The Institutionalisation of Pedagogy in the Second Polish

Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński BHE 40/2019 The Faculty of Educational Studies ISSN 2544-7899 Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań DOI: 10.14746/bhw.2019.40.3 ORCID: 0000-0002-7814-1650

The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period – the case of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of the Piasts (Wszechnica Piastowska)

Abstract: The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period – the case of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of the Piasts (Wszechnica Piastowska) The Second Polish Republic is a period of the institutionalisation and disciplinarisation of pedagogy. The interwar period is characterised by the institutions, established for the pedagogical education of teachers, and agendas that arise along with them, at Polish universities, aiming at pedagogical education and generation of pedagogical knowledge. The example of such actions was the establishment of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of the Piasts (Wszechnica Piastowska). It was due to the efforts of the first directors of the Department – Antoni Danysz, Bogdan Nawroczyński, and Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, that the Poznań academic pedagogy had played a significant role in the structures of the University of Poznań, and in the scientific development of Polish pedagogy. Despite it being shut down in 1933, within the continuous cooperation with the Department of Psychology, the Poznań University, gave the opportunity and shaped the future teachers. Keywords: pedagogy, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, Wszechnicza Piastowska, The University of Poznań, Antoni Danysz, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, the University of the Western Lands, the interwar period

Introduction

The institutionalisation and disciplinarisation of pedagogy in Poland was initiated during the period of building the structures of an independent state – the Second Polish Republic. Since 1918, a number of institutions had appeared, established for the purpose of pedagogical education of teachers and social workers1, and simultaneously, agendas

1 In 1918, the National Pedagogical Institute was created by the initiative of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Warsaw. A year after, a private university had begun its functioning, created by the Scientific 42 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński begin to arise at Polish universities2, aiming at pedagogical education, and the creation of pedagogical knowledge3. Danuta Drynda evaluates the functioning of pedagogy as a discipline in the circumstances of the Second Polish Republic, within the context of the general situation in Polish science, determined by the basic fact, that the newly established Polish state was reborn on the principles of the capitalist system, and in this form, survived until World War 24. In the conditions of the Second Polish Republic, the accomplishments of pedagogy of the partitions period had become insufficient at the time. The object of the pedagogical inquiries was no longer solely the educational process occurring within the school walls, but also, in non-school institutions, as well as, in the course of social activity. In 1919, on the pages of Polish Science (Nauka Polska), Zygmunt Mysłakowski postulated that Polish pedagogy should be scientific and philosophical, and that it “should be Polish”5.

Courses Society created a year before – the Free Polish University (Wolna Wszechnica Polska). Later on, due to the efforts of Maria Grzegorzewska, the National Institute of Special Education was established in Warsaw, in 1922. Moreover, in the 1921–1927, and in the 1930–1930 periods, the National Teachers’ Institute was oper- ational. 2 The agendas at Polish universities, aiming at pedagogical education, and the creation of pedagogical knowledge, started in 1919, with the Faculty of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań, directed by Antoni Danysz, previously a professor at the Jan Casimir University in Lviv. A year after, in 1920, the Pedagogical Institute at the Catholic University of Lublin was created. Zygmunt Kukulski, a historian of education and the publisher of the sources for the history of education, was appointed head of the institute. The Pedagogical Study at the Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, may be considered as another agen- da. Formally, the establishment of the Pedagogical study took place only in 1921, however, already on 14 July 1917, the Faculty of Philosophy Council appointed the department commission, to develop a project of a reform of studies and teaching in high schools. Władysław Heinrich, philosopher and psychologist, had become the its first director. In 1926–1928, within this unit, two faculties were established: The Faculty of Pedagogy, and the Faculty of Clinical Psychology. The former was directed by Zygmunt Mysłakowski, while the latter, by Stefan Szuman. W. Heinrich as also the founder of the Scientific Pedagogical Society, and the editor of the “Philosophical Quarterly” (“Kwartalnik Filozoficzny”). His scholarly works were deeply rooted in positivist views. They were reminded during the 75th annual of the establishment of Pedagogical Studies in two volumes, edited by Kazimiera Pacławska. The Faculty of Pedagogy at the Jagiellonian University was created in 1926. Zygmunt Mysłakowski became the first head of the faculty, however at first, W. Heinrich associated this position with Marian Falski. The pedagogical works of Z. Mysłakowski mainly fit in the school of general pedagogy which arose from sociological and cultural tradition. The Faculty of Pedagogy and Education Organisation at the University of Warsaw, was established in 1926 by Bogdan Nawroczyński. His works focus on didactics and comparative pedagogy, associated with the school referred to as “pedagogy of culture”. Earlier on (in 1920), the Faculty of Experimental Pedagogy was created, commissioned to Władysław Witwicki, and in 1928, the Faculty of Educational Psychology was established, directed by Stefan Baley. Additionally, significant centres of the development of pedagogy were launched at the Stefan Batory University in Vilnius, and at the Jan Casimir University in Lviv. In Vilnius, the greatest impact on the creation and development of pedagogy was due to the historians of education: Marian Massonius (1862–1941) and Ludwik Chmaj (1888–1959), while in Lviv, two great pedagogues, who combined the philosophical perspective with the scientific perspective and the historical and cultural context, the status of which and the capabilities of creating pedagogical environment after 1994, dif- fered significantly: Kazimierz Sośnicki (1883–1976) and Bogdan Suchodolski (1900–1992). 3 HEJNICKA-BEZWIŃSKA, T., Pedagogika ogólna, Warszawa 2008, pp. 113–120. 4 DRYNDA, D., Pedagogika Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej: warunki-orientacje-kontrowersje, Katowice 1987, p. 39. 5 Ibidem, p. 66–67. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 43

In the 1918–1939 period, the Polish pedagogical thought developed under the influ- ence of the ideological and political trends and defined educational needs6. The independent Polish state, created in November 1918, constituted as a parliamentary-democratic republic. The resurgent Poland, faced a non-uniform situation in its territories, in terms of education. Different school systems operated in different territories. The most important task in regard to educational policy, was to unify the system and the level of schooling in the entire country, as well as, to repair, at least to a certain degree, the results of educational malpractices of the partitions period7. Until 1939, Polish pedagogy looked promising. Both the level of scholarly studies, as well as, the level of education in Poland, did not deviate from European standards. Importantly, the majority of the representatives of Polish pedagogy received education at European universities. The institutional framework was established during the Second Polish Republic period8. Particular contribution in this aspect, was due to the first directors of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics and the University of Poznań – Antoni Danysz and Bogdan Nawroczyński. Moreover, an important role was played by Zygmunt Mysłakowski. In 1929, 1931, 1933, and 1931, pedagogical congresses were initiated. Essential impact on the development of pedagogical thought and theories was made by numerous scientific, educational, and teachers’ vocational societies, teachers’ education institutions, and innovative activities of teacher practitioners9. The scholarly progress in this discipline was also inspired by works of other scientific disciplines, associated with pedagogy, such as: psychology (developmental, and educational), and social studies (on education), that often became a scientific guideline for the scholarly pursuits of the pedagogues. A significant impact on the educational practice, and the pedagogical thought in the Poland of the interwar period, was made by the so-called new education movement. The reception of the movement’s ideas were aided by numerous translations of the works of its representatives10. The characteristic features of the movement include: the pursuit of reforming education and school in the spirit of considering the features of the child (individual needs, interests, capabilities, psyche). The features were based on the achieve- ments of psychological and biomedical sciences. Additionally, during this period, an important place in the development of pedagogical thought, was taken by the pedagogy of culture, national pedagogy, as well as, Polish Catholic thought11. According to Stanisław

6 OKOŃ, W. (ed.), Stan i perspektywy rozwoju nauk pedagogicznych, Warszawa 1976, p. 12. 7 WOŁSZYN, S., Oświata i wychowanie w Polsce w latach 1918–1939, in: W. OKOŃ (ed.), Oświata i wychowanie w Polsce Ludowej. Wybrane zagadnienia, Warszawa 1968, p. 34. 8 WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce w XX wieku, Kielce 1998, p. 25. 9 JAMROŻEK, W., Oświata i myśl pedagogiczna w Polsce okresu międzywojennego, in: J. HELLWIG (ed.), Historia wychowania, Poznań 1994, p. 100. 10 Ibidem, p. 101. 11 KORZENIEWSKA, W., Myśl pedagogiczna na przestrzeni wieków. Chronologiczny słownik biogra ficzny, Kraków 2011, p. 180. 44 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński

Michalski, the Second Polish Republic period is a time of innovative “pedagogical novel- ties”, as the establishment of special education12. According to Stefan Wołoszyn, the dominant discipline in the 1918–1926 period, was the so-called pedagogy of national education, and in the following years, the pedagogy of so-called state education13. Moreover, during the entire interwar period, the Polish reality, and educational practice were highly influenced by Catholic pedagogy, which found its theoretical background in the doctrine of Christian pedagogical personalism. Other schools and trends of pedagogy in the world, had also influenced the Polish pedagogical thought and the directions of studies in pedagogical science in Poland14.

