe of Caste elders and relatives llSt:I:tJly ler.d a band pregnancy the woman continues to attend to in negotiating matrimonial alliances. I· or household chores. With the advent of labour regulatir..g marriage, the etvnic group is an t:LCO· pains a 'dai' (mid-wife) who is usually a gamous but in Ludhiana its social boundHics Bhangi by caste attends to the enceinte. In the were said to be invisible. Th"yhave bern rerortl.'d event of any complication a trained 'dai' from to be indifferent ovel the 'gotra' or clan scrlltiny the nearby maternity centre is called for. Usually when negotiating marriages. Cross-cQ\..sin l4 marriages were reported- to be permissible, where during this ceremony the groom leads tbe bride, as parallel cousin marraiges were reported to be and tbe Brahmin recites the Hindu scriptures. prohibited. Payment 'of bride-price was sard to A community feast is arranged ~t the bride's to be existing and its traditicLal value was reported hut where meat, rice, chapatis and liquor to be 'sat beeha' (seven scores) of' rupees, which are freely consumed and folk songs are sung. at the time of survey was said to have gone Marriage is patrilocal; but in case the bride is upto rupees five hundred. Custom of offering the only daughter of her parents, marriage'becomes do'Wry was also reported to be prevalent, which matrilocal or uxoriloca1. Widow marriage antl normally consists of a few, outfits of clothes and levirate is permissible. The rules pertaining to one or two brnaments, utensils etc. marriage, divorce, remarriage etc. were repo~ed On the 9~trotha I ceremony, the boy's father to be governed scrording to the prevalent caste approaches the girl's father and offers 'mauti' (a norms and sanctions, by the caste 'chaudhris' tinted cotton thread), ,sugar and one rupee tc the called 'Jamberdars'. girl and .one at: [\\0 bottles of "ine or Ii qucr to her The still horn and children up to the age Of father. The gill's f~ther makeb it dcell' in the 3 years are buried. Cremation of adults was presence of his guests 8l.d Caste elder~ that he reported at Momian and burial at Ludhiana. At would offer his daughter ie. marriage only if be is Mom:an it was reported that they are less paid his 'seven scor~s'. A(ter tbis it becomes sanskritized as they hardly perform their death dirficult for the girl's father to go back On 1:>is rites with any strict adherence to Hindu rites. promise, and in case he choo~es to do so, tbe C8!.te panchayat inflicts upon him 'takk' (customalY Whether practice 0 f burial by them. at Ludhiana was due to Christianity and Islamic influences grafted fine J reng~ng from. Rs 200 to Rs 1,000 besides his on them at certain stage of tneir chronologi('a] e~-c~mmunication from the caste as we]] at times. history or it was just a regional variation could About the age at marriage, the 1961 census not be ascertained during this inquiry. The data reveal that in the age-Ilroup (O-I"!) years Gandl.i1as at Ludhiana reported. that they be out of 386 boys and girls, 11 niales l:ILd 13 fam .. les lieve in evil spirits and sorcery. At Ludhiana tbe were recorded as maIlied, which indicates that dead body is first giVen a bath and then wrapped early marr~ages are in existence. 1n tbe age-group in a white shroud. Relatives and caste (15-44), out of 223 males and 184 females, 151 brethren 0 f the deceased also offer sheets of c)o th males and 170 females were recorded as married; on this occasion. The sheets received in this way 65 males and 7 females were reCorded as 'ne ver are distributed to a Brahmin or 'Mau/vi' and to married' ; 6 males and 7 ramales were recorded J,he daughters of the household. The female as widow13d and only one male was returned under refatiV'es of the deceased offer food to the four 'unspecified status'. Amo)lng the eldel Iy persons, carriers of the bier. The 'Chalaiya' is said to be i.e., in the age-llroup (45 and above) out of 65 performed on the twelfth day after death whiCh males and 43 females, only 1 male was recorded as usually consists of offering 'Karrah' (sweet porridge) 'never married' ; 57 males and 26 females "erC or lunch to the caste brethren. 'Tradi. recorded as 'married' ; 5 males and 16 females were tionally, five seers of sweets used to be distributed recorded as widowed apd only 2 males and 1 per household of the community in case of the female were rehitned to be divorced or separated. death of an old. man, whereas in the case of the For conducting marriages, the villAge death of young, only one and qu.arter seer of Brahmin is in"ited to officiate, 'Wbo is generally sweets \l sed to be gi"en; but these days members paid Rs 10 as his charges. The bride and the of the cOlllJD.unity invited .to partake food oon groom are made to circumambulate seven times sisting of boiled and sweetened rice in a gatheIing. 'round the sacred fire in clockwise direction and tSiappa' (ni"aurning) is usually 0 bServed for two 75 days after the dCl1th during Which women are returned to be professing Hindu religion and 35 usuaU)' seen weeping in rhythmic tunes persons (16 males & 19 females) were recorde.d and beating their breasts presenting in the form to be professing the Sikh religion. All the ofa drill. Sikhs were returned exclusively from Iural areas. 10. Religion n. Social Status As mentioned earlier, Ule inforD'ants at At present the Gandhilas are said to be Momian reported that t hey worshIp their anceSj Or getting oUt of the shackles of untouchability Sabbal Singh and venerate him as 'pir' (relig:()\ls and sociat distance frem 1heDl is gradually leader). The mode of worship was reponed to be vamshmg as a good number from them work with associated with the s.acrifice of a goat. On some the jat zamindars in .their fields and houses. The festive occasion, they purchase a goat. A spOt jats \\-ere also said to haVe begun entering the on the ground is sml!arcd with mud etc., which huts of Gandhilas and the lattel were hlso is thought to serVe as the altar of the 'pir' and reported to be allowed to cross the threshold of the goat is brought at this altar and then a drum jat houses. But the jUts hardly accept any cooked is suddenly beaten to cause ~ quiver reflex. If food from the hands of Gandhilas. It is to be the goat quivers a little which the animal genera ']y noted that the Gandhilas possessing landholdings t\MS, it is be\ieved \0 have been accepted by enjoy co mparativeiy a better social stat us. the ·pir'. The goat is butchered after this. According to the general consensus, they \\-ere Usually goat's meat and rice are prepared to reported to be having a status neaIly equal to arrange a community fca&t. S( rncllnils (11 weh Deha, Dhaya or Dhea; Sansi, Bhedkut or occasions, liquor IS also used and for this purpose Manesh; and Gagra etc., all having their ineensc is burnt and few drops of dIluted liquor position on the lower steps of the social ladder. are sprinkled over it and then theyenjcy the They claim themselves to be of higher social stat us drinks. in comparison to Balmiki, Chura or Bhangi. A similal practice was reported 10 be fdllowed 12. Social Control by the Gandhilas in Ludhiana, where they regard Ordinary disputes ar,· settled by tl1e Pan Baba Khetarpal as the most benevolent deity. chayat and influential persons of the community Whether Baba Khetarpal is synonymous with at the local level. The housWolds belonging to Sibbal Singh couldn't be clear at thc enquiry the common 'thurah' (a sort of lineage group) but, the mode of worship consists in offering the refer the dispute tc the elderly head of the lineage. sacrifice of a black goat. After butch~ring the In case satisfactory decision is difficult to reach at, animal, its bloud is offerd to the deity and its the matter is referred to the members of traditional meal is relished in the community feast. The statutory body functioning in the form of a caste other ueities prupitiated by them were reported panchayat both inter-colony and intra-colony. to be' Gugga' (god 0 r serpents) and go ddess Csually a Gandhila .colony is reported to have 'Nainadevi' whose shrine is located near Anandpur at least one caste 'Chaudhry' also called 'Lam Sahib, and goddess 'DurE,a' of the Hindu berdar'. The office of the Lamberdar is not pantheon. DewaIi was reported to be main hereditary. For settling disputes between festival celebrated by them whh the accompani different households, a caste meeting consisting ment of lighting of lamps and at tbis festival they of caste chaudhris an other members is conven prepare "Karab (sweet porridge prepared from ed, in which 'Lam berdars , of Deba., Dbaya or ghee, jaggery, and wheat flour). Dhea, Sansi, Bhedkut or Manesh and According to the 1961 census figures 866 Gagra communities may also be invited to parti persons, (441 males & 425 females) were cipate. The plaintirt:s making grievances and 16 allegations-.against .the other party, call upon, four 'Parik[l.' fu.nctioning in' some 'neighbouring area importz,nt persons of their community and approach and both the • parties spend the njght at the the Lamberdar by placing rupees three before '!parikh's place. The 'parikh' holds the court him in the presence of four arbitrarily selected next day. All the securities and challenge money persons. If the other party thinks that its case is are passed on to the 'parikh' along with an addi weak and is hardly convincing, it would submit tional amount of rupees 140 from each side. The and request for the decision of the .lamberdar ~parikh' re-opens the case to hear the appeal and which the party would definitely honour without thereafter announces his decision. In case any further contest. In : case the defendant is to of the parties is still unsatisfied with the decision plead his case he accepts the challenge and also he can file an appeal to·'Narikh' at