DIGITALIZATION of COMMUNICATION and the SPIRAL (Complete Works, in Russian)

Anahit HAKOBYAN

York: Transworld Digital. Wodehouse, P. G. (2004). Much Obliged, Jeev- DOI: 10.24234/wisdom.v14i1.312 Twain, M. (2012). The Adventures of Tom Saw- es. New York: Everyman. Anahit HAKOBYAN yer. London: Vintage Digital. Wodehouse, P. G. (2009). Jeeves in the Offing. Uhtomskiy, A. A. (1950). Sobranie sochineniy New York: Cornerstone Digital. DIGITALIZATION OF COMMUNICATION AND THE SPIRAL (Complete Works, in Russian). Lenin- Wodehouse, P. G. (2015). Right Ho, Jeeves. OF SILENCE THEORY grad: Leningrad state university. London: Otbebook publishing. Waugh, E. (2012). Vile Bodies. New York: Ha- Yakobson, R. (1975). Lingvistika i poetika (Lin- Abstract chette. guistics and Poetics, in Russian). Wilde, O. (2002). The Importance of Being Ear- Structuralism: ―for‖ and ―against‖: a This article discusses the issue of the influence of digital technologies on manifestations and trans- nest. London: Penguin Books. collection of articles, 193-230. formation of the spiral of silence phenomenon. An analysis is given on the role of the Internet as a public sphere, and the results of recent researches on the spiral of silence manifestations on online-based platforms are discussed. The author comes to the conclusion that manifestations of the spiral of silence are crucial in the process of the development of the Internet as a public sphere, and, communicative, technological and social-psychological factors, discussed in this paper, will determine whether and how online- based platforms will enhance democracy.

Keywords: spiral of silence, digital communication, media, Internet, social media, information, public sphere.

Introduction fundamental for Noelle-Neumann in developing one of the key concepts of her theory - the irra- The spiral of silence theory is one of the tional fear of isolation. The significance of her most remarkable approaches regarding public theory is that besides combining these approach- opinion and its role in society. It was developed es, she provided them with empirical base due to in the 1970s by German political scientist and numerous researches through years. sociologist Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann. The the- The spiral of silence theory has faced many ory is based on the irrational approach towards challenges, the most important of which was the public opinion, which is perceived to control the rise of online public space as one of the main members of society and keeps its integrity by platforms of opinion expression. Many studies defining what is moral or immoral, good or bad, have been conducted in recent years to reveal right or wrong. Noelle-Neumann develops the whether the theory works on digital platforms. key concepts of her theory based on previous However, the results are contradictory and sug- philosophical approaches of public opinion. In gest a mixed picture. On the one hand, digitaliza- particular, she highlights Russo‘s view, who tion of communication enhanced information considers public opinion as an unwritten law and and opinion sharing opportunities and provided a discusses its power from a moral point of view, space for open and horizontal communication. instead of intellectual. The views of John Locke, On the other hand, the architecture of these pri- James Madison and David Hume regarding the vately owned spaces shaped new rules, different relationship of individual and society were also from face to face communication. Thus, not all

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researchers today share the early optimistic view social control through the irrational fear of being regarding the Internet as a public sphere, which isolated. was expected to increase the user‘s willingness Noelle-Neumann (1996) defines public opi- to express an opinion, boost rational debates and nion as a morally shaped opinion and behaviour, enhance democracy. which is necessary to show off around people without being afraid of isolation (p. 282). It is Public Opinion according to the Spiral based on the non-conscious intention of people, of Silence Theory living in a certain community, to gain agreement necessary for decision making and taking action Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann articulated her in certain circumstances. The author analyzes theory as an attempt to explain the willingness to public opinion as a social-psychological process express an opinion based on a few social and of social control, which is rooted in an individu- psychological approaches interpreting group al‘s fear of being isolated. Public opinion is the thinking and behaviour (Athanesyan & Ter-Ha- society‘s ―social skin‖ maintaining its integrity rutyunyan, 2017, pp. 79-84). According to No- and vitality. Despite driving people to conformi- elle-Neumann (1996), the guiding mechanism ty and restricting their freedom, public opinion is leading [to] opinion expression in public is the still necessary for them and society in general. irrational feeling of being isolated (p. 40). If Another basic premise of Noelle-Neu- people consider their opinion as dominant or mann‘s (1996) theory is that people are rather likely to become such, they tend to express it perceptible towards public opinion climate and publicly. If they decide that opinion is on the mi- have a certain notion about it by scanning their nority side or is likely to become such, they tend environment despite any statistical data available to show conformity and choose to remain silent (p. 47). Therefore, the so-called ―quasistatistical (Liu & Fahm, 2011, pp. 46-47). ability to evaluate public opinion climate‖ does Noelle-Neumann contradicts her theory to not mean that people are able to feel it accurate- those approaches, which explain human behav- ly. Noelle-Neumann considers isolation from iour and public opinion from the point of view of dissent groups as the main factor weakening that rationalism and which dominated among aca- ability and causing a phenomenon she calls demics through the 19th and 20th centuries. These ―pluralistic ignorance‖. The less opinion congru- approaches identified public opinion with ration- ency between representatives from opposite ality, which they assumed as a process of know- poles, the stronger polarization is (Noelle-Neu- ledge gaining through intelligence and forming mann, 1996, pp. 222-240). logical judgments based on it (Childs, 1965; In the process of environmental monitoring, Sauerwein, Dafoe, Stern-Rubarth., Haswell Lutz, people‘s evaluation of public opinion climate is Dwight Lasswell, & Wright, 1933; Speier, 1950; shaped through direct and indirect channels. Di- Young, 1923). Noelle-Neumann states that such rect channels include face to face discussions, an approach shows only the hidden function of communication during protests and other actions. public opinion - opinion formation under democ- The main indirect channel is the media, which racy. Whereas public opinion also has a latent presents opinion polls results, polls conducted on function, neglected by rationalist approaches – the streets, general sentiment of news, etc. (Kim,