The Establishment of the University of the Piasts

It was due to many years of efforts15, that on 7 May 1919, the University of Poznań16 opened its gates to radiate on our Western Borderlands with the light of the Polish cul- ture17. In the Poznań timetable (Kalendarium Poznańskie), the date is signed: the first inauguration of the academic year, at the newly established University of the Piasts18. On this day exactly, in the Poznań Cathedral, at 9:30, a mass had begun, celebrated by the primate of the time, Edmund Dalbor, after which a march was formed and headed from the cathedral over to the Collegium Maius19. The act of consecration of the university building took place in the former throne room of the Poznań castle, and was performed by Edmund Dalbor, a fact that was com- mented by Adam Poszwiński as follows:

The dreams and longings of generations are coming true, the political and state freedom is becoming our doing, and simultaneously, in the spirit of the honourable memory of the principles of our forefathers, that only the wise nation can be free, one of the first concerns of the resur-

12 Zob. MICHALSKI, S., Praca naukowo-badawcza nauczycieli w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, Poznań 1994. 13 WOŁOSZYN, S., Dzieje wychowania i myśli pedagogicznej w zarysie, Warszawa 1964, p. 631. 14 Ibidem, pp. 635–637. 15 See, e.g.: GOŁĘBIOWSKI, S.Z., “Starania polskie o uniwersytet w Poznaniu w XX wieku”, Studia i ma- teriały do dziejów Wielkopolski i Pomorza 1957, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 29–58. 16 On 10 April 1920, by request of the University of the Piasts senate, the Ministry of Religion and Public education (“Goverrnment Gazette of the Ministry of the Former Prussian District” no. 24, 26 May 1920), gave the University of the Piasts an official name. This way, the University of the Piasts was renamed to the University of Poznań. 17 Words spoken by commissioner Adam Poszwiński, on behalf of the Supreme People’s Council, during the blessing of the building of Collegium Maius by primate Edmund Dalbor. 18 REZLER, M., Kalendarium poznańskie, Poznań 2003, p. 93. 19 CZUBIŃSKI, A., Utworzenie Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego i jego rozwój do 1922 roku, in: Alma Mater Posnaniensis. W 80. rocznicę utworzenia Uniwersytetu w Poznaniu, (eds) P. HAUSER, T. JASIŃSKI, J. TO POLSKI, Poznań 1999, p. 128. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 45

gent Poland – is the concern for the light for the nation20 […] The efforts of this new University should strive not only to satisfy the practical needs of the moment, but they should care about the mission task of the Polish science […] The University of the Piasts […] is to be a university not only in the service of pure science, but also in the service of forming citizens21.

The task of the University was obvious: it was to be a university of education, science, culture, a bonfire of patriotism seen from afar22, after all universitas means a community, or an association of masters and students23. The day ended with a stage performance of Warsawian (Warszawianka) by Stanisław Wyspiański, at the Polish Theatre (Teatr Polski) and an inaugural lecture (first at the University) held by prof. Kazimierz Tymieniecki, regarding the history of universities in Poland24. The first classes were held on 12 May 191925. In June 1919, the first Senate of the University of the Piasts was appointed – Poznań has finally lived to see its own uni- versity26. The establishment of the University in Poznań in such a short time, was not only a matter of ambition of Heliodor Święcicki, considered to be one of the most stellar fig- ures, entirely dedicated to serving the idea and the nation27 and his associates, but also a significant political event. The fact, primarily demonstrated the Polish nature of Polonia Maior and Poznań, and the organisational capabilities of the Polish nation, as well as, that the territories may be placed in Polish hands, and the Poles are able to manage them. The Poznań university pedagogy may be praised for honourable traditions. The theoretical reflections regarding the Poznań pedagogy are denoted by such historical facts as: the activity of the medieval cathedral school in Poznań; the activity of Lubranscianum established in 1519; the activity of the Poznań Jesuit College established in 1573; the scholarly pursuits of the lecturers of the seminary, created under the supervision of the Jesuit Society in 1576; the scientific activity of the St. Maria Magdalena Middle School in Poznań; the postulates of the enlightened Poles, and those assigned to represent the cause in the Prussian parliament, in regard to establishing a higher education school or a university in Poznań (particularly Wojciech Lipski, Karol Libelt and August Cieszkowski in the Prussian parliament); the public lectures held at the Działyńscy Palace, the Bazar,

20 BANASIEWICZ, M., CZUBIŃSKI, A., Źródła do dziejów Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Po znaniu, Poznań 1973, p. 252. 21 KLAFKOWSKI, A., “Na 40-lecie Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza”, Kronika Miasta Poznania 1959, no. 4, pp.5–21. 22 MIŚKIEWICZ, B., Uniwersytet Poznański. Fakty, refleksje, wspomnienia, Poznań 1983, pp. 14–15. 23 BORAS, Z., Tradycje uniwersyteckie Poznania, Poznań 2003, p. 20. 24 From the 2009/2010 academic year inaugural speech titled “The academic traditions of Poznań and the establishment of the University of Poznań in 1919” (Tradycje akademickie miasta Poznania i powstanie Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego w 1919 roku), published in University Life (Życie Uniwersyteckie), 2009, no. 12, pp. 17–18. 25 ŁĘCKI, W., MALUŚKIEWICZ, P. (ed.), Poznań od A do Z, Poznań 1988, pp. 318–319. 26 TOPOLSKI, J., Historia Polski, Poznań 2003, p. 239. 27 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1923/1924, Poznań 1925, p. 4. 46 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński the Maria Magdalena Middle School, realised during the partitions; the 1857 establishment and the activity of the Poznań Society of the Friends of Sciences; the establishment of the Agricultural University by August Cieszkowski, in Żabikowo near Poznań; the activity of the Society for Scientific Lectures since 191328, as well as, the establishment of the University of the Piasts, having a Faculty of Philosophy with the first Department of Pedagogy and Didactics29.

The beginnings of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, University of Poznań, in the 1919–1926 period

The inauguration of the Poznań university pedagogy can be traced back to 1919, when the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was established at the University of Poznań, a fact that was considered to be an exceptional event for the development of Polish pedago- gy30. However, already on 10 December 1918, during the IV proceedings of the University Commission, by request of prof. Heliodor Święcicki, a resolution was issued regarding the creation of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, at the planned University of the Piasts. Simultaneously, prof. Antoni Danysz was considered to be the head of the Department31. Stefan Błachowski, the long lasting head of the Department of Psychology at the University of Poznań, wrote about the causes of establishing university studies in Poznań: the knowledge, that in the Reborn Poland, pedagogy must develop properly for the good of education, encouraged the University of Poznań, to create one such department in Poland, a department of pedagogy, and to propose it to professor Danysz32. Antoni Danysz had become the head of the Department at the age of 6633. Stefan Błachowski, the student of Kazimierz Twardowski34, had become the head of the Department of Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy, at the University of Poznań. It was on 22 February 1919, that via the request of the Department of Educational Affairs Commissioner’s Office of the Supreme People’s Council, prof. Antoni Danysz was offered the position of the head of the Department. Interestingly, in 1917 he refused to accept the

