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Images of Invasions and Resistance in the Literature of the Dominican Republic

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Images of Invasions and Resistance in the Literature of the Dominican Republic IMAGES OF INVASIONS AND RESISTANCE IN THE LITERATURE OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC By ARALIS MERCEDES RODRIGUEZ COLLADO A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Modern Languages School of Languages, Cultures, Art History and Music College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham July 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT From 1492, when the first European invaders set foot on the island known today as Hispaniola, until 1965, the year of the April Revolution, the multi-faceted repercussions of invasion have been a prevalent theme within the Dominican Republic’s literature. This thesis examines how the country has amalgamated a roller-coaster past to reflect this in its writing. It starts by evaluating the Spanish invaders’ extermination of the Tainos, its generational influence and the continued impact of Trujillo’s legacy, highlighting the issue of gender within the Resistance movement. It presents a rigorous analysis of writers’ opinions, as transmitters of peoples’ views – from the pirate attack by Francis Drake, to the use of theatre by Independence fighters as a weapon of propaganda against the Haitian invasion; the resilience of peasant-culture represented in the guerrilla movement against the first U.S. invasion of the 20th century; to the exposition of novels to depict a dictator as an ‘invader from within’ and the use of poetry to face the bullets of the U.S. invasion of 1965. By analysing the literary images, expressions, statements and social commitment of the writers throughout their work, this study shows how the various invasions which occurred in the Dominican Republic have been rooted in Dominican discourse. It emphasises that these very struggles against invasion are at the core of its vibrant literature, providing its silent themes and serving to illuminate both the nation as a whole and the individuals within it. Acknowledgements The finish line! It is the best feeling in the world to reach it. I am but one, yet I was not alone on this road. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Conrad James, for his patience and wise guidance, for helping to develop the thoughts and shape the direction of the work with his insightful comments. When this project was just a vague idea to ‘unmask’ a pirate, you were the beacon that lit the way to reach the mainland. Furthermore, Miguel Collado not only provided me with all the information requested on books, archives and authors, but he was always willing to offer suggestions and answer any questions. To him, I am most thankful. I am grateful also for the collaboration of José Rafael Sosa, Angela Hernández, Rafael Jarvis, Avelino Stanley, Emilia Pereyra, Miguel D. Mena, Mateo Morrison, Michael Turner, and Phil Dynan. A very special thanks is due to Federico Cuello Camilo, for his support and for providing the adequate environment at the office and allowing me to combine work and studies. I would not have seen the light at the end of the tunnel if it were not for my sisters, Fátima and Daisy, so caring and willing to send me the necessary books from the island; my brother in law, Lorenzo Gómez Marín, for his constant example of hard work and dedication; and all my family, so large and united, without measuring distances. Any time I needed a place to go, either to concentrate on the writing or go away from it for a while; or when I needed to talk, to vent out the frustration or celebrate the progress, my friends were there: Provy, Arturo, Regina, Rita, Magaly, my niece-friend Laura. And last, but not least, to my daughter, Mariela, who shares my passions. I dedicate this to you. Thank you for existing and being my soulmate. Table of Contents Chapter I: Introduction ..……………………………………………………….…….………. Page 1 I.1 Invasion, intervention or occupation: a matter of discussion…………………… Page 2 I.2 Intellectuals and their role before invasions ……………………………… Page 11 I.3 Chronology of the invasions……………………………………………………. Page 14 I.4 A note on Methodology…………………………………………………………… Page 27 Chapter II: Anacaona and Yania Tierra: Images of invasion and resistance in the female literary discourse ……………………………………………………………………….. Page 29 II.1 Anacaona: symbol of female resilience ……………………..…………… Page 30 II.2 Yania Tierra: a tribute to the women of the Dominican Republic ……….. Page 38 Chapter III: The Dramatisation of Francis Drake as a mythological character ………….. Page 60 III.1 The myth behind the man: the infamous pirate ..………………… Page 63 III.2 El Grito del Tambor: perpetuating the myth of the Evil Drake…… Page 70 Chapter IV: Theatre as a weapon of propaganda used by Trinitarios against Haitian invasion ………………………………………………………………………………………... Page 78 IV.1 Presence of the theatre: the power of a literary genre ….……………... Page 82 IV.2 Foreign plays that represented Trinitarios’ vision ……..……............. Page 87 Chapter V: Gavilleros, novels and other representations of resistance during the invasion of 1916 ……………………………………………………………………………………… Page 99 V.1 The country of the Gavilleros: Historical background ………........... Page 109 V.2 Isolated struggle of the peasants in fiction ……………………..…….. Page 115 V.3 Resistance of intellectuals: strengthening unity against invasion.......... Page 125 Chapter VI: Literary images of Trujillo: the dictator as an invader from within………….. Page 144 VI.1 Invasion plus dictatorship: a time of terror ……………………….. Page 150 VI.2 Invasion of the soul, the body and the spirit ……………………... Page 165 VI.3 In the time of the invader/dictator: the worst of times……………. Page 183 Chapter VII: Poetry against bullets during the US invasion of 1965 ……………………… Page 191 VII.1 Literary groups: a response to the needs of the time………….….. Page 195 VII.2 Jacques Viau Renaud: death of a poet during the invasion……... Page 204 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... Page 217 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………… Page 221 1 Chapter I: INTRODUCTION The history of Dominican literature begins with the name of an invader, Christopher Columbus, whose maritime journal and letters offered the first poetic, exceedingly metaphorical descriptions of Hispaniola, saturated in the literary models of saints, prophets and romantic heroes.1 Later, during the colonial era, Cristóbal de Llerena wrote the short farce Octava de Corpus Christi, alluding to the invader Francis Drake. In general, poems, novels, plays, short stories, essays and historical texts that reflect a critical discourse against invasions, and that highlight the resistance mounted by local inhabitants against the invading forces from 1492 onwards, have been produced, providing a recurring theme within Dominican literature. This introductory chapter aims to clarify the object of this study: in the Dominican Republic, upon each of the various invasions, from the Spanish encounter of 1492 to the April Revolution in 1965, symbolically from the Taino Queen Anacaona to the Dominican-Haitian poet Jacques Viau Renaud, literature became a weapon of struggle and, as such, literary discourse played a role to raise awareness of sovereignty and report the invaders’ abuses. Moreover, the image of invasions and the overall resistance to them is often interwoven with the theme of unity. Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to highpoint the literary images of resistance in times of invasion and proceed with the investigation of its meaning within Dominican literary discourse; how literature has reflected foreign interventions and what they meant to people; what is the role of literary works in helping to understand how the inhabitants of first, Hispaniola, and then of the Dominican Republic, have faced the invasions throughout history; what means and strategies have been used to express their reaction and support of the liberation cause; and, especially, how invaders have been portrayed, from the 1 “Metáforas tan precisas como deslumbradoras,” is what Joaquín Balaguer, another ‘invader’, would say about Columbus’s style (2001, p. 9). 2 first Europeans to the Pirates, Haitians and U.S. Officials until the dictatorship of Trujillo, who is commonly considered as an invader from within. For a full understanding of the literary process it is necessary to outline the historical background that led to these events, though without subjecting the historical process to deep scrutiny. This thesis aims to cover a substantial period – some 500 years – though it is not a historical study and considers only five invasions (Spanish, Pirates, Haitian and two from the United States of America), following a historical chronological order, (limited to the duration of the invasion) with the addition of an examination at the images of the dictator Trujillo as an internal aggressor, whose regime is framed between the two U.S. invasions of the 20th century. Within each of the 2-7 chapters, the study will commence with an outline of aspects of the political history that led to the corresponding invasion, and subsequent analysis of
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