the regional places rupees three from .his side before the level, whose decision is final, and is given the Lamberdar. The 'Lamberdar' takes the status of a- 'High Court' for referring caste money and also gets the signatures of both the disputes. In ,case of violation of the decisions parties to the effect that whosoever would defy of the 'Narikh' the defaulter is ostracised from his decision he would be fined Rs ~OO to Rs .59(>. tpe community. It is to be noted that 'Parikhs' Gold and silver ornaments are usually kept as and 'Narikhs: . are the sorts of levels of judgement security from each party. The parties are allowed at varieus hands. They avoid to approach law to engage their advocates locally called 'charahva' courts in _the matter of caste. The common types from the community who usually charge ruppees of punishments consist of inflicting fine ranging twenty as their fees. The Lamberdars and from rupees 200 to 1,000 on the defaulters and 'panches' hold an open session and ~amine the they are made t9 apologise before. tlJe·caste bre case based on statements and eye-witnesses. thren and then they are accepted back in the After listening to cross-examination, citing of community. This is how they maintain social precedents in the light of sanctions and norms of cohesion and control. It is also to be noted that the cqmmunity, the judgement is announced to they sparingly keep any records of proceedings of the parties. If the aggrieved person still feels that trials in 1;>lack and white. Judgements to control the decisi9n is an unjust one he throws another and regulate their social set-up. are pronounced challenge by placing rupees 25 before the Lamber verbally and are invariably cited as 'judge-made dars. The party and the panches then move to laws' in the subsequent disputes,· the higher caste panchayat authority known as 77 RBF1lRBNCBS AND OTHBR BmLIOGRAPHY Gandhila or Gandil Gondola Bhattacharya, J.N. Gaundle and Gamale Hindu Castes and Sects. Cal. 1896, p. 261 Crooke, W. Gandhlla The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Vol. II, Cal. 1896, p. 38,.. Dube, S.C. Gaondhla Indian Village-London 1961, pp. 65-66 Rose, H.A. (Comp.) Ga"ndla A Glossary of Tribes and Castes of the Punja~ and N)rth West Frootier Province based on Census Rep::.rt of Punjab, 1883, by late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, and Census Report for Punjab, 1892, by Sir Edward Maclagan, Vol. II, 1911, p. 278 Sherring, M.A. Hindu Tribes and Castes as represented in Benaras Calcutta. 1872, p. 109 Ibbetson, D.C. Report on the Census of the Punjab, 1881, p. 317 Maclagan, B.D. Gandhila CeLsus of India. 1891. Pb. and its Feudatories, Pt. I. RepJrt, Cal. 1892, p.301 Kaul. H.K. Gandhila Census of India. 1911, Vol. XIV Pb.• Pt. I, Report" Lahore 1912, p. 455 Singh, Arjan Shah Gandhila Census Report (f Patiala State. 1931, p. 210 Khan. Ahmad Hassan Khan Gandhila Cer.sus of India, 1931 Pb., Pt. I. Report, Vol. XVII. p. 374 Anand, R.L. Gandhila or Gandil Gondola Census of India, 1961. Vol. XIII. Pb .• Part V-A AN ETHNO GRAPH[C NOTE ON SARERA A SCHEDULED CAstE IN PUNJAB CONTENTs Paaes 1. Identity 83-84 2. Population I)istribution 84-85 3. Settlement and Dwellings 85 4. Food Habits 86 5. Dress and Ornaments ibid 6. Education and Literacy ibid 7. Econo'mic Pursuits 87·88 8. Life CYcle 88-89 Death Rites and Beliefs 89-90 9. Religious Beliefs and Practices 90-91 10. Social Status and Control .. 91 11. References cited 93 12. Bibliography ibid 83 SARERA- I. Identity' "It is perhaps probable that these. men ·are -tho same as" those discussed under the head "Sarera" The Sarera has h~en "declated as' a 'scheduled\ in the section on Hill Menials. But I have caste- throughout the Punjab State according to: separated them as their - identity is not at aU President's .scheduled Castes and SJamwal' are also of Punjab-1881-p. 339). From Ibbetson's reported by Rose to be the 'Muhamma'dan Jat' account it-appears that the name 'Sarera' returned and 'Hindu Raj put' clans respectively, {Rose 1 as such in Punjab is coffect as they were signi. 1911-II-pp. 334, 352). Furtl!er it was revealed ficantly returned from:vKangra and Hoshiar,Pur by the 1931 census that during its preceding Districts during 1961 census; and a great decade many Sareras particularly irr the-- JitIluildUr majority of them were .returned , as Hindus and Hoshiarpur Districts had professed,,;SiKhmm. corroborating Ibbetson's findings of 1881. 'About the etymological significance .t)P= :thc Elsewhere,:Ibbetson about the Sarrara has stated, name, the version recorded in 1891 census, 84 reveals "The name is said to be derived from The community 'Sarera' or 'Sarehra' as is Sir:hara: the share of the sons of a certain more familiarly called by the other people and Dhund Sirdar by a low caste woman having been the members of the community itself, was tra less than that of his other sons". (C.I. 1891 ditionally identified through their economic pur Punjab, p. 299). It is also to be noted that the suits of scutching or carding cotton as already Sarrara of the Hazara District were said to be mentioned. But at present they were found to Dhunds (Rajput tribe) by origin (Ref. Ibid). be engaged in diversified occupations mainly According to the Sarera informants in Hoshiarpur pursuing the agricultural activities, househo1d District they claim to be Salehria .Rajputs by industry, 'in construction' and 'other services' descent and reported that the present name has etc. However the findings of the present study perhaps been corrupted from the original name are limited only to the community living in Hoshiar of Salehria. In this connection Rose's foot pur District where field enquiry was conducted note is quoted as under: after the 1961 census. "It is usual to speak of the Salehria Rajputs 2. Population Distribution as a tribe; but the term appears to merely mean 'low lander' and it is possible that the The community is returned to be having Salehria' tribe is really composed of a number of maximum concentration in Hoshiarpur and septs or fragments of tribes which happen to be Kangra Districts whereas in other districts the settled in the Salehr or sub-montane tract H.A.R." strength returned was comparatively small. (Rose. 1914-III-p. 273). According to 1961 census out of a total of 10,122 persons, 5,049 were males and 5,073 were females (t was reported during the field enquiry that giving a sex-ratio of 1,005 females per thousand their ancestors in the past had migrated from males. Distribution of the co~munity by sex Rajasthan. and area is given in the table below :- TABLE I Serial Name of District Rural/Urban Population as per 1961 Census No. Total Males Femal~s Rohtak (R) 21" 12 9 (U) 2 Karnal (R) 284 ii8 166 (U) 15 10 5 3 _Ambala (R) 14 3 11 (U) 103 70 33 4 Simla (R) 10 ]0 (U) 5 Kangra (R) 3,878 1,868 2,010 (U) 115 60 55 6 H~shiarpur (R) 4,851 2,517 2,334 (U) 73 43 30 7 Jullundur (R) 177 43 134 (U) 2 2 B Ludhiana (R) (U) 6 4 2 9 Ferozepur (R) (U) 9 9 10 Amritsar (R) 9 2 7 (U) 9 8 1 11 Gurdaspur (R) 521 267 254 (U) 8 5 3 12 Kapurthala. (R) 4 I 3 (U) 13 . Bhatinda (R) 5 5 5 1 4 t4 Patiala 00 ., (U) 3 J 2 Source :-(C.I. 1961-Pb.,Vol. xm. Pt.V-A). From the table it· is evident that the population areas than in urban areas. Distribution of of the community is concentrated more in the rural population by broa~ ag~-groups and sex is shown in the table below;- TAB~E NO.2 Age-group Males Percent- Females Percent- Total Percent age age age (0-14) 2,126 50'82 2,057 49'18 4,183 41 ·32 ( 15-44) 1,874 46·77 2,133- 53 ·23 4,007 39 '59 ( 45 and above) 1,046 54·37 878 45'63 1,924 19'01 ( Age not stated) 3 37'50 5 62·50 8 0'08 Total 5.049 49'88 5.073 50·12 10.122 100'00 From the Statement it appears that the trend tions. A separate cattleshed is erected locally of distribution of population with respect to known as 'kurh'. To answer the calls of nature age and sex is within the range of normalcy. they invariably go into the fields and observe privacy behind a bush or in a low depression. 3. Settlement and Dwelling The women folk generally go to the open in the In Hoshiarpur District, usually five to ten dark hours. Modern amenities like tap water 'Sarera' households are found to be living in a and electricity hardly exist. For lighting purposes, .village, in a nucleated form of houses and their they use kerosene lantern or an earthen lamp habitat is locally known as 'behra'. The loca fed with 'sarson' oil. The walls and the floors tion of the 'behra' is usually on one side of the of the houses are smeared with a paste of cow village settlement, connected by kachcha foot dung and mud. Reciprocal help is extended at paths. Sometimes they settle in the form of a the time of new constructions. The material for small cluster in the outskirts of the village. In hut construction is usually' available in the. local the sub-montane area they usually select a piece area. The cost of erecting such a hut approximates of land bulging upwards and erect their 'chhans' to rupees five hundred. For starting the cons (huts) in a circular or ring shaped pattern and truction of the hut the village- Brahmin is consult the open space is commonly used by all house ed, who suggests the 'shub muhurat' ( auspi. holds. A Sarera hut consists of one or two rooms cious time). The work of construction is started having erected walls of mud or kachcha bIjcks by distributing jaggery and b<·iled grams. After on which there is bisloped roofing either or the construction is complete, 'chath' (inaugural) 'khar' grass, or baked thin slabs, or pieces of ceremony was reported to be observed. The Hindu slates, or corrugated iron sheets, depending upon Sareras burn the sacred fire and give incense, one's economic position~ The material of the roof whereas the Sikh Sareras conduct an -'Akhand rests on a structure of rafters of mango or (kikar) Path' (Non-stop recitation of Guru Granth's (Arabica Accasia) wood. The floor is also text, from start to end) and after the 'Bhog' cere "Kachcha' and the plinth is slightly raised above mony a community feast is arranged. A house the surface level lest rain water should enter the inherited from an issueless widow is considered hut. The walls are protected from rain by project to be inauspicious. In order to ward off the in ing the roof all round. Some huts are also equip fluences of evil souls, incense is usually burnt in ped with a verandah which serves as an improvised the hut and some religious rituals are also -per kitchen during rains and extreme weather condi- formed. 