28 HELLWIG, J., “Poznańscy pedagodzy i ich wkład w rozwój nauk o wychowaniu w okresie między wojennym”, Studia Edukacyjne 1998, no. 4, pp. 111–119. 29 See: K. Nowak-Kluczyński, Pedagogika na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim 1919–1933, in: A. ĆWIKLIŃSKI, M. PRZYBYŁA (eds), Społeczeństwo i edukacja. Teorie a implikacje praktyczne, Poznań 2015, pp. 45–69. 30 DRYNDA, D., op. cit., p. 70. 31 KOBEK, I., Katedra Pedagogiki Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego w latach 1945–1970, Poznań 1990 (maszynopis), p. 4. 32 BŁACHOWSKI, S., “Pedagogika w Uniwersytecie Poznańskim”, Kurier Poznański 1924, no. 264, p. 6. 33 BROMBEREK, B., Studia uniwersyteckie w zakresie nauki o edukacji w świetle badań empirycznych, Poznań 1998, p. 33. 34 See: HORNOWSKI, B., “Życie i działalność prof. Dra S. Błachowskiego”, Przegląd Pedagogiczny 1963, no. 6. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 47 position of the head of the Department of Pedagogy at the University of Warsaw35. It is worth mentioning, that during the proceedings of the Adjustment Commission in Kraków, two candidates were presented: Antoni Danysz, and the historian of education, Antoni Karbowiak36. Learning about being appointed as the head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań, in a letter from 10 March 1919, addressing the Department of Educational Affairs Commissioner’s Office of the Supreme People’s Council, Antoni Danysz wrote:

I have the honour to respond to the proclamation of 22 January 1919, of the Supreme Com missioner’s Office, that I am prepared to take the position as the head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the soon-to-be University in Poznań. I consider it as an obligation, to express my earnest gratitude to the Supreme Commissioner’s Office, that they have given me an opportunity to serve my proper country and my family city, for which I could not do anything yet. Unfortunately, I can only offer the last bits of my life and my strength to Polonia Maior, as I am 66 years of age. I have just received the proclamation of the Supreme Commissioner’s Office a few days ago. Appointing me in Poznań, has struck me as completely unprepared. Therefore, it is impossible for me, to abide by the expressed wish, for me to already appear in Poznań in the present month. As I will probably never return to Galicia, I must finalise my 27 years of stay here, for which I shall require a few weeks. Anyway, I will arrive to Poznań in proximity of 1 May. In case of a possible roster of lecturers, I wish to inform, that I intend to hold lectures in the 1919 Summer semester: general pedagogy – 3 hours, Pedagogical seminar – 2 hours, including reading and the review of pedagogical works written by the listeners; the reading and explanation of the oldest Polish pedagogy by Erazm Gliczner titled ‘The book on education’37.

During the 1919–1924 period, the first head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, Antoni Danysz, was also the vice-rector of the University of Poznań, to honour his enormous organisational experience38. He was born on 16 January 1853 in Poznań, a son of Ignacy (a captain in the November Uprising) and Paulina Rehfald, as a son of a county zemstvo official39. His sister, Michalina, married Stanisław Motty, a Polonia Maior social activist, the co-founder of the Poznań Society of the Friends of Sciences, and a brother of Marceli Motty – a Poznań columnist. Antoni Danysz graduated elementary school in Poznań, and later went to the St. Maria Magdalena Middle School in the same city. After receiving the school diploma in 1871, he went to study history of literature

35 WRZOSEK, A. (ed.), Uniwersytet Poznański w pierwszych latach swego istnienia (1919, 1919–1920, 1920–1921, 1921–1922, 1922–1923): za rektoratu Heliodora Święcickiego: księga pamiątkowa, Poznań 1924, p. 73. 36 NOWACZYK, E., Działalność naukowa i pedagogiczna Antoniego Danysza, Poznań 1980 (typescript), p. 20. 37 HELLWIG, J., Dzieje historii wychowania w Polsce i jej twórcy, Poznań 2001, pp. 127–128. 38 Zob. NOWAK-KLUCZYŃSKI, K., Kierownicy Katedry Pedagogiki i Dydaktyki na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim w okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, in: E. GŁOWACKA-SOBIECH, K. KABACIŃSKA- -ŁUCZAK (eds), Wielkopolska i Wielkopolanie w dziejach polskiej edukacji, Poznań 2017, pp. 231–256. 39 CEGIELSKA, P., Z moich wspomnień. Przechadzki po mieście, Poznań 1997, p. 32. 48 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński at the University of Wrocław (until 1872), then he transferred to the Leipzig University, where, in the 1872–1876 period, he studied history, Slavic studies , classical philology, and Indo-European linguistics40. He accomplished his PhD in Wrocław in 1876, on the basis of a dissertation titled “De scriptorum inprimis poetarum romanorum studiid Catullanis”. Also in Wrocław, he passed his teacher’s exam in 187741. In 1878–1909 he worked as classical languages teacher, in middle schools in Nakło, Poznań, and Bydgoszcz (1878– 1882), in a German middle school in Międzyrzecze (1882–1885, he lost his position, for national attitude), in Rinteln and Nysa (1885–1892), and in the St. Anna middle school in Kraków. In 1895, he defended his postdoctoral thesis titled “The Reform of teaching modern languages, and the primary teaching of Gearman in Galician high schools”, becoming assistant professor at the Department of Pedagogy, University of Lviv (until 1902); he taught the didactics of modern languages. He was also a teacher of classical languages and Polish in the III middle school in Lviv42. In 1903–1903 he was the principal of the VI middle school in Lviv, and continued his pedagogical work. Already, some wrote about Antoni Danysz as the “leading pedagogue of the time, and an appreciated author of many works”43. In November 1909, Antoni Danysz retired and moved to Kraków, dedicating his time to scholarly research in Polish studies and pedagogy44. Since the beginning of fulfilling his functions, Antoni Danysz involved himself in the works for the entire University. He strived for building a strong Poznań academic centre for pedagogical education, and for giving it a proper rank. While developing the base of subjects, he focused on that which would give the candidates for teaching professions, the broad and systematic knowledge, not only from the pedagogical and psychological areas, but also, auxiliary sciences, i.e. physical education and school hygiene. The selection of taught disciplines was a guarantee of a thorough and comprehensive preparation for teaching in a high school. Graduating pedagogical studies at the University of Poznań, gave the students full qualifications to teach in high schools. Antoni Danyszmade a name for himself as an exceptional pedagogue, highly acknowledged in sciences, endowed with a crit- ical sense, a fencer of educational principles, in the areas of classical and Slavic philology, the history of education, pedagogy, and didactics45. When the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań was beginning its educational activity, it did not posses the proper facilities. Importantly, the Department also lacked proper budget needed for its functioning. At the beginning, a room at the ground floor of the Castle was used for the need of the Faculty. However, on a year-

40 MOŻDŻEŃ, S., Danysz Antoni, in: T. PILCH (ed.), Encyklopedia pedagogiczna XXI wieku, vol. I, Warszawa 2003, p. 615. 41 STOPIŃSKA-PAJĄK, A., Danysz Antoni, in: W. BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, D. DRYNDA, Słownik pe dagogów polskich, Katowice 1998, p. 45. 42 WINNICKA, H., Danysz Antoni, in: M. ROSIŃSKA-JACKL (ed.), Słownik historyków polskich, Warszawa 1994, p. 100. 43 BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, W., Pionierzy psychologii naukowej w Polsce, Katowice 1971, p. 127. 44 NOWACZYK, E., op. cit., p. 15. 45 MOŻDŻEŃ, S., op. cit., p. 615–616. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 49 ly basis, the number of students grew. In 1922, on 51 students, free space could not be found for almost half of them46. Another difficult which Antoni Danysz faced was the short- age of books and handbooks for didactic work. However, on 30 June 1919, the library of the King’s Academy was acquired, and the “crawling” Poznań university pedagogy received a couple hundred volumes of pedagogical works. The granted collection was primarily in German, supplemented with individual books in Polish. The cause of this fact, was the high prices of Polish books47. Prof. Antoni Danysz, as it was customary at the time, added his personal collection to the library. Due to the inaccessibility to books, the students would read the Elżbieta Rakuska Treatise (Traktat Elżbiety Rakuskiej) translated by Antoni Danysz, On education (O kształceniu) by Antoni Danysz, or the General pedagogy (Ogólna pedagogika) by Johann Friedrich Herbart in original and in translation. Wishing the solve the ailments of pedagogy in Poland, Antoni Danysz made efforts to publish the Library of Pedagogical Classics (Biblioteka Klasyków Pedagogiki)48 in Polish, with works, or parts of works by Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, St. Augustine, Thomas More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Juan Luis Vives, John Amos Comenius, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Johann Friedrich Herbart, and other leading representatives of pedagogical thought49. The Department of Pedagogy and Didactics conducted didactic activity for the entire Philosophical Faculty of the University of Poznań. The audience consisted mostly of the future high school teachers, but there were others. Furthermore, a significant percentage of the audience consisted of elementary school teachers, priests, and other individuals, that were not associated with schools, but were interested in the issues of pedagogy. The audience also included rural teachers, who maintained no contact with high schools, however, out of their personal interest for educational matters, they attended the lectures. In most cases, the audience members came from Polonia Maior, but also Eastern Prussia, Polonia Minor, Silesia, and other regions50. The students attended pedagogical studies after graduating their scholarly studies, however, pedagogical lessons and classes underwent previously (simultaneously with the scholarly studies) were also passed51. In the later period of the functioning of the Department, the requirements towards the listeners were tightened. Candidates attending pedagogical studies, should also have general philosophical education (general psychology, the outlines of the history of philosophy, logic and general meth- odology, along with a systematic overview of the key philosophical concepts). It is worth mentioning, that the pedagogical studies at the University of Poznań, during the interwar

