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Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies by Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr. A.B. (Princeton University) 1987 M.A. (University of California, Berkeley) 1992 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Joint Doctor of Philosophy with the University of California, San Francisco in Medical Anthropology in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY Committee in charge: Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Chair Professor Brent Berlin Professor Katharine Milton Professor Judith Barker Professor Richard Norgaard Fall 1999 Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies © 1999 by Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr. Abstract Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies by Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr. Joint Doctor of Philosophy in Medical Anthropology University of California, Berkeley Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Chair Medicinal plant therapy is a total sensory experience among the Matsigenka and the Yora (Yaminahua) of Amazonian Peru. Cues thought to indicate plant efficacy are sensed through multiple modes: taste, odor, irritation, and vision as well as body/mind sensations induced by emetic, psychoactive, and stimulating plants. Though occupying adjacent territories, the Matsigenka and Yora belong to different cultural-linguistic families and did not interact until recently. A comparative study documented criteria used by both groups to evaluate the healing power of plants. Odor is significant in both groups’ cultural constructions of illness and therapy. Both value plants with red juice for blood-related conditions. For the most part, Matsigenka ethnomedicine is allopathic, as medicines act through opposition. Many plants are selected for toxic properties (bitterness, pungency, causticity) that overpower and expel illness. Bitterness is the most frequently encountered medicinal property, and many remedies are administered orally. Yora ethnomedicine is homeopathic in the sense that “like treats like.” Medicinal plants are classified according to visible signatures: spiny plants for sharp pains, pink leaves for pinkeye, plants with watery latex for watery diarrhea, etc.. Medicines are rarely taken internally, but rather applied externally as warm compresses. Bitterness, crucial in Matsigenka models of efficacy, is of little importance in Yora medicine. Different efficacy models appear consistent with different individual and social responses to pain in the two groups. Both groups have suffered severe health consequences and other negative impacts of Western contact in recent decades. Differences in traditional pharmacognosy contribute to different perceptions of Western pharmaceuticals in the two groups. Despite cultural differences, there are major ecological and taxonomic similarities in the two pharmacopoeia. Sixteen botanical families, mostly understory shrubs and herbs, account for more than 65% of all medicines encountered. Regression analysis demonstrates a statistically significant correlation between the two medicinal flora. This study of comparative ethnopharmacology reveals neither strict cultural nor environmental determinism in medicinal plant selection, but rather a complex interweaving of cultural and ecological adaptations. Medicines, whether natural or synthetic, indigenous or globally distributed, are at the same time empirically active agents and potent symbols of healing power. This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Glenn and Jean Moye Shepard, for their support, patience and love throughout the years, and to the memory of Marcial Vicente Shamoko: Ige, nokenkiakempi. iii Table of Contents: List of Maps, Tables and Figures .................................................................................... viii Acknowledgments........................................................................................................... ix Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 Anecdotes and the Ethnographic Method ........................................................... 2 Efficacy: Perspectives from Medical Anthropology .......................................... 4 The Comparative Method.................................................................................... 8 Chapter Outline ................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 1: The Setting: Culture, Ecology and History.................................................. 18 Geographic and Ecological Setting ..................................................................... 19 Cultural Diversity................................................................................................ 21 Study Communities............................................................................................. 23 The Matsigenka................................................................................................... 24 Yomybato: A Brief History..................................................................... 26 The Yora/Yaminahua .......................................................................................... 30 The Yora: “First Contact” ...................................................................... 32 The Smell of Steel and The Feverish Winds Of History..................................... 41 El Dorado ................................................................................................ 42 Ancient Networks of Trade ..................................................................... 44 The Fever of Rubber................................................................................ 46 Isolated Indigenous Groups Today.......................................................... 47 Amazon Crude......................................................................................... 50 The Status of Indigenous Rights in Peru................................................. 51 Chapter 2: Methods ........................................................................................................ 54 Taste/Odor Experiment ....................................................................................... 56 “Best Example” Experiment ............................................................................... 60 Elicitation and Classification of Illness Categories............................................. 60 Ethnoepidemiological Census............................................................................. 62 Ethnobotanical Collections ................................................................................. 63 Notes on Orthography ......................................................................................... 64 Ethnographic Bias ............................................................................................... 68 Chapter 3: The Cultural Context of Healing .................................................................. 72 Botany and Medicine........................................................................................... 72 Shamanistic Healing............................................................................................ 75 Evolving Techniques of Ecstasy ............................................................. 78 Seripigari: The Matsigenka Tobacco-Shaman ....................................... 80 Kokoti: The Yora “Sucking Shaman”.................................................... 84 Common Shamanic Themes.................................................................... 87 Emotional Pathology and the Matsigenka Ethos................................................. 89 Ethos and Pathos ................................................................................................. 94 Medical Botany, Gender and Ecological Balance............................................... 97 Gift of the Harpy Eagle: Matsigenka Hunting Medicines...................... 98 The Revenge of the Hunted: Child Care Medicines............................... 102 Chapter 4: Illness and Etiology ...................................................................................... 104 Illness and Mortality............................................................................................ 106 iv Illness Categories in Matsigenka and Yora/Yaminahua ..................................... 108 Illness Classification ............................................................................... 109 Gastrointestinal Conditions..................................................................... 113 Gynecological Conditions ....................................................................... 117 Respiratory Conditions............................................................................ 120 Heart and Chest Conditions..................................................................... 123 Fevers ...................................................................................................... 125 Body Pains............................................................................................... 127 Ear/Eye/Dental Conditions...................................................................... 130 Skin Conditions....................................................................................... 133 Animal Bites and Stings.......................................................................... 140 Animal/Plant Spirit Revenge................................................................... 142 Demon Attack and Sorcery
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