4. Food .Habits to cover the head. At the time of marriage the It was reported that Sareras are usually bride's_ dress consists of a saffron coloured ·chola'. non-vegetarians. Chapatis either of wheat or The women use only light jewellery and that maize· flour with 'daL' (pulses) and vegetables, too is worn by those who can afford it. Finger forD;l their staple food. In the hilly areas they rings of silver and gold; 'koka' (nose-stud) consume rice also. They abjure beef but they usually of gold and 'nath' (nose-ring) of gold eat sheep, goat and pig. They drink liquor also, or silver are the common ornaments used for on social and festive occasions. On the marriage adornment by them. 'Kantay' (ear rings) both of a male, they normally attend the marriage or gold and silver are worn in the lobes of the party after partaking liquor. They keep milch ears. 'Ballies' being smaller in size than 'Kantay' cattle. Those who cannot afford to keep a are also used in the ears. A 'choora' (ivory buffalo or cow, prefer to keep goats and poultry bangles) is worn in the wrists by the bride at the for domestic consumption. Meat is a special dish time of marriage. Hemispherical or conical shaped on the visit of a distinguished guest. Tea is also ornament called 'chuk-phuI' is used for adorn consumed in plenty in all seasons. ing the head. Males usually wear finger rings only. 5. Dress and Ornaments 6. Education and ~iteracy Traditional dress of a Sarera male adult con The 1961 census data reveal that out of sists of a full sleeved 'kamiz' (shirt). To ~o;'er 10,122 persons, 1,408 persons were returned as the pubic region, they wear 'kgchha' (under literates, giving a literacy percentage of 13.81 wear) but the use of pyjama was also reported which is higher than the percentage of literacy to be predominant among the weII;to-do people. (9.64) among the scheduled castes as a whole 'Safa' ( turban) is the traditional head-wear and throughout the Punjab State. Break-up of their the country made leather shoes form their foot popUlation into illiterates and literates with re wear. Females usually wear a jumper and ference to educational level is. furnished in the 'salvar' (baggy. trousers) and 'dupaUa' (scarf) following table:- 'lABLE 3 Totalllliter:ates Literates without Education III level Area educatioDallevel Primary or Junior Matriculation BasiC and above -.-~-----. M F M F M F M F M F Urban 213 135 ISS 118 31 14 24 3 3 Rural 4,836 4,938 3,727 4,714 565 144 508 78 36 2 Total .. 5,049 5,073 3,882 4,832 596 158 532 81 39 2 Sourcl!:-(C.I. 1961-Pb., Vol. XIII-Pt.-V.A.). The data reveal that in urban areas, the urban areas may be due to the existence of better percentage of literacy is 21.6 and in rural areas educational facilities. However, in the rural the corresponding percentage is 13.6. The areas also there is growing consciousness for reason of comparatively high level of literacy in imparting education to their children. 87 1. Economic PnrsuJts. 'household industry'. It was reported that The available literature on 'Sareras' reveals younger generation is losing interest in scutching that traditionally they were cotton scutchers and cotton as it is becoming uneconomic due to carders; but at the time of the 1961 census count competition from power driven carding machines. they were also found to be engaged in jobs like The distribution of population according to 'cultivation', 'agricultural labour', 'construction occupational classification is given in the table work' and 'other services' together with their below:- TABLE 4 Workers Status Total Total Workers As Cultivators As /> .gricultura1 Labourer P M F M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rural 9,174 4,836 4,938 2,567 909 1,366 743 279 16 Urban 348 213 135 127 8 5 Total 10,122 5.049 5073 2,694 917 748 280 1& Workers In Mining ql'a'rying. In manufacturing In Trade and Livestock, Forestry, At Household Industry other than Household 'In Construction Commerce Fishing, Hunting, Industry Plantation, Orchards and Allied Activities M F M F M F M F M F 11 12 13 14" 15 16 17 18 19 20 60 30 224 95 31 171 23 2 5 3 2 6 48 9 65 30 227 97 37 219 32 2 Workers Workers in Special Occupations In Transport, Storage In Other Services Non-workers and Communications -Tanning and Cu¥ry. ScaYenging ing of Hides and Skins M F M F M F M F M F 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20 393 22 2,269 4,029 3 24 31 1 86 127 1 44 424 23 2,355 4,156 3 1 Source:-[C.I. 1961-Pb., Vol. XVII·Pt. V-A] 88 The nata on the working force reveal that out attends on her at the time of confinement and gets of 10,122 persons 35.67 per cent were returned as Rs S as her service charges. Other women of the workers. Out of this workingfotce, about one-fourth community also assist the parturient for post-natal constitutes females. Further, 35.56 per cent care of tlfe new born and household duties. and 38.79 per cent of their population constitute Special arrangements for the segregation of the working force in the rural and urban areas parturient rarely exist. Customarily the respectively from which it cap be concluded that 'poIrution period' is observed for 40 days. The participation rate of working force is higher in urban mother takes her bath after six days and resumes area to the extent of about 3 per cent. The break household duties after 2 weeks. Any special up of 64.33 per cent non-workers among them is ceremony is hardly observed for naming (christen not available. The census data reveals the occupa ing) the child. The name of the child is very tional structure of the working force as more often suggested by the parents themselves or than half of the working force engaged in cultiva by a close relatives. tion and 12.38 per cent in 'other services' con- On the 13th day after delivery the moth~r goes stituting mainly the army personnel, village watch for offering prayers to the village well together with men, and peons etc. 3.20 per cent and 2.92 other women. She pays obeisance by going three per cent of the population was recorded to be times in clockwise direction round the well and engaged in 'household 'industry' and 'agricul throws some grains of rice by prostrating before tural labour' respectively. 2.17 per cent of the it. In this way the mother returns home with a population was engaged 'in construction'. Low pitcher of water and starts participation in house percentages of the population were recorded to be hold duties. The house is smeared with COW-dung pursuing other categories of occupation given and incense is burnt to purify it. A 'rote' (sweet in the table. Three males from the workers were chapati) or loaf is also prepared and offered in recorded to be engaged in special occupations the name of their deity 'Baba Balak Nath'. After like 'tanning and currying of hides and skins' and offering a morsel of 'rote' to the fire, the rest is one was engaged in scavenging which were distributed among members of the caste parti perhaps the exceptional cases. Such jobs were cularly among the children. 'Mundan' hardly traditional but at the same time any in (tonsure) i.s performed at the temple of' 'Jawala hibition to take up such jobs was scarcely imposed Mukhi' in Kangl1l. District, where 'Karah' (sweet upon them. From the census data it appears that porridge) or goat's sacrifice is offered. Some 'cultivation' is becoming the core of their economic life. times ration in the form of grain~, flour etc., S. Life Cycle equal to the weight of the child , is' offered in At the advanced stage of first pregnancy, the charity so as to counteract the evil influence of enceinte is usually sent to her father's house, where witches and other supernatural bodies recognised by them. pre-natal care is rendered to her by the experienced f mother or some other old women in the house Regarding marriage the 'Sareras' are an endo- hold. She avoids to visit places thought to be gamous . ethnic group and had reported that there haunted with evil spirits, like grave yards, also exist some exogamous groupings. They cremations and the house where pollution period were however, unable to give satisfactory ex is yet not over after the death of a person. She. planation, on which principle the names of the also detours from the route if she comes across groupings were based. The exogamous divisions an issueless woman, lest her shadow should they c~)Uld name, are, 'sandal', 'Bhattey', 'Hir' fallon her, which is considered to be inauspicious. 'Chouhan' 'Bariah' and 'Kalmotia'. For regula Usually an unqualified woman in-midwifery either ting marriage, the names of the exog.amous divisio_ns of their own caste or belonging to the N~i caste are reported to be scrutinized. In addition to 89 follo'~ing. the principle of village exogamy, they hardly tolerated~ A woman during m~ns~ation scrutinize the names of division of the 'self', moth~r. is supposed to avoid attending the kitchen duties. father's mother and mother's mother, of the would be The bridegroom and bride customarily wear· spouses. Cross-cousin and parallel cousin marri the clothes brought by their respective mother's ages are reported to be prohibited. Other con brothers. The marriage party goes to the bride's ditions being satisfied, marriage, by exchange was village. 