46 WRZOSEK, A., Uniwersytet Poznański w pierwszych latach swojego istnienia za rektoratu H. Świę cickiego, Poznań 1924, p. 513. 47 Księga Pamiątkowa Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. Lata 1919–1923, Poznań 1925, p. 73. 48 HELLWIG, J., “Prace naukowe Antoniego Danysza w Katedrze Pedagogiki na Uniwersytecie Po znańskim w latach 1919–1925”, Kronika Wielkopolski 1992, no. 1, p. 63. 49 DANYSZ, A., “Studium Pedagogiczne wyższe. Studium Pedagogiki w Uniwersytecie Poznańskim”, Przegląd Pedagogiczny 1922, no. 3, pp. 244–251. 50 HELLWIG, J., Prace naukowe Antoniego Danysza…, p. 62. 51 DANYSZ, A., op. cit., pp. 244–251. 50 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński period, provided both theoretical knowledge, and practical skills. The students of the time, would visit schools, and actively participate in lessons. The studies’ and exercises’ curriculum within the classes held by the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was based on the curriculum of the subjects of the state exam for high school teachers, as preparation for the exams, was the task of pedagogical studies52. At the beginning of own activity, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics would focus its scholarly and research interest, mostly on the issues related to the theory of education, the education of adults, and the history of education53. Cooperation was established with the Department of School Hygiene and Physical Education. Since 1919, Eugeniusz Piasecki held classes on school hygiene and the theory of physical education. In 1921, the Dpartment of Pedagogy established cooperation with the Department of Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy. The scholarly and scientific subject matter intertwined among these Departments. In the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, psychological issues were raised (Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, Marian Wachowski, Tadeusz Zaworski), the Department of Psychology, with its activity related to developmental, educational and clinical psychology, would circle around some forms of pedagogy54. In the works of the pedagogues of the time, one may distinguish a number of disciplines: the general theory of education, the education of adults, history of education, didactics and the methodol- ogy of some taught subjects. The scientific and scholarly works of the employees of the Department of the University of Poznań were supported i.a. by Karol Mazurkiewicz, assistant professor Stanisław Tync and dr Marian Wachowski55. Since 1921, Antoni Danysz had become the member and correspondent of PAU (Polska Akademia Umiejętności – The Polish Academy of Learning)56. He was considered to be one of the most merited pedagogues of the University of Poznań. He organised and became the head of the Exam Commission for the candidates attempting to become teachers. Since its beginnings, the University of Poznań had had a separate Department of Pedagogy and Didactics. It is important, as due to the fact, it was the only Polish University, where one could achieve the scientific degree of a doctor of philosophy in pedagogy as the main discipline. The Pedagogical Studies were not a separate university establishment called a pedagogical institute, or a pedagogium, as was the case with other universities. Pedagogy was treated equally with other disciplines (it was taught in a compulsory number of hours). The lectures were held on general pedagogy, general didactics, andd the history of pedagogy in a course of three years. Seminar classes to be held for two hours a week, involved reading and explaining pedagogical works, as well as, reading and discussing the

52 ZBIERSKI, K., Zagadnienie kształcenia nauczycieli szkół średnich, Warszawa 1930, pp. 33. 53 AMBROZIK, W., Pedagogika poznańska – dokonania i perspektywy rozwoju, in: W. AMBROZIK, K. PRZYSZCZYPKOWSKI (eds), Uniwersytet. Społeczeństwo. Edukacja, Poznań 2004, p. 13. 54 KOWALSKI, S., Pedagogika a psychologia, in: G. LABUDA (ed.), Nauka w Wielkopolsce, Poznań 1973, p. 437–438. 55 HELLWIG, J., “Poznańscy pedagodzy i ich wkład w rozwój nauk o wychowaniu w okresie między wojennym”, Studia Edukacyjne 1998, no. 4, pp. 111–119. 56 STOPIŃSKA-PAJĄK, A., Danysz Antoni, p. 46. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 51 works prepared by the members of the seminar57. Regarding the selection of the source literature, Antoni Danysz was not fully in power to decide about the matter. He was significantly dependent on the availability of the selected works, and, particularly, on their amount. Prof. Antoni Danysz worked at the position of the head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań until 30 September 1924. Then, at his request, he was retired. However, in order to be able to supervise the staff of the Department, he re- quested the Faculty Council, to appoint prof. Stainsław Kot from Kraków, a leading historian of education, as the new head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics. When he refused, Antoni Danysz proposed Bogdan Nawroczyński as the candidate. Nawroczyński accepted the offer, simultaneously becoming associate professor in pedagogy58. In the Chronicles of the University of Poznań, for the 1923/1924 academic year, it reads:

The departure of prof. Danysz was almost simultaneous with the final establishment of the basics of the organisation of the Pedagogical Institute, which, associated with the University only in scientific terms, served a purpose, that previously, was fulfilled only by the Department of prof. Danysz, that being the education of the adepts of the Philosophical Faculty, in the methods of teaching these disciplines of knowledge that they have previously only learned from lectures and classes59.

After five years of academic activity, the worsening health condition of Antoni Danysz, forced him to “remove himself to his recess”60. The Dean’s office, by means of an official letter from 30 September 1924, had placed Antoni Danysz on retirement (he died a year after)61. The letter states:

When at the beginning of 1919, in Polonia Maior, the University was being established, every- one agreed that the first in Poland Department of Pedagogy, and one of the first Departments at the Polonia Maior University, should be handed to the Good Son of Polonia Maior, Director Danysz. You have not refused the call, You took the Department in 1919, and yoY started a very fruitful activity anew. You created the Pedagogical Seminar, established an Examination Com mission for candidates for the High School Teacher profession, a Commission which You were the first to supervise, You developed regulations for it, You held lectures, You taught without car- ing for Your own weak health, yet giving a shining example to Your colleagues and students. Acknowledged by all, You had become the first vice-rector at the Poznań University, in the 1919/1920 academic year. Today, when by own request, You temporarily part with our School, please accept, Beloved Professor, our most cordial thank you for working without limits, for great love, with which You have embraced the youth and the School, and for Your kind heart62.

17 December 1925, Antoni Danysz passed away, a honorary professor of pedagogy and didactics, the first vice-rector of the University of Poznań, and the member correspondent

57 BŁACHOWSKI, S., “Pedagogika w Uniwersytecie Poznańskim”, Kurier Poznański 1924, no. 264, p. 6. 58 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1924/1925, Poznań 1926, p. 10. 59 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1923/1924, Poznań 1925, p. 9. 60 HELLWIG, J., Prace naukowe Antoniego Danysza…, p. 64. 61 WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu…, p. 25. 62 NOWACZYK, E., op. cit., p. 28. 52 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński of the Polish Academy of Learning. He contributed exceptionally as a teacher, scholar, and social activist63. With these words, prof. Ludwik Sitowski began the inaugural celebrations of the new academic year, on 3 October 1926. On 1 January 1925, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań is taken over by Bogdan Nawroczyński64. In reply to the 30 June 1924 letter of the Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Poznań, offering Nawroczyński the position of the head of the Department of Pedagogy, in a 2 July 1924 reply, he wrote as follows: I accept the honourable proposition of me taking the position of the Department of Pedagogy at the University of Poznań. It fully meets my intent to dedicate my entire time and all my strength to pedagogical studies, and to pedagogy teaching65. Bogdan Nawroczyński (1882–1974), was an acknowledge pedagogue (since the time of the “school strike” of 1905 until his passing)66 and a philosopher, a professor at the University of Poznań (1925–1926) and the University of Warsaw (1926–1960)67. Previously, he worked in private middle schools as a teacher of philosophy and Polish literature propaedeutics. Since 1913, he had collaborated with the “Pedagogical Review” (“Przegląd Pedagogiczny”). Between 1917 and 1924, he was a school inspector for the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, and in 1922–1928, he was the head of the Pedagogical Commission, at the Curriculum Department. While at the University of Poznań, where in 1925 he took over the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, in his scholarly work he focused on the idea of “new education” with particular consideration of the issues related to the laboratory school68. In 1926, when he went on to the University of Warsaw, he took the position of the head of the Department of Pedagogy, and actively participated in the organisation of pedagogical studies at UW, at the Faculty of Philosophy (since 1927 – the Faculty of Humanities)69. In 1926, at the University of Warsaw, he established Pedagogical Studies, being the head of which until 1939. The activity of Bogdan Nawroczyński in the Department of Pedagogy of the University of Poznań, is scarcely described in the source literature:

Simultaneously, as an associated professor, he took over the Department of Peadgogy at the University of Poznań, after the departure of Antoni Danysz, despite the fact, that Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was supposed to be appointed to the position. We do not know any details

63 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1925/1926, Poznań 1926, p. 3. 64 KUPISIEWICZ, Cz., Nawroczyński Roman Bogdan, in: W. BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, D. DRYNDA, Słownik pedagogów polskich, Katowice 1998, pp. 150–152. 65 DOLATA, B., Bogdan Nawroczyński (1882–1974) jako kierownik Katedry Pedagogiki Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, Poznań 1994 (typescript), pp. 39–40. 66 WOŁOSZYN, S., Źródła do dziejów wychowania i myśli pedagogicznej, vol. 3, issue 2: Myśl pe dagogiczna w XX stuleciu, Kielce 1998, p. 9. 67 WINNICKA, H., Nawroczyński Bogdan, in: M. PROSIŃSKA-JACKL (ed.), Słownik historyków pol skich, Warszawa 1994, p. 372. 68 WOŁOSZYN, S., Dzieje wychowania, pp. 611–612. 69 KUPISIEWICZ, Cz., Nawroczyński Roman Bogdan…, pp. 150–152. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 53

about Nawroczyński’s activities within the department, however, his work in the Department of Pedagogy and Education Organisation, at the Humanities Faculty, University of Warsaw, which he became head of in 1926, is well documented70.

As a scholar he examined the matters of education, general didactics, comparative pedagogy, and the history of pedagogical thought. He is an author of many exceptional books and dissertations within the educational sciences, written primarily in the spirit of the pedagogy of culture. According to Bogdan Nawroczyński, the ideal of education, is a man, who possesses, and combines all valuable, and at the same time varied, accomplishments of culture, with continuous and creative improvement71. Bogdan Nawroczyński is inseparably associated with the pedagogy of culture72. His book titled The Spiritual Life (Życie duchowe) had become the essential work on the pedagogy of culture in Poland73. He was the one, who in the second half of the 20th century positioned the pedagogy of hu- man spirituality as equal to the pedagogy of culture. In the course of his scholarly work, he proposed a thesis, that man is not just a “product” of culture, but also its co-creator74. Regarding the process of education he placed significant emphasis on the shaping of per- sonality, in which the accomplishment of culture strictly harmonise with the individuali- ty of the student75. He placed particular emphasis on the concept of pedagogical authority, he proposed an elite and selective school system76. According to Bogdan Nawroczyński, it is education that constitutes the basis for introduction to the world of cultural accomplishments. His theory of actions, creations, and the processes of spiritual life, had become a philosophical basis for his pedagogical system77. Bogdan Nawroczyński worked at the University of Poznań for just a year. On 8 May 1926, the President of the Second Polish Republic appointed Bogdan Nawroczyński as the associate professor of pedagogy and education organisation at the University of Warsaw 78. On 1 October 1926, Bogdan Nawroczyński took the position79. His transfer to Warsaw was

70 JAROSZUK, T., Z iskrą filarecką w oku. Świat i dzieło Bogdana Nawroczyńskiego, Olsztyn 2004, p. 40. 71 KUPISIEWICZ, Cz., KUPISIEWICZ, M., Słownik pedagogiczny, Warszawa 2009, p. 16. 72 See: MILERSKI, B., Pedagogika kultury, in: Z. KWIECIŃSKI, B. ŚLIWERSKI (eds), Pedagogika. Tom I, Warszawa 2003, pp. 220–231. 73 Zob. NAWROCZYŃSKI, B., Życie duchowe. Zarys filozofii kultury, Kraków–Warszawa 1947. 74 WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce…, p. 65. 75 DRYNDA, D., Cele kształcenia w dydaktyce Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej w świetle założeń pedagogiki kultury. Historyczne inspiracje dla współczesnej edukacji, in: D. DRYNDA (ed.), Inspiracje dla współczesnej edukacji w dydaktyce Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, Katowice 2000, p. 43. 76 KRAJEWSKI, M., Dzieje wychowania i doktryn pedagogicznych, Płock 2005, pp. 206–207. 77 WOŁOSZYN, S., Bogdana Nawroczyńskiego filozofia kultury, in: S. WOŁOSZYN, Pedagogiczne wędrówki przez wieki i zagadnienia. Studia i szkice, Warszawa–Toruń 1996, pp. 110–114. 78 KACZOROWSKI, H., Nawroczyński Bogdan, in: T. PILCH (ed.), Encyklopedia pedagogiczna XXI wie ku, Tom III, Warszawa 2004, p. 604. 79 DOLATA, B., Bogdan Nawroczyński, p. 53. 54 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński a “great loss” for the Poznań university pedagogy. However, the “loss” was compensated by prof. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski of Lviv, whose postdoctoral dissertation on experimental pedagogy and the didactics of natural sciences had already been accomplished80.

The Department of Pedagogy and Didactics under the supervision of Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski (1927–1933)

During the 1927–1933, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was the head of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań81. He was born on 19 January 1881 in Zagwoźdź near Stanisławowo, he passed away on 18 June 1948 in Poznań82, and was a pi- oneer in educational psychology and experimental pedagogy in Poland. He studies natural sciences, philosophy, and pedagogy at the University of Lviv, and he complemented his knowledge at Sorbonne, in Marburg, and at the Medical Faculty of the University of Lviv. In 1921, in the reborn Poland, he had become the senior professor of zoology and para- sitology at the Academy of Veterinary Medicine in Lviv, and at the National Pedagogical Studies, and in 1923, he became the director of the Department of Sciences and Higher Education at the Ministry of Religion and Public Education. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski acquired his knowledge in France, Italy, and Germany83. His scientific interests were primarily directed at experimental didactics. He promoted, i.a. the idea of a students’ self-govern- ment. He also created a classification of the disciplines of pedagogical anthropology, and significantly contributed to the development and the distinction of scholarly methods84. He studied the issue of the Polish ideal of education, adopting the national, Catholic, and citi- zen ideas, as fundamental principles85. He was a promoter of Darvin’s theory of evolution, he promoted the ideas of Benedykt Dybowski, and he received his PhD under the supervision of Józef Nusbaum-Hilarowicz, he was fascinated with Jan Czekanowski’s anthropology, and genetics. He was an advocate of applying statistics to biology and pedagogy. His scholarly work, completed in Poznań, amount to more than 120 works, including 10 in for- eign languages (Czech, Slovakian, German, and French), primarily in the form of dissertations, articles, research reports, and methodological monographs86. The scholarly works of Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, that remained in Poznań, were destroyed by the Germans during the occupation, while his works completed during the occupation itself, were burnt dur-