'Milani' (introductory meeting) cere also reported to be permissible. mony is performed in which kinsmen of either About the age at marriage, perusal of 1961 side are introduced. Customarily the priest of census data reveals that in the age-group their own community officiates at the time of (0-14) out of 2,126 boys and 2,057 girls; 14 males weddings. A Brahman priest may also be and 66 females were returned as married, which invited, but he is said to accept only raw material indicates that the system of early marriage pre and money from them for his services, which is vailed among them to a considerable extent considered to be a costlier affair. The marriage especially of females. In the age-group (15-44) ceremony in case of Hindu Sareras is conducted years, out of 1,874 men and 2,133 women, 1,170 men according to Vedic scriptures; whereas among the and 1,785 women were recorded as married; Sikhs a 'granthi' (Sikh priest) officiates to con 630 men and 244 women were recorded as 'never duct 'lawan' (circumamJ:mlating) four times in. married', 68 men and 101 women were recorded as clock-wise direction round (Guru.. Granth Saheb). widowed', 6 men and 2 women were recorded as and the marriage solemnized in this way is called separated or divorced, 1 female was returned under 'Anand Karaj'. The marriage. party is made to· the heading 'unspecified status'. In the age sit on the ground and the meals are served to them group (45 and above) out of 1,046 males and 878 on leaf plates and cups. Some articles of daily use females, 763 males and 587 females were returned are given in dowry, by the bride's father, when as'married' 36 males and 4 females were recorded she accompanies the marriage party to her hus· as 'never married', 239 males and 287 females were band's house after the. marriage. The marriage recorded as 'widowed', 6 males were recorded among Sareras is patrilocal. A widow is per· as 'separated or divorced' and 2 males were re mitted to remarry_ turne~ of 'unspecified status'. In case of 3 males Death Rites and Beliefs and 5 females age was not stated and these 8 persons were returned as 'never married'. In The Sareras believe that if death rites are all] 1,947 males and 2,438 females were recorded not duly performed, the departed soul finds it to be enjoying married life, from which it appears difficult to rest in peace, it haunts the other living that there were either some polygynous families members of the household. The soul of the in the community or some of the male counter deceased is also believed to get annoyed with parts of married women had migrated to the acquiantances and kinsmen who do not accom· neighbouring territories at the time of enumeration pimy the funeral procession and do not add fuel ed to' fulfill time. The corpse is wrapped in 'ka/fan' (shroud) the worldly desires. Agricultural operations like of coarse cotton cloth and is placed on a bier sowing, hoeing, and harvesting were reported of bamboo wood. Then funeral procession is to start with the worship of' SMhs'. It is believed taken to thecrematioD ground provided it is the that if the 'Sfdhs' are not duly propitiated, women day time. Ashes and bones are collected on the in the household become sterile or barren and thi~d day after cremation a~d are immersed in there may be on set of disease which is locally s<;>me sacred river. The mourning period is re termed irS 'Khote' of the Sidhs. Related with ported to be observed for 10 days and during the 'Sldhs' were reported the important ones as this period relatives and friends cOllle for mourn "Bawa Balak Nath' 'Bawa Bharthari' 'Bawa ing and offer condolences. Luthru' 'Bawa Polowala' and 'Sidh Sibbo'. When the- members of the household smell some indi On the 11 th day 'Kirya' ceremony is observed, cations of 'Khale' of the 'Sidhs' they prostrate in which relatives and friends are invited to the before them by offering 'rote' or large loaves, community feast. Some articles of daily use and burning incense. PiIigrimages are also re like cot, 'razai' (quilt), metallic pots and ordinary ported to be made to the 'gaddis' (seats) of these crockery are offered in charity to the 'Acharaj 'Sidhs'. Brahmin'. After this performance the mourn ing period ends. 'Solha' is a similar ceremony The malevolent spirit!! manifested are 'Mata performed on the 16th day after death and again rani' who is believed to spread small-pox; Bawa a community meal is arranged. 'Chavarkhi' Sibba is believed to cause eye-sore; Sidh Chano (fourth death anniversary) is also reported to be is associated with the dise.ase among animal stock. observed and at 'Chavarkhi' a$ain a community Maleyolence of 'Guga' (god of serpents) and feast is arranged, and some articles of daily use 'Khawaja' (god of water) is thought to be evapora are offered in charity in the name of the deceased. ted by offering salt and money, and 'dalla' (sweet porridge prepared from coarse flour) respecti~ely. 9. Religious Beliefs and Practices Cremation grounds are awfully believed to be the abode of evil spirits and ghosts and it is avoid According to the 1961 Census out of 10,122 ed to' visit such places. The folk tales and fairy penons', 4,930 males and 4,983 females both from tales about 'chilheras (thought to be an evil spirit rural and urban areas were returned as Hindus changing its physical forms), 'churel'(female ghost) whereas 119 males and 90 females exclusively are said to be popular among the masses whioh from the rural areas were recorded as Sikhs. 'Our are passed from one generation .to anDther by enquiry has revealed that they stem their religion the elders. It was alsO' reported that they have from'Sidhs' among the Hindus. Guru Nanak Saheb faith in witchcraft and sorcery. The sorcerers had a religious discourse with 'Sidhs' in which are locally called 'chelas'. A 'chela' is generally the latter had to submit as a consequence of which, required to be duly initiated and undergo a training it is believed that some 'Silreras' were captivated in exorcism and faith curing disease usually asso to return themselves as Sikhs and Guru Nanak ciated with supernaturalism and evil eyeism to Saheb's teachings have been grafted on them. Their seek redressal from the influence of evil spirits, nuclear belief rests in the omnipresence of God, hysterical fits, indigenous cure for barrenness and they regard Him a supreme coinmander of the and sterility. Chelas are reported to be expert universe. Rama, Krishna and Shiva are thought in curing children and ,controlling epidemics to b~ the incarnatiDns' Df God and the ancillary among the livestock. The 'ehelas' in the hilly beliefs were reported to be linked with the 'Sfdhs', areas charge nominal from their patients, whereat 91 the •chelas' officiating at the 'gaddis' of' Skim; of the higher caste~ even occasionally interdine were reported to charge heavily from such pa with the Wareros'. Th~ school-going children tients. Some 'chelas' are said to have established of clean castes frequently mix up with Sarera their regular clientage to make a permanent source students. Disputes are usually reconciled by the of income. caste elders who are invariably impartial and considerate in delivering the judgements. 10. Social Stams and Control The complicated disputes are referred to the Swarnas traditionally have been considering village panchayat. Sometimes the aggrieved. the 'Sareras' to be of a low social status. They parties take the matter to the court of law if not suffered from the stigma of untouchability in satisfied with the decisions of the village panchayat.· the past, and even their physical touch was thought Sareras are normally a peace loving and hard to be polluting and they were debarred from taking working caste. They believe in legitimate sources water from the common well. They had no access of income and their women folk supplement .the to the places of worship and were not allowed earnings by organising small household industries. to take meals and refreshments in hotels and res Existence of any traditional caste panchayat of taurants. At present, these social disabilities the Sareras was not reported during the field are less rigidly enforced. Some members study. 93 RBF!3RBNCB CITED. Rose, H.A. A glossary of the Tribes ano Castes of the Punjab and N.W.F. P., Vol. III, pp. 273, 381, 385 Rose, H.A. A glossary of the Tribes and Castes oftbe Punjab and N.W.F.P., Vol. II, pp. 334, 352 Ibbetson, D.C. Report on the Census of Punjab. 1881, pp. 272, 339 Maclagan, B.D. Census ofIndia, 1891. The Punjab and its Feudatories, Pt. I, Rep:>rt Calcutta. 