80 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1925/1926, Poznań 1926, p. 6. 81 BROMBEREK, B., Studia uniwersyteckie…, op. cit., p. 34. 82 KACZMARZYK-KIEŁB, L., Bykowski-Jaxa (Jaksa) Ludwik, in: W. BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, D. DRYNDA, Słownik pedagogów polskich, p. 31. 83 MALINOWSKI, A., “Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski o szkolnictwie wyższym”, Forum Akademickie 2011, no. 7–8, p. 93. 84 KACZMARZYK-KIEŁB, L., Bykowski-Jaxa (Jaksa) Ludwik, p. 31. 85 GĄSIOROWSKI, A. (ed.), Historia wychowania. Słownik biograficzny, Olsztyn 2002, p. 15. 86 HELLWIG, J., Poznańscy pedagodzy, p. 119. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 55 ing the Warsaw Uprising. A part of his scholarly works were secured by historians, while a part of it was given to the Department of Anthropology of the University of Poznań. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, while in office, did not support the existence of scientific institute outside of universities. He claimed that, e.g. museums and scientific libraries may exist in such form. He supported large universities with many faculties, similar to Anglo- Saxon ones. He considered small vocational universities to be convenient to the gov- ernment and the politicians. At large universities, contacts between various experts, lecturers and students expand the perspectives, and serve the purpose of building a future. Universities should unify all disciplines of science and art. The faculties should comple- ment each other. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was a promoter of going beyond the clichés of specialist education, and providing the students with the opportunity of studying disciplines from related areas, but different faculties. According to Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, the condition of the proper functioning of a university, is the presence of academic self- governments that ensure autonomy. He used the example of British universities. He com- plained about the fact that the majority of universities was subordinate to the state. In his texts, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski raised the issue of the election of university authorities, and professor nominations. In his manuscript titled The current tasks of the Polish student (Zadania studenta pol- skiego w dobie obecnej) Ludwik Jaxa Bykowski wrote, that science should be the dem- onstration and the supplement to practice, by explaining its principles. He wrote of the great role of humanities. He thought, that goodness, truth and beauty are important val- ues during studies. While they cannot be weighed, estimated, nor evaluated87. The task of the student cannot be limited solely to studies. Both students and scholars should not seal themselves off in their speciality, but instead, remain in contact with the entirety of collec- tive life. Passive examination of life, and listening to what is happening, does not suffice. According to Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, it is not enough for the student to master the knowledge given by the professor, and contained in handbooks. The student should learn to fol- low the written word, and expand his knowledge continuously. Being the professor of zoology at the Academy of Veterinary Medicine in Lviv, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, had displayed interest in the didactic matters, and in the theory of education for a long time. Taking advantage of the opportunity, that in Poznań, a Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was active, he opened his postdoc program, which was finalised on 19 May 1926, and already a year after, in October, he became the head of the Departmentę88. After taking over the Department of Pedagogy in 1927, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski created a pedagogical laboratory, a scientific and specialist library, and a school museum. Along with Stefan Błachowski, the head of the Department of Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy, he founds the Scientific Pedagogical Society89.

87 MALINOWSKI, A., Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski o szkolnictwie wyższym, p. 94. 88 CZUBIŃSKI, A., Dzieje Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego w latach 1918–1939, pp. 156–257. 89 BŁACHOWSKI, S., “Uniwersytet Poznański. Wiedza pedagogiczna”, Kurier Poznański 1929, no. 2, p. 6. 56 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński

In 1928, the Society consisted of three sections: Sociology of Education with Florian Znaniecki, Phsyical Education and School Hygiene supervised by Eugeniusz Piasecki, and a Pedagogical and Educational Section, of which he himself assumed control. The section was a branch, located in Warsaw. Since the 1927/1928 academic year, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski himself had become the head of the Pedagogical Seminar in the Humanities Faculty at the University of Poznań90, as he was highly acknowledge among the professors, and liked by the students. Moreover, in the 1929–1933 period, he was the Dean of the Humanities Faculty91. In the 1931/1932 academic year, the scientific equipment of the Humanities Department received addition- al assets, acquired due to the efforts of Ludwik Jax-Bykowski, who acquired the School Museum from Lviv, along with the pedagogical library, which, due to the efforts of rector Jan Sajdak, had found a place in the Collegium Medicum building92. It is worth noting that on 20 February 1930, by the initiative of a small number of students from the Faculty of Philosophy, that were interested in pedagogical issues, a Pedagogical Club was opened at the University of Poznań. Its aim was to expand the scientific interests in pedagogical sciences, among students, i.e. to prepare them better for the teaching profession. During the first year of its existence, the club consisted of 38 members. Stefan Walczak had become the president of the club, while Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski had become its supervisor on behalf of the University of Poznań. In time, the number of members would increase. The most members came from the Humanities Faculty, much less from the Faculty of Medicine, or the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. The Pedagogical Club’s work was performed in three aspects: experimental pedagogy and psychology, didactics, as well as, techniques, i.e. research tests or instruments. From the very beginnings of its activity, the Pedagogical Club remained in strict collaboration with the Department of Pedagogy. The Club’s members, where working, i.a. on the Polish psychological bibliography. The scope of their work included all works and articles that had been written in Polish, or translated to Polish, since 1800 until their time. Until the shutdown of the Department of Pedagogy in 1933, almost 2500 bibliographical entries were listed. The works in the aforementioned aspects, were related to broadly perceived pedagogical issues. In 1933, the works included issues such as: aesthetic education; freedom; authority and coercion in education; children from big cities; the youth ideals; the sociological basics of pedagogical work, and the pursuits of contemporary women. During the interwar period, the following areas of research were characteristic for the Poznań university pedagogical circles: the progressive and national school of the first head of the Department, Antoni Danysz, the nationalist and anthropological school, refer- ring to the Revolutions of 1848, and and arising from national conflicts, and the pursuits of strengthening the entire nation, particularly in the first decade of independent Poland, as proposed by Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, as well as, the nationalist and imperialist school

90 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1927/1928, Poznań 1928, p. 50. 91 MOŻDŻEŃ, S., Bykowski-Jaxa Ludwik, in: T. PILCH (ed.), Encyklopedia pedagogiczna XXI wieku, vol. I; Warszawa 2003, p. 446. 92 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1931/1932, Poznań 1933, p. 96. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 57 of Marian Wachowski, based on the premises of the German philosophical pedagogy93. However, the entire work of Marian Wachowski is extensive, varied, and focused on the following issues: the pedagogy of adults, comparative pedagogy, as well as, history of science and technology, particularly, agricultural94.

The shutdown of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań

W 1933, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań was shut down, and its former head, went on to the Department of Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy. Owing to Stefan Błachowski, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski continued to hold classes on the issues of pedagogy, for students of teaching degrees and specialisations. On 21 October 1933, the Humanities Faculty Council, decided to employ him as docent. The Minister prolonged the employment only for the 1933/1934 academic year, due to the efforts of the University of Poznań. Retiring Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski at the age of 53, was justified by economic reasons, while actually, they intended to remove him due to his opposition activity95. The Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was shut down due to political reasons96. Various projects of reforming education in the 1920s were not proclaimed and accom- plished97. The introduction of compulsory education, failed to prevent functional illiteracy. Education was developed and continuously modernised98. Only the 11 March 1932 “Act on the System of Education”, proclaimed on behalf of the 44 article of the Constitution99, also known as The Jędrzejewicz Act from the name of the Minister Janusz Jędrzejewicz, introduced a thorough reform of the Polish school, both structure and curriculum-wise. It was the only complementary school act, introduced during the Second Polish Republic, and complemented by the Act on Private Schools and Scientific, and Educational Institutions, as well as, by the Act on academic school, proclaimed on 15 May 1933100.

93 KOWALSKI, S., Pedagogika i psychologia, in: G. LABUDA (ed.), Nauka w Wielkopolsce – przeszłość i teraźniejszość. Studia i materiały, Poznań 1973, p. 438. 94 JĘDRZEJCZAK, M., Marian Wachowski, in: J. TRZYNADLOWSKI (ed.), Uczeni wrocławscy 1945– 1979, Wrocław 1980, p. 64. 95 MOŻDŻEŃ, S., Bykowski-Jaxa Ludwik, pp. 446–447. 96 WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce, p. 25. 97 See: FALSKI, M., “Koncepcja szkoły powszechnej i jej roli w ustroju szkolnym w okresie między wojennym w Polsce”, Rozprawy z Dziejów Oświaty 1958, vol. I. 98 TOPOLSKI, T., op. cit., p. 239. 99 WOLTER, E., “Kwalifikacje nauczycieli szkół rolniczych w II Rzeczypospolitej w świetle obowiązu jących przepisów”, Prace Pedagogiczne CXXVIII, J. SZABLICKA-ŻAK (ed.), Studia z dziejów oświaty i myśli pedagogicznej XIX–XX wieku, Wrocław 1998, p. 57. 100 See: PĘCHERSKI, M., ŚWIĄTEK, M., Organizacja oświaty w Polsce w latach 1919–1969. Podstawowe akty prawne, Warszawa 1972. 58 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński

The Sejm proclaimed the Act despite the protests of academic staff and the youth. The fact was received as revenge for the protest of 45 most prominent professors of the Jagiellonian University, as well as, subsequently, of other universities that condemned the actions of the authorities against the Brest prisoners in 1930101. The reform was executed by the brother of Janusz Jędrzejewicz, gen. Wacław Jędrzejewicz, and later by prof. Wojciech Świętosławski102. According to the Act on academic schools the higher education establishments would be divided into universities, institutes of technology and acad- emies. They were organised “on the principles of the freedom of science and teaching”103. The act limited the autonomy rights of universities significantly. The Ministry used it as the basis for gaining the rights to create new departments, shut down the existing ones, and to reorganise the faculties. According to the legislator’s interpretation, the shutdowns were to be related to the departments that did not have the staff that would guarantee the proper level of education, while in reality, they would shut down departments led by political activists104. When the Act project found itself on the parliamentary forum, protests broke out in Poznań. The police intervened, scattering the students protesting in front of the Collegium Minus. Despite the numerous protests, the Sanation Sejm majority accepted the Act project and on 15 March 1933 the project went in motion. The Act had taken effect on 1 September 1933. In result, the universities had lost the former status of autonomy. The independence of professors was abolished. The universities had lost their extraterritori- al rights, and the entire independence of student organisations was abolished as well. The Act transferred a significant number of collegial privileges of the universities, into the hands of the Minister. The above caused a number of protests from the academic circles which in turn, met with strong restrictions. In sum, the Minister had shut down 52 departments, simultaneously sending a number of professors on retirement105. Therefore, the 1933/1934 academic year was the first, when the activity of the university was regulated by the new Act on academic schools, as well as, directives issued on its basis. Under the article 3, section 3 of the aforementioned act, and the directive of the President of the Polish Republic from 27 October 1932, with one official letter from 26 September 1933, the Minister of Religion and Public education closed 6 Departments of the Humanities Faculty, University of Poznań, including the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics. The same fate was shared by the following Departments: world history, history of Polish literature, oriental studies, classical studies, and the history of philosophy. The decisions were often made as a result of the opposition political activities of the professors who were heads of these departments. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was among them,

101 BUSZKO, J., Historia Polski 1864–1948, Warszawa 1982, p. 348. 102 MOŻDŻEŃ, S.I., op. cit, p. 113 103 WOŁOSZYN, S., Oświata i wychowanie w XX wieku, in: Z. KWIECIŃSKI, B. ŚLIWERSKI (eds), Pedagogika. Podręcznik akademicki, Warszawa 2004, pp. 160–162. 104 KRAJEWSKI, M., Dzieje wychowania, op. cit., p. 192. 105 HELLWIG, J., “Tradycje prywatnego szkolnictwa wyższego”, Studia Edukacyjne 1997, no. 3, p. 71. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 59 as he was well known and acknowledged for bold speeches in defence of academic auton- omy106. At the age of 53, with the consent of the President of the Second Polish Republic Ignacy Mościcki, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was retired. The resentment towards L. Jaxa- -Bykowski’s activity within the National Party, was behind the aforementioned facts. He was the author of the Party’s programme on education, titled The primary guidelines for the national school and educational policy107. In a 1933/1934 yearly report by prof. Dr K. Chodynicki, the dean of the Humanities Faculty, we read:

With the 26 September 1933 official letter, the Minister of Religion and Public Education shut down 6 of our Faculty’s departments: world history, history of Polish literature, oriental studies, classical studies and the history of philosophy, and pedagogy, while four senior professors, Adam Żółtowski, Ludwik Jaxa Bykowski, Jan Sajdak, and Antoni Śmieszek, were forced into an ‘inactive state’. This way our Faculty was deprived of 4 members that were at their scientific best, and were merited in the organisation of the Faculty and the university. The efforts of the Faculty Council, attempting to reactivate the Departments in our Faculty, and to reinstate the deposed professors, were so far unsuccessful108.

In result of the shutdown of the Department, during the proceedings of the Humanities Faculty Council, a decision was made to incorporate the Pedagogical Seminar library and the School Museum collection into the Department of Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy of professor Stefan Błachowski. The former Dean, defined the 1933/1934 academic year at the Humanities Faculty of the University of Poznań, as “exceptionally difficult”109.

The efforts of the University and the Faculty Council, as well as, the academic youth, for reinstating the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań in the 1933–1939 period

During the 1934/1935 academic year, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was not reinstated. However, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski would still hold lectures as a private professor. He did not receive compensation. During that time, he supervised 23 masters and a number of doctors110. In the 1934/1935 academic year report by the Dean of the Humanities Faculty, prof. Stefan Błachowski, we read: Out of six Departments, deposed under article 3 section 1 of the academic Act […] none of them was reinstated, much to

106 WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce, p. 25. 107 MALINOWSKI, A., Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski…, op. cit., p. 93. 108 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1933/1934, Poznań 1935, p. 66. 109 Ibidem, p. 73. 110 MALINOWSKI, A., Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, p. 93. 60 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński the regret of the Humanities Faculty Council111. In the 1935/1936 the situation did not change.

The shutting down of six departments […] took a large toll on the activity of the Faculty, as the Department of Pedagogy, one of the most rudimentary departments in our Faculty, responsible not only for the cultivation of science, but also the education of the future teachers, is among them112.

However, a pedagogical unit existed under the supervision of Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski, within the psychological department – the experimental pedagogy was frequented by students from: the medical, humanities, as well as, mathematics and natural studies faculties. The pedagogical classes were held by: Stanisław Tync, Stefan Frycz, Marian Wachowski, Ludwik Posadzy, Andrzej Niesiołowski, Stanisław Wład, Stanisław Durek, and Tadeusz Adamczyk113. The issue of “shutting down” the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań, moved not only the pedagogical circles of the university, but also its audience. Therefore, a strong idea of cooperation between the teachers and the students arose, in defence of common good. The Pedagogical Club of the students at the University of Poznań, issued a Letter for the Restitution of the Department of Pedagogy, to the Department of Higher Education at the Ministry of Religion and Public Education. The letter states i.a.:

The competence of pedagogues is possible only under the condition of basing their thought and educational practice on scientific grounds. These grounds can be provided solely be university pedagogy. Therefore, maintaining and multiplying the currently few departments of pedagogy in Poland, is a postulate that consequently results from the contemporary tasks of the Polish State, with the restitution of the Department of Pedagogy at the University of Poznań being a particularly actual postulate, and before that is to happen, the maintenance of the an unre- duced organised pedagogical study114.

Furthermore, the subsequent section of the Letter for the Restitution of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics focused on the grand role of Polonia Maior in the development of pedagogy. The students’ letter for the Restitution of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics, to the Department of Higher Education at the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, passed without a reply from the Ministry. An official letter from 1939, demand- ing the reinstatement of the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics at the University of Poznań, shared the same fate.

111 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1934/1935, Poznań 1936, p. 126. 112 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1935/1936, Poznań 1937, p. 106. 113 See: e.g. the roster of the 1938/1939 academic year lectures. Printed and published by the University of Poznań, Poznań 1938, p. 48. 114 The Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań Archives. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 61

During the subsequent academic years, the Department of Pedagogy and Didactics was not reinstated115. However, among the didactic classes of the Faculty, in the 1933–1939 academic years, one may notice subject such as: pedagogy classes, education organisation classes, or historical and pedagogical classes. In a report by prof. Antoni Peretiatkowicz for the 1936/1936 academic year, we read:

The founding of a special pedagogical study should be considered as one of the important scientific and organisational facts at our University […]. The opening of a pedagogical study will make the case of restituing the Department of Pedagogy that was shut down 4 years ago, even more important and urgent116.

Despite the enormous effort and actions performed by the students and the professors of the University of Poznań, the Department of Pedagogy at the Poznań university, could not be reinstated before the outbreak of World War II117.