1891,_p. 299 Anand, R.L. Census of India, 1961-Vol. XIII, Pb. Part V-A BIBLIOGRAPHY Rose, H.A. Sarera, Sarehra, Sarrara (in Amdtsar Sadara) A glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W.F.P., Vol. III-1914, pp. 385-386 Rose, H.A. Sarabira A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes ·of the Punjab and N. W.F,P'I Vol. III, 1914, p. 381 Ibbetson, D.C. Sarrara Report on the Census of the Punjab, 1881-Calcutta, 1883, p. 272 Ibbetson, D.C. Sarera Report on the Census of the Punjab, 1881-Calcutta, 1883 p. 339 Maclagan, B.D. .. Sarrera Sarrahra Census of India, 1891. The Punjab and its Feudatories' Pt. I, Report Calcutta, 1891, p. 316 Khan, M.M. Saryara Census of India, 1911, Vol. XX-Kashmir, Pt. I, Report, Lucknow, 1912, p. 223 Kaul, H.K. Sarera ~Sarehra) Census of India, 1911, Vol. XIV, Punjab, Pt. I, Report Lahore, 1912, p. 474 Lehna Singh Sarera Census of India, 1921, Vol. XIV, N.W.P.P., Pt. I, Report and Pt. II Tables, Peshawar, 1922, p. 254 Khan, A.H.K. Sarera Census ofIndia, 1.931, Vol. XVII, Punjab. Pt. I, Report, Lahore, 1933 p. 355 Anand, R.L. Sarera Census of India, 1961, Vol. XIII, Pb., Part V-A AN ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTE ON DEBA. DHAYA OR DHEA A SCHEDULBD CASTE IN PUNJAB CONTENTS Pages 1. ldentlty 99-100 2. Population Dlstrlbution 100 3. Settlement and Dwellings 101 4. Food Habits ibid 5. Dress and Ornaments ibid 6. Literacy and Language 101-103 7. EconomIc Pursuits 103-105 8. L1fe Cycle 105-106 Death Rites and Beliefs 106-107 9. Religious Beliefs and Practices 107 10. Social Status and Control 107-108 11. Blbliography 109 91-98 99 DElIA, DlIAYA OR D~ 1. Identity In the Punjab State, Deha, ,Dhaya or Dhea in Sonepat Tabsils of Rohtak and Delhi (2) A faction, Patiala, Bhatinda, Mohindergarh, Kapurthala and opposed to the Ahulana, said to be named after Sangrur Districts have been declared as a Schedu the Dahiya Jats. These two factions are found in lel Caste vide President's Scheduled Castes and Kamal, as well as in ~ Delhi and 1Rohtak" and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956. further. "Dehia, one of the principal clans of the The community has also been declared as denotified Jats in Kamal ... Probably the same as Dahia" tribe in the state. The households are sparsely (Rose H.A. 1911., pp. 219, 220, 233.) scattered in the state arW according to 1961 censqs 994 persons were returned from the Scheduled Regarding the origin of the community, i' has areas. A field study was conducted after 1961 been reported that they have branched off. from census covering some clusters in Patiala District. where the Chuhras have originated and they also Some field work was also done in the districts of regard 'Balmilt/_as their ancestor, and patron·saint. Karnal, Ambala, Amritsar and Perozepur. The The popular legends in this connection are ! That enquiry has revealed that they are very low in· Balmik had created Mathang Rishi (or Thonpra social status-and their hereditary occupation is Rishi), from the filth of his eyebrow, and the progeny of Mathang Rishi came to be known by preparation of Chhaj (\IIinnowing fan) from reed. The members of the community returned themselves the name 'Dhea'. They claim themselves akin as 'Dhae', which is perhaps a variation in spellings to Chuhras. According to another legend, it was due to local nomenclature or pronunciaticn. narrated that Chhaju and Bhagu were two brothers They were rep3rted by otlrers to be at par with and bot:l had. married their SQns in the same family. ChuhrajBalmiki in social status leading a semi Both the bridegrooms star ted living with 1their in nomadic life, which :\IIas also largely admitted by laws. Once the zimindar of the village asked members of this caste. The informants reported Chhaju and Bhagu to 8ttend some scavenging that they call themselves by another name as work at his house. Bhagu obeyed and did the 'Dhairu' which is synonym of Dhae, Doha, scavenging but Chhaju refused and the latter was Dhaya or Dhea. Similarly in Simgrur District they turned out-of the house and he started preparing are reported to be known by the local name 'Chhaj' (winnoVting fans) for other zimindars. In this way the descendants of Chhaju came to be 'Harnia' and generic name 'Singi"ut'~(from, singi a horn). i.e. they perhaps earn their livelihood by known as Chhajwala or 'Dhea ' and those of Bhagu applying 'singis' (horns) on the aching portions or came to be known as 'Bhangi or Chuhra'. wounds on the human body. More authentic in They revealed that some other ethnic groups formation about Harnia and 'Singi!cut' is however like Barar, Gagra, Sansi, Bhedkut Manesh, and lacking. About the etymological significance of Gandhila or Gandil Gondola, and Chuhra etc. name it was reported that the .name 'Dhaya'..has also have similar occupation as Deha, Dhaya or originated from 'Dhaye' (a local. word for .river Dbea; and they aU have their position in the lower terrace where their ancestors used to live). Accord strata of social hierarchy. Their connubial ing to another version, Dhea is derived from Hindu relations however were reported to be restricted stani word meaning 'beaten, depressed or fallen within the community whereas commensal re Qr ljowqgradea". Lest oue' should eet collfused lations were reported to exist with the abovemen with 'Daha', 'Dahiya' and 'l>l'hia' it is to be tioned ethnic groups. In Patiala District 'Dhae' po~ed. as Rose has stated, "Daba..,....A Rajput clan has been reported to be the popular name of the. (agricultural), found in Multan". "Dahiya (1) A community and it iSlidentified with the occupation Jat tribe fouud on tlJe north-eastern border of of preparing 'chhaj' (winnowing fan); but at the Sampla and the adjoining portion of the present they were also observed to be pursuing 100 occupations like collecting and selling bones, bides returned only from the four districts of the state, and skins, dealing in rags, and pulling rickshaws. thought 1t was treated as a scheduled caste in the 5 They keep donkeys for goods transportation districts. They were returned in majority irom and carrying their household belongings and other urban areas. Out of a total of 994 persons, material equipment. 468 were males and 526 were females revealing a sex-ratio of ],124 females for every 1,000 males. 2. Population Distribution Sex-wise distribution of the commumty in rural At the time of 1961 Census the, community was and urban areas is furnished in the table below;- TABLE 1 Ruml/Urban Population as per 1961 Census Serial Name of the District No .• Total Male Female Kapurthala (R) (U) 2 2 2 Bhatinda (R) 45 23 22 (U) 80 29 51 3 Sangrur (R) 97 43 54 (U) 156 78 78 4 Patiala .(R) 183 61 122 (U) 431 232 199 Sour.:e.-C.I. 1961-Pb., Vol. XIII, Pt. V-A). Further, the distribution of males and females with respect to age-groups is furnished below: TABLE 2 Age-Group Males Percentage Females Percentage Total Percentage ( 0-14) 240 .45·89 283 54'11 523 52'61 (15-44) 180 47·87 196 52 '13 376 37'83 (45 and above) 48 51'61 45 48'39 93 9'36 (Age not stated) 2 100'00 2 0'20 Total 468 47·08 526 52'92 994 100'00 Source.-(C.I. 1961-Pb., Vol. XIII, Pt. V-A) The table reveals that in the age-group (0-14) occupies the second position .. The trend of dis years the population consisting of infants, children, tribution of popUlation with re~pect to age and boys and girls preponderates over the population in sex appears to 'be within usual range. In case any other age-group which means the community of 2 females, age could not'be actually ascertained has a broad based age pyramid. The segment of at the time of" enumeration. The data also re population in the age-group (15-44) years veals that dependency ratio of younger group is much higher. 101 3. Settlemcmt and Dwelling . was reported to be abjured. The enquiry had It was reported by the members of the commu revealed that in the past they used to take carrfon ; nity that they prefer to live in urban areas so but not now. The informant expressed their as to escape the hostility of rude section of the attitude by a saying, "Bakre da mas bak-baka rural people. They usually erect their huts on goh di poonchh kararl" English version of which unoccupied plots in suburbs. They have a is that the meat of a he-goat is not t~steful where tendency to stick to such areas for years together as the tail of an iguana is relishing. Liquor is also if left undisturbed. Their hut or 'jhungi' is a consumed on festive occasions and social get sort of mobiJe house and can be erected or dis togethers. mantled in a couple of hours. The huts are 5. Dress and Ornaments usually erected in the form of a constellation on some elevated portion of ground to avoid on 'Kamiz' or 'KurIo' (shirt) forms the traditionai slaught of rainy water. Some space is left in dress of a 'Dheo'. To cover the pubic region they between for common use by all. The phea hut nor either tie 'chadra' or 'tahmat' (sheet of cloth) mally consists of one room having erected a or wear 'pyjama' (trouser). During household 'banni' (surrounding 'wall of one foot height) duties they normally use 'kachho' (under-wear). either of mud or kachha bricks. The material for • A 'saja' (turban) of muslin cloth forms the head the roof consists of bamboos and rags, l>ut some wear. The females normally wear 'kamlz' times thatched roofs are also provided. The (shirt) and a 'salvar' and a 'dupa/fa' (searO bamboos are bowed and fastened together on a to cover the head. In some areas of Karnal few perpendicular bamboo. or wooden sticks erected District,the use of 'ghaghra' was also reported to be along the 'banni' and the rags are stretched on the prevalent. U suaUy they beg or purchase second bamboo bows thus appearing in shape like an hand clothes. Their children are observed to inverted semi-cylindrical structure. The covered be half-clad and old women are dressed in worn area approximates to 40 sq: ft. For easing, both out patchup clothes. Only light jewellery is men and women invariably go outside in the open used by them. Men use 'murkian' (rings) of fields. Amenities like tap water and electricity either gold or silver in the ears. The women rarely exist. During incessant rains they take wear 'koka' (nose-stud) of gold in the nose and shelter in some public places like railway platform 'kangan' (bangles) of silver and ivory on the or verandahs of schools etc. The material for wrists. 'Haar' (necklace) of silver is worn in the erecting huts is usually available locally. The neck. 'Pazebs' fitted with miniature bells of cost of erecting such a hut is fifty to sixty rupees. silvl!r are worn in the ankles. Tattooing is also Those who also deal in hide and skins have got prevalent among them. Females get tattooed some 'Kholas' (walled enclosure without a roof) impressions of variety of floral patterns. designs for storing them lest dogs should drag them out. of beautiful birds like peacocks, at their bodies with a view to add charm to their beauty. Males 4. Food Habits get their names engraved on the forearms .. According to informants they are non-vegetarian 6. Literacy and Langnage as far as their dietary habits are concerned. Chapatis both of wheat and mai~e flour with salt, According to 1961 Census, out of a total of onion and pickle, form their staple food. Pulses 994 persons, only 3 persons were recorded as and vegetables are also consumed if economic literates, giving a very small percentage of conditi~ns permit. Meat of wild animals like literacy; whereas the percentage of literacy cat, jackal, deer, iguana, tortoise and birds like among the scheduled castes as a whole through partridges, quails, fowls, eggs, and fish is taken. out Punjab State approximates to 9.64. The Meat of goat and sheep is also consumed. Beef break-uo of their DODulation into illiterate!! Anrl 102 "11terates with resJ)ect t~ educational leve~ in rural and urban areas IS given in the table b~~ ow : TABLE 3 Educational Level Area Total Illiterates Literates witliout educational level Primary or Junior Matriculation and Basic llbove M F M F M F M F M F Rural ., 127 19& 126 197 Urban" . 341 328 340 328 Total" " 468 526 466 525 • Source.-;-(C.I. 1961-Pb., Vol. XIII, Pt. V·A) Ignorance on the part of parents coupled with in Hindustani mixed with Urdu, Panjabi and poverty, and semi.vagrant way of life were Hindi. The enquiry revealed that they have reported to be the main reasons for th:e low level some code words which were perhaps used at the of literacy. Simultaneously they are feeling time of some criminal activities in the past. The that they are lagging behind in education but code words of their dialect are quite unintelligible feel helpless to send their wards to schools 011 to the outsiders. Some of their code words were account of their migratory character. collected during the enquiry, which are furnished Dheas are reported to speak Panjabi in their below along with their English and Punjabi equivalents :-- homes; but with the outsiders they would talk As spoken by Dheas Pu{\jabi English Dof Goh Iguana Nuaru Giddar Jackal Gonkhari Gau Cow Khlti Roti Chapati Galana Marna To kill Nectu Kbeh Chupkar Be quiet Reond Aurat/Janani Woman Dhing Nasana To run ..Jc:obna Peenq To drink 103 As sp.)ker. by Dheas Punjabi English Kuaran Gharwali Housewife Kuadami Khasam Husband Lukhari Lumbari FOl{ Nutla Kutta Dog RODgls Khargosh Rabbit Pondbi Gadhi Donkey TWa SianaAdmi Wiseman Dhebra Billa Cat Nuani Pani Water There is hardly any script exclusively of their From one maund of reed about 50 winnowing own ·dialect. fans are prepared and are usually sold in the neighbouring villages at the, rate 'of rupee one 7. Economic Plll'SOits per 'chhaj' and also in exchange of grams weighing one to twb kgs. per 'chhaj'. An adult male orr Preparation of 'chhaj' (winnowing fan) is an average prepares two such winnowing fans the hereditary occupation of Dheas but at the per day. For their reed industry, 'c_hhuri' (knife) time of survey, they were found to be engaged III dao, needle and caddo"~ (wooden block) are the diversified occupations like collecting and selling important tools. The women also participate hides and skins, dealing in rags, pulling rickshaws, in the preparation of 'chhaj'. Regarding their working as agricultural labourers and keeping '\1iork of bones, it was reported that they collect donke) s etc. bones of the dead animals by visiting the known. place.s in the peripbery where corpses are thro~n. The bones are sold either to the contractors or For preparing 'chhaj' they pruchase 'sirki directly to the companies dealing in this business, tillan' (peeled off upper twigs of reed) at the It is to be DOted that in the former case the bones rate of rupees ten 'Per maund and bamboos are are sold at the rate of rupees 5 per maund and purchased at the rate of Qne rupee per babmoc. in the latter case at the rate of rupe"s 7 per niaund The bamboos are further split up to form thill and th~t only three-fourths of the weight is cl:.arge splinters. For makIDg winaowillg fans, the able as the bones are usually fresh and 1/4th <,f reeds are twined and fastened togetber wit):: the the "eight is deducted as discount to make good help of "et strings 'of 'landi' (thong) :"bich they \ tbe loss eventually going to occur on account of prepare themselves by cleaning intestines of dead their setting dry later. Further it is also worth goats or calves. However, they hardly make mentioning that those who prepare 4 cMaJ' claim shoes from their skill. The winnowing fan is themselves to be hip;her in Social s~atus first made in the form of a 'chack' and then its than their brethren dealillg in bones. Similarly two .edges are bent so as to give it the sbape, of they collect rags and sell them. Their women were a spade; and then the bent edges are fastened reported to beg and were lax in sexud matters., with the help of bamooo splinters and !honss. The distributioll of populati?n by" industrlf.l 104 categories as recorded in 1961 census, is given in 'the table below : TABLE 4 Workers Status Total Total Workers As Cultivators As A~cultural La 0urcrS' P M F M F M F M F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rural 325 127 198 32 27 Urban 669 341 328' 199 130 Total 994 468 526 231 157 Workers In Mining, Quarrying, In Manufacturing other In Trade and Livestock, Forestry, At Household Industry than. Household Indus- :. In Construction Commerce Fishing, Hunting and try • Plantation. Orchards and allied Activities M F M F M F M F M F 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 30 27 2 172 129 202 156 2 . Worker,s . Workers In Special Occupations Non-workers In Transport, Storage In Other Services Tranning and CUl'r),- Scavenging and Communications ing of Hides and skins M F M F M F M F M F 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 95 171 6 5 27 1 142 198 2 1 27 1 237 369 8 5 1 Source :-[C.I. 1961, Pb. Vol. XllI, Pt-V-A]. Out of 994 persons, 388 .persons were re in the household industry of 'chhaj' making 18 ·IS corded as workers, i.e., 39 ·03 per cent of their po percent and 49 ·18 per cent of their popUlation in pulation constitutes the working force; and the rural and urban areas, respectively, constitute the rest 60 ·97 per cent constitute the non-workers. working force. The reasons for the higber parti 40 ·46 per cent of the workers constitute the fe cipation rate of working force in urban areas is males, from which it is evident that their females that there exist better facilities of procuring raw sufficiently augment to the income of the house material for their household industry in urban areas Aold by workin~ with their male counterparts as compared with rural areas. Break-up of 1M 60'97 per cent non-wc5tkels is not available. The hut is leeped with cow duns from inside and From the census data it is revealed that an over the deities like Balmik and Lalanwala are pro whelming majority: (92 ·27 per cent of the working pitiated. Gur (JaggelY) is offered to the fIre ano force is engaged:in householdAindustry of 'chhaj' virgins are feaste<' on 'krah' (a sweet preparation making etc. The perce~tages of V'torking forces of ghee, flour and jaggery). engaged in household ind~stry in rural and urban Regarding their matrimonial alliances, the areas are 91'49 per cen(and 96'61 per cent, re community is an endogamous grol'ps ane further pectively. A bout 7'22 per cent of the working it is reported that there also exist some exogamous force ",as recorded engage~ in 'other services' groupings. Some of the exogamous grot ,pings comprising, employment in hotels, or 'dhabas' reported bylthem are 'Banbi' 'Kalian' 'Mattu' including GoVrernment jobs. 8 males and 5 'Ghusar' 'Marar', 'Sadharh', 'Jhoonjh', 'Sarsa,', _females were returned to be engaged in 'Tanning 'Auderey', 'Jhajar', 'Kalyaney't 'Kandiarey', and Currying of Hides and Skins' and one male 'Salwtrey' etc. F.:>r negotiating a marriage, the was returned doing the job of scavenging. Only social groupings of the spouses only need to 2 males were returned engaged 'in manufacturing differ by names. Bride-price was'Creported to other than Household Industry'. The census exist but its monetary value could not be ascer data of 19Gi. reveals that their economy is loom tamed, and was reported to vary according to ing largely on their household industry of 'chha)' the sanctions of caste panchayat. Local making. endogamy is preferred. According to 1961 census in the age 8. Life Cycle group (0-14) years, out of 240 males and Generally the enceinte continues to perform 279 females, only four females V'tere return household duties right upto the advance stage ed as married which establishes that the of pregnancy. Usually the old women of the impact of the practice of child marriage caste render the pre-natal care dai (mid-wife) was an insignificant one. From the age-group either of their own caste or of chuhra caste attends (15--44) years out of 180 males and 196 females, the delivery case. The birth of a male child is 118 males and 179 females were recorded as 'marri preferred as it is thought to continue the ancestra.l ed' ; S6 males and 12 females were ~eturned as 'neVer line. The birth is marked by hanging an onion married'. Six males and 4 females were returned at the door. The dai traditionally gets as widowed' and one female was returned of un Rs. Ii and a piece of cloth as her remuneration. specified status. In the elderly group of 45 years However the amount varies with fte sex and P2rity and above) out of 48 males and 4S females, only or order of birth. Other women of the biradri one male V'tas returned as 'never married'. 