Summary

The circumstances caused by the occupant prevented the academics of the University of Poznań from holding any didactic classes with the students. The realisation of the general premise of the theoreticians of Hitlerism that universities and other institutions of higher education […] being the ongoing centres for Polish chauvinist education, should be closed by principles, was executed in various moments and circumstances, however, it was consequently executed in all academic centres118. The University of Poznań was closed by the German occupants. Many professors and academic staff were imprisoned and extermi- nated in the Fort VII death camp, located at the Poznań Fortress grounds. A solution to the stalemate situation of higher education, was the possibility of conducting didactic and scientific activities, within the “Undergound” University of the Western Lands. Ludwik Jaxa- -Bykowski, associated with the Poznań university pedagogy, and operating under the nom de guerre “Kulczycki”, had become the co-organiser of the “Underground” University of the Western Lands. Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski was an eager advocate of the concept of underground schooling. It was he, who in 1940 postulated the initiation of underground courses in humanities and in legal, and political sciences. During World War II, the Poznań university pedagogy, as an academic science, functioned within the Humanities Faculty of

115 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1934/1935, Poznań 1936, p. 126. 116 Kronika Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego za rok szkolny 1936/1937, Poznań 1938, p. 6. 117 BROMBEREK, B., Zasady organizacyjne i programowe studiów nauczycielskich w Polsce. Lata 1918– 1932, Poznań 1964, p. 16; The 7.09.1933 Letter of the Humanities Faculty Council to the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, regarding the shutdown of the Departments at the University of Warsaw; the 9.09.1924 directive of the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, Official Gazette of the Ministry, 1924. 118 WALCZAK, M., “Tajne nauczanie na poziomie wyższym w latach 1940–1945”, Przegląd Historyczno- -Oświatowy 1977, no. 1 (75), p. 20. 62 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński the University of the Western Lands in Warsaw. The pedagogical courses would take place at Wilcza 45, in 1941/42–1943/44119. In 1946, all pre-war Departments were reactivated at the University of Poznań, including the Department of Pedagogy led by Ludwik Jax-Bykowski120. The first post-war years were a time of stagnation for the development of Poznań pedagogy121. After the war, Ludwik Jaxa-Bykowski hoped for the development of democracy. He returned to Poznań, where he became the head of the Department of Pedagogy, and developed a statute of a preliminary academic year for persons, who did not receive a high school certificate. The Poznań university pedagogy of the interwar period, due to the involvement of many leading scientists, had determined the best traditions of pedagogical education in Poland. Currently, the Poznań university pedagogy, operating within the UAM Faculty of Educational Studies, is a scientific, scholarly, and didactic centre that is rich in staff, and it is the best pedagogical faculty in Poland122. Numerous honorary mentions are evidence to its status. The Poznań university Pedagogy at the centennial of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań is a combination of tradition and modernity, as well as, an open attitude towards contemporary challenges.123.

Literature

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Monographs

Alma Mater Posnaniensis. W 80. rocznicę utworzenia Uniwersytetu w Poznaniu, P. HAUSER, T. JASIŃSKI, J. TOPOLSKI (eds), Poznań 1999. BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, W., DRYNDA, D., Słownik pedagogów polskich, Katowice 1998. BOBROWSKA-NOWAK, W., Pionierzy psychologii naukowej w Polsce, Katowice 1971. BORAS, Z., Tradycje uniwersyteckie Poznania, Poznań 2003. 64 Konrad Nowak-Kluczyński

BROMBEREK, B., Studia uniwersyteckie w zakresie nauki o edukacji w świetle badań empirycznych, Poznań 1998. BUSZKO, J., Historia Polski 1864–1948, Warszawa 1982. CEGIELSKA, P., Z moich wspomnień. Przechadzki po mieście, Poznań 1997. CYBAL-MICHALSKA, A., GROMKOWSKA-MELOSIK, A., KUSZAK, K., PIORUNEK, M., SE GIET, W. (ed.), XXV lat Wydziału Studiów Edukacyjnych Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu 1993–2018. Wydanie jubileuszowe, Poznań 2018. DRYNDA, D., Pedagogika Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej: warunki – orientacje – kontrowersje, Kato wice 1987. Encyklopedia pedagogiczna XXI wieku, Tom I, T. PILCH (ed.), Warszawa 2003. Encyklopedia pedagogiczna XXI wieku, Tom III, T .PILCH (ed.), Warszawa 2004. FALSKI, M., Koncepcja szkoły powszechnej i jej roli w ustroju szkolnym w okresie międzywojennym w Polsce, “Rozprawy z Dziejów Oświaty” 1958, vol. I, Wrocław. HEJNICKA-BEZWIŃSKA, T., Pedagogika ogólna, Warszawa 2008. HELLWIG, J., Dzieje historii wychowania w Polsce i jej twórcy, Poznań 2001. Historia wychowania, J. HELLWIG (ed.), Poznań 1994. Historia wychowania. Słownik biograficzny, A. GĄSIOROWSKI (ed.), Olsztyn 2002. Inspiracje dla współczesnej edukacji w dydaktyce Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, D. DRYNDA (ed.), Katowice 2000. JAROSZUK, T., Z iskrą filarecką w oku. Świat i dzieło Bogdana Nawroczyńskiego, Olsztyn 2004. KORZENIEWSKA, W., Myśl pedagogiczna na przestrzeni wieków. Chronologiczny słownik bio graficzny, Kraków 2011. KOWALENKO, W., Tajny Uniwersytet Ziem Zachodnich. Uniwersytet Poznański 1940–1945, Po znań 1961. KRAJEWSKI, M., Dzieje wychowania i doktryn pedagogicznych, Płock 2005. KWIECIŃSKI, Z., ŚLIWERSKI, B. (ed.), Pedagogika, vol. I, Warszawa 2003. MICHALSKI, S., Praca naukowo-badawcza nauczycieli w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, Poznań 1994. MIŚKIEWICZ, B., Uniwersytet Poznański. Fakty, refleksje, wspomnienia, Poznań 1983. MOŻDŻEŃ, S.I., Historia wychowania 1918–1945, Sandomierz 2006. Nauka w Wielkopolsce, G. LABUDA (ed.), Poznań 1973. NAWROCZYŃSKI, B., Życie duchowe. Zarys filozofii kultury, Kraków–Warszawa 1947. NOWAK-KLUCZYŃSKI, K., Kierownicy Katedry Pedagogiki i Dydaktyki na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim w okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, in: E. GŁOWACKA-SOBIECH, K. KABACIŃSKA-ŁUCZAK (eds), Wielkopolska i Wielkopolanie w dziejach polskiej edukacji, Poznań 2017, pp. 231–256. NOWAK-KLUCZYŃSKI, K., Pedagogika na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim 1919–1933, in: A. ĆWIK LIŃSKI, M. PRZYBYŁA (eds), Społeczeństwo i edukacja. Teorie a implikacje praktyczne, Poznań 2015, pp. 45–69. NOWAK-KLUCZYŃSKI, K., Pedagogika na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim i Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu (lata 1919–1993), in: A. CYBAL-MICHALSKA, A. GROM KOWSKA-MELOSIK, K. KUSZAK, M. PIORUNEK, W. SEGIET (eds), XXV lat Wydziału Studiów Edukacyjnych Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu 1993–2018. Wydanie jubileuszowe, Poznań 2018, pp. 283–294 Oświata i wychowanie w Polsce Ludowej. Wybrane zagadnienia, W. OKOŃ (ed.), Warszawa 1968. PĘCHERSKI, M., ŚWIĄTEK, M., Organizacja oświaty w Polsce w latach 1919–1969. Podstawowe akty prawne, Warszawa 1972. Poznań od A do Z, W. ŁĘCKI, P. MALUŚKIEWICZ (eds), Poznań 1988. REZLER M., Kalendarium poznańskie, Poznań 2003. Słownik historyków polskich, M. ROSIŃSKA-JACKL (eds), Warszawa 1994. The institutionalisation of pedagogy in the Second Polish Republic period 65

Stan i perspektywy rozwoju nauk pedagogicznych, W. OKOŃ (eds), Warszawa 1976. Studia z dziejów oświaty i myśli pedagogicznej XIX–XX wieku, J. SZABLICKA-ŻAK (ed.), Wrocław 1998. TOPOLSKI, J., Historia Polski, Poznań 2003. Uczeni wrocławscy 1945–1979, J. TRZYNADLOWSKI(ed.), Wrocław 1980. Uniwersytet. Społeczeństwo. Edukacja, W. AMBROZIK, K. PRZYSZCZYPKOWSKI (eds), Po znań 2004. WOŁOSZYN, S., Dzieje wychowania i myśli pedagogicznej w zarysie, Warszawa 1964. WOŁOSZYN, S., Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce w XX wieku, Kielce 1998. WOŁOSZYN, S., Pedagogiczne wędrówki przez wieki i zagadnienia. Studia i szkice, Warszawa– Toruń 1996. WROCZYŃSKI, R., Dzieje oświaty polskiej, vol. 2, Warszawa 1996. WRZOSEK, A., Uniwersytet Poznański w pierwszych latach swojego istnienia za rektoratu H. Świę cickiego, Poznań 1924. ZBIERSKI K., Zagadnienie kształcenia nauczycieli szkół średnich, Warszawa 1930.