40 render assistance to the parturient in post-natal males and 25 females were recorded as 'marrioo'; care of the new born and household duties. 7 males and 20 famales were recorded as 'widowed'. The parturient is hardly segregated, but pollution In case of 2 females, age was not stated; but they is reported to be observed for about 40 days. The were recorded as 'married'. Out of a total of child is fed on mother's milk. It is reported that 468 males and 526 females; 158 males and 210 urine of pig and some bones are offered to the fire females were recorded as 'married' at the tinle of with the belief that tlleir fUmes would scare away 1961 enumeration, revealing that there were either the ghosts or e"iI sp irits from there and this process some polygynous unions, or some of the male is continued for about a fortnight. Any special counterparts of n:arried women had temporarily naming ceremony is rarely observed and any name migrated to the neighbouring places or some mar sugges~ed by the dal or sOple close relative is ried women without their male counterparts had generally approved by the parents. immigrated from neighbouring places. Wbich of the above factors alone or in combination were Purificatory rites consist of sprinkling drops responsible. is difficult to substsntiate for want of of COW urine on tbe neW born and the mother. detailed information 106 Marriages are aorroally arranged' in the age and reproduce.d below :- group (15-:-18) years. For matrimonial allian~es some relative acts as a go-between and w_hen the "Baman ji" de deo Kanya c: e phere" .. "Baman ji" Kharian de reh gae go dey" preliminary talks mature then, boy's father~goes to the girl's father for final negotiations. If both English rendering of the above couplet ap the sid(ts agree, betrothal is performed in which pears like- Rs Ii, coconut, sugar candies are offereo to the boy by the girl's father in the presence of caste "Ob' respected Brahmin, C0nduct the cir elders and jaggery is distributed among virgins cumambulation of the "irgin", The boy's father offers 'gur, 'mauli'" (tinted Cctt?n "Oh respected Brahmin, by standing, our thread) and wine to the girl's father. Gur and knees are tired " wine is distributeq among the members of the It is interesting that even without a Brahmin communit;: Marriages are normally solemnize(! 'pandit' at this occasion they address their own after .the harvesting and the date is fixed after caste priest as Brahmin. The members of the consulting the 'jantri' (almanac) 'Batna' (oil marriage party are, mad~ to sit on the ground and baths) are administered both to the Ooy and girl. meals are served to them in lC?af plates and cups Batna paste prepared from turmeric powder, Liquor is freely consumed among all of the barley flour, mustard oil is rubbed on the boy's 'bradri' present there on this occasion and tradi body for 7 days by his sister, mother, or brother's tionally it -is considered essential as a part of wife and similar process is repeated for 5 days in hospitality even though the bride's parents may the case of girl. The pU1J>ose of rubbing Batnel have to mortgage their utility articles of the touse is primarily t~ add charm to the complexion. to meet this requirement of marriage party. One day before -the departure of 'Barat' (marriage Articles of daily use like clothes, utensils including party) the community brethren are served with some outfits, a box and one or two ornaments lunch. Relatives and' ot!: er close associates offer etc. form tbe dowry of the bride. Marriage is money to the groom. Marriage party u,suaUy partiilocal. Divorce may occur and deceased comprises of 30 to 40 persons, in ,which women brother's ",ife is allow~d to marry her husband's accompany sparingly. The marriage party leaves younger brother. If the husbanp. and wife can for bride's house where bride's ruther along with not adjust, the wife l~aves the husb~nd to join her other members of the community aDd rel~tives parents, and in due course she remarries some one receives the marriage party by offering a turban, else. In such a case the former husband is enti and one rupee to. the groom's father and 'milani' tled to get some compensation from his divorced (introductory meeting) is held between the close wife's father or the latter husband as decide:} by relatives of corresponding status on either side. the caste panchayat. It was reportee that divorce A :Chuhra' priest or a priest of their own caste is generally initiated by the females in this caste. known 8S "sarhangi' offi,?iates to conduct mar Death Rites and Beliefs riages. In the absence of 'sarhangi', oride's elder sister'S husband or .her father's sister's 'husband Dheas bury their dead irrespective of age' or popularly known as 'dhiana' officiates as a priest sex as reported by the informants, The corpse to condLct the marriage ceremony. The cere wrapped in 'kajJan' tshroud) is carried by four mony is performed by conducting 7 'pheras' persons on a cot. Friends and relatives accom (circumambulation) round a wooden seat under pany tt e funeral procession The 'kandhis' or neath which an improvised lamp is lit Any bier carriers stay at deceased's h1.:t for 3 da)'s and scriptures or 'mantras' (hymns) are hardly recited; remain idle and avoid takiot; bl1th during this but 'Ram Ram' is usually uttered and women sing period. 'Taiyya_' (fr.om three) is observed on third songs from which an important couplet \_Vas noted day by cooking rice in a new Vessel by the bier 107 qarticrs, provided by the survive~ ptembers pf fitness .and improvement, in financial soundne~s, family Some of the cooked (thongs) from t~e intestines of c~lves, goats, etc. examine the statement and the parties are asked and Chuhras doing scavenging and carrying night to deposit some more money which is adjustable soil which constitute the lowest offices of all the after imposing fine, etc., if any. Evidences are occupational classifications. At present the social heard, precedents are cited and then verbal disabilities are lightly enforced as the members of judgments are pronounced. If panchayat's the so called upper castes are aware that decision is not honoured by the defeated party, untouchability is an offence under the law. then panchayat supports the victorious one in the court of law. Ifperchance the court of law decides There exists a traditional body functioning 10 the case in favour of the defeated party, the caste principle in th~ form of panchayat. Ordinary panchayat enforces social boycott. It was family disputes are settled by the caste elders. reported that an approach to the court of law is Disputes between different households and colonies an exception rather than the rule. are settled through caste panchayat. The popular office bearers are 'lamberdar', 'panch' and In case of ordinary disputes the person at· ·Sarpanch'. Normally every social grouping fault ate made,to submit and apologise before the is said to have a lamberdar from the same panchayat and fines ranging from Rs 25 to. 50 lineage. The grievances are first reported to the may be inflicted. In case of serIous offences respective lamberdars. The offices of the heavy fines are also inflicted. In case of a 'panches' are more or less hereditary unless and woman refusing to co-habit with her husband the until a 'panch' is impeached for partlali~y and father of the woman has to pay the marriage gross-injustice by the caste members unanimously. expenses and price of the woman to the husband The disputes generally relate to loans, bride-price ranging from Rs 500 to Rs 1,000. It is to be noted and instability of marriage, etc. The parties first that meeting of the panchayat is held away from refer the dispute to the lamberdar of the respec the qabitat lest the others should be disturbed ,?y tive lineage. For throwing open their griev noise during the trial. Women do not partic~pate ances and allegations against the other party the in the panchayat meetings unless summoned plaintiffs call upon four important persons of the specially to get some points of dispute clarified. biradri and approach lamberdar and place rupees The proceedings of the case are rarely recorded, three before him in the presence of four arbitrarily and outsiders are hardly allowed to watch the selected men. In case the other party wants to proceedings of the panchayat. If a case hangs stress its own stand, it accepts the challenge and in balance before the caste panchayat, it is referred also places rupees three from its side before to the regir.nal panchayat and the expenditure the lamberdar. The lambertlars and 'panches' is borne by the appellants. 109 BmLIOGRAPHY Rose, H.A. (Comp.) Daha, Dahiya, Deha, A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province, Vol. I, 1911-pp. 219v 220.223 Sherring, M.A. Dahya Hindu Tribes and Castes as represented in Benaras Calcutta-1872, Vol. m. p. 89 Anand, R..L. Deha, Dhaya or Dhea Census of India. 1961, Vol. XIll, Ph. Part V-A 111 ANNEXURE FRAMEWORK FOR EfHNOGRAPmC STUDY I. Name, Identity, Origin and History 1. N1mp; synonym; SUb.clste/.iub-tribe as in 'President's Order and as in other published' sources such as census re1'orts, monographs,eto., group:ng with other casteS and tribe'S during various c.::nsuses. Affinity with other castes and tribes acco;dingto recognise'd autMrities. 2 EtYmological signi ficance of the name"; names by which the c.ommunity is referred to by (:r) others and (b) itself. 3. Identification c f the community by occupation or any other way of life. 4. Myths and legends connected. with the origin and- history of the 'community and, its ~egments; historical references and popular beliefs about history and migration of the community. II. Distribution and Population Trend 1. Area where found; population and.concentration in the 'State -and outside; phYsical as}'ects of the areas of concentration. 2. Num~rical strength in 1961 and population variations during 1901-1961; sex ratio; age-groups and rural-urban distribution in 196'1. III. Physical Characteristics I. Racial Stock; appearance and affinity with other known communities. IV. Family, Clan, Kinship and Other Analogous Divisions 1. Family; ~ize (observed and published); types, residence after marriage, descent, lineage" and its economic and religious function and inheritance. 2. Clan/G;>tra and sub-clans,. nameS, -etymological meaning, clustering of clans, belief and my thologyabout qrigin, status among clans, clan and regulatio;} of marriage (preference and pro hibition) Occupltion alld clan, clan and rituals, clan and food (restrictions, pres~riptions, etc.). 3. Others: Phratry, Duel organisation, like moieties, ~tc., Min 2 above. V. Dwelling, Dress, Food, Ornaments and other Material Objects Distinctive ofthe Community 1. S"ttlement: Village ,ite, locatioll, settlement pattern (agglomerated, nucleated, dispersed, sprinkled, j solated, am )rphous, star-shaped, horse-sboe~shape~.linear,.t:ectangu1ar, circulal" .o,rring-shaped, etc.) an_d val'iations ; regional pattern, vis-a-vis pattern of the community. 2 Neighbourhood pattern on -tbc basis o[religion,..castes {Caste Hindus; untouchable&-) and tribes etc. with segregations, if anY, and the basis thereof. 3. Dwelling unit: Conij,Jound, entrance, source of water, the use of different parts of the house (latrine, cattle shed, isolation huts, etc.); shape (square; round , irregular; etc.) "Storeys: nat'llre of floor, plinth; wall; roofing; thatching; ventilations and doors; mltterials used ; decorations and embellishmeuts ; temporary structures. 4. Dress, including head-gear and f.oot-wear used-ordinarilY, on ceremonial oCIOl3sions and special occasions, sex-wise and according to majority or minority; dress of priests and. office bearers; variations. 112 5. Ornaments: use; material used; from where obtained; variations according to SeX and age. 6. Personal decoration: Tattooing; mutilation (chipping of teeth, etc.) hair cutting, how done, purpose, attitude and variations according to seX and age. 7. Food and drink : Materials (staple and other), prescriptions and prohibitions, fuel, utensils and mode of preparation ; practices connected with serving and taking offocd; preservation of food and rituals, if any. S. Equip~nts connected with economic pursuits, religion and ritual, how procured; mateiral used, construction, manipulation and purpose. 9. Other household equipments. As above. 10; Equipments connected with recording of time, space and weight and their methods of uSe. As above. VI. Environmental Sanitation, Hygienic Habits, Disease and Treatment 1. Environmental sanitation, settlement, disposal of night-soil, garbage, etc. 2. Hygienio habits: cleanliness of bodY, teeth, dress, houses, utensils, etc. 3. Diseases: Incidence; local rtames; interpretation of the causes; symptoms; diagnosis and cure Persons and methodS involved. 4. Modern systems of medicine and attitude of the community towards it. VII. Language and Education .1. Ancestral Language: Classification according to Grierson, persistence of ancestral language and literature. 2. Mother tongue : classification according to Grierson ; biIin~ua1ism and multi-lingualism. regional language. 3. Information colIected dUring 1961 Census on language and literature. 4. Education and literacy: Traditional and modern attitude. information collected during 1961 Census literacy and levels of education. VIII. Economic. Life 1. Economic Resouroes : Land, ComDltunity Land, individual ownership and types of land possessed and land utilized. 2. Forest wealth: Flora and fauna, nature and extent of right in the forest, forest utilization. 3. Fishery, Livestock and others. 4. Working force: Sex-wise, urban and rural variations and comparisons of the same with the region. s. Non-worker. 6. Industrial classifications: Details as collected in the field and comparison with that of the 1961 Census figures ; traditional occupation and chan~es in the pattern ; main and s1;lbsidiarr OCOUw ' patioDS: 113 .,. Forced labour, bonded labour, patron-client relationship (jajmani), mode of payment. S. Seasonal migration connected with occupation: recruitment, formation of working groups. 9. Nomadic movement: Cycle and occupational pattern. 10. Shifting cultivation : method, implements and equipments, produce, participation, cycle of rotation, measure to regulate shifting ·cultivation and its impact. 11. Terrace cultivation: As above. 12. Income and expenditure: Sources of income, extent, expenditure on food, clothing, house, education, social functions and others. 13. Other aspects of economic life. IX. Life Cycle A. Birth 1. Beliefs and practices connected with conception, barrenness, still birth, miscarriage, abortion. child death, regulation of sex, etc. 2. Pre-natal and mtal pra~tic~3: Re3id~n.~~, diet, w:>rk, taboos etc., delivery place, assistance, equipments used in delivery, p:>sition during d:~livery, severance of umbilical cord (who does and how done), disposal of placenta. 3. Post-natal practices: confinement and segregation, ceremonial pollution, diet for mother and .child, ri~uals. 4. Protection and care of child .and training. 5. Attitude towards birth of child; preference about sex; preference about number, segregation of sex, etc. B. Initiation 1. Initiation ceremony ; descriptions. 2. Pre-marital sex relations within the community, outside the community, sanctions and taboos. C. Marriage 1. Age at marriage for both sex; prohibited degrees of relationship, preferences, widow remarriage (preferences and taboos). 2. Civil Status and Social Status. 3. Types of marriage: Monogamy, polygamy (polyandry and Polygyny). 4. Selection of spouse: Qualities valued (for bride and groom) mode of selection, procedure. S. Modes of acquiring mate: by negotiation,- force, intrusion, elopement, etc. 6. Terms of settlement: Payment of bride' price, dowry, service, exchange, adoptiot1, etc. 7. Ceremonies connected with marriage: details includin2 who presides over the marriallC and services of functional caste~. S. Statistical data as per 1961 Census. 9! pivorce: R~ons and :pr~d~ 114. D. Death 1. Concept about death, measures to ensure future well-being or the soul, measu~s to avert h~ by the spirits. t Methods of disposal: Burial, cremation, exposure, floating on water, etc. 3. Preparations for disposal of dead, informing friends and relatives, treatment of the dead body, digging of pit, etc., for disposal ; how carried, who carry, who accompany, .place of disposal. methods of disposal, norms and taboos. 4. Ceremonies connected with disposal. S. Death rites Details. 6. Monuments Tombs, megaliths, etc. 7. Pollution: duation, restrictions in work, food, dress, shaving, hair cropping, sex life etc., removal of pollution. 8. Mourning: mourners and duration. X. Religion 1. Deities: supreme deity, benevolent deities, malevolent spirits. presiding deities of village and other aspects of life including occupation,· clans, gotras, etc. 2. Place of the deities in the regional pattern and Brahmanjcal and other traditions. 3. Rituals and concepts ~ssociated with the pantheon. 4. Spots associated with the deities, pilgrim centres and methods of worship. 5. Religious functionaries. 6. Calendar of festivals and their observance. 7. Concept of soul, hell, heaven, rebirth, transmigration of soul, etc. 8. Sects and denominations: Name, distribution, beliefs and practices, etc. 9. Statistical information. XI. Leisure, Recreation and Child Play 1. Use of leisure time: .For male, female children and adult ; seasonal variation in leisure time. 2. Recreation-their mode and extent,. for males, -females and children. 3. Leisure. and recreation with reference to work. XU. Relation Among Different Segments of the Community Recognise4 segments-name, basis (territorial, ceremonial, social, prestige, religion, sect, education, age, etc.} Inter-relationship among various segments; status of the segment, status of women. xm. Inter-community Relationship 1. Ceremonial relationship: Service by Brahmins, traditional service by castes like b~rbers, washer men, etc. i 15 2. Pollution by touch or proximity to high Caste Hindus, use of well; admission to temple. 3. Secular relationship: Model for other communities ; dominance due to economic resources, political status, social status, etc. 4. Bridge role, butTer role, alliance and antagonism of the community. ,tIv. Structure of Social Control, Prestige and Leadership 1. Social control: levels of social control, community level, regional level, hereditary, special func tionaries, etc., social control by other agencies. 2. Mode of acquiring offices. 3. Control exercised by traditionally recognised leaders, functionaries of statutory bodies of the region, powerfuJ individuals belonging to the community, etc., at the regional level and local level. 4. Relationship between spheres of social control and agencies of social control. 5. Leadership: For soclal change for technological change, for political action and for other organis ed activities at the community level, regional level and local level. 6. Social prestige: method of gaining social prestige (by p,erforming ritual, merit of feast, associat ing with historical association, etc.) symbols of social prestige. XV. Sodal Reform ud Welfare 1. Social reform movements: intensity; reasons (for' raising social status, establishing traditional norms. for westernisation, etc.) ; History and import of the movements. 2. Social Welfare: Agency, religious organisation, community as a wh-i>le. Government officlal and non-official. role of the social welfare measures and impact: XVL Relereaces dted and other BibUop-aphy. 7499 bco Chd.-Govt. Press, Chd.