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researchers today share the early optimistic view social control through the irrational fear of being 2017, p. 3). Noelle-Neumann stresses the im- differ among societies. In the USA a man ex- regarding the Internet as a public sphere, which isolated. portance of media information, which often be- pressing his own opinion is perceived as compe- was expected to increase the user‘s willingness Noelle-Neumann (1996) defines public opi- comes the only available reality for people. The tent, friendly and intelligent. Whereas in collec- to express an opinion, boost rational debates and nion as a morally shaped opinion and behaviour, media sets issues and structures them, thus set- tivist societies expressing opinion may be con- enhance democracy. which is necessary to show off around people ting agenda. It also assures an individual‘s selec- sidered as impolite. A research conducted in Sin- without being afraid of isolation (p. 282). It is tive perception and protects from cognitive dis- gapore did not reveal any correlation between an Public Opinion according to the Spiral based on the non-conscious intention of people, sonance (Noelle-Neumann, 1996, pp. 237-240). individual‘s free or community-oriented self- of Silence Theory living in a certain community, to gain agreement Stereotypes play a significant role in this process concept and his or her willingness to speak out necessary for decision making and taking action triggering conformity and making the discussed (Willnat, Lee, & Detenber, 2002). Such a mixed Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann articulated her in certain circumstances. The author analyzes topic clearer. Besides discussion topics, the me- picture proves that intercultural research on the theory as an attempt to explain the willingness to public opinion as a social-psychological process dia also provides people with the necessary vo- spiral of silence theory is still needed. express an opinion based on a few social and of social control, which is rooted in an individu- cabulary for expressing their opinion. psychological approaches interpreting group al‘s fear of being isolated. Public opinion is the The spiral of silence theory raised many The Main Features of thinking and behaviour (Athanesyan & Ter-Ha- society‘s ―social skin‖ maintaining its integrity discussions among academics and drove resear- Digital Platforms rutyunyan, 2017, pp. 79-84). According to No- and vitality. Despite driving people to conformi- chers from various disciplines to test its main elle-Neumann (1996), the guiding mechanism ty and restricting their freedom, public opinion is hypotheses. The meta-analyses conducted in In the 1990s as a result of the rise of digital leading [to] opinion expression in public is the still necessary for them and society in general. 1997 demonstrated that perceptions of public technologies and the World Wide Web the spiral irrational feeling of being isolated (p. 40). If Another basic premise of Noelle-Neu- opinion climate have a little, but statistically sig- of silence theory received a renewed attention, people consider their opinion as dominant or mann‘s (1996) theory is that people are rather nificant impact on the willingness to express an raising new questions: will the spiralling process likely to become such, they tend to express it perceptible towards public opinion climate and opinion (Glynn, Hayes, & Shanahan, 1997). The continue in the computer-mediated environment publicly. If they decide that opinion is on the mi- have a certain notion about it by scanning their authors explain the mixed results by the method- and, if it does, how? To answer these questions nority side or is likely to become such, they tend environment despite any statistical data available ological issues the theory faced since Noelle- first, we need to analyze the Internet as a public to show conformity and choose to remain silent (p. 47). Therefore, the so-called ―quasistatistical Neumann has started its testing. They assume space. According to Manuale Casstels (2001), (Liu & Fahm, 2011, pp. 46-47). ability to evaluate public opinion climate‖ does that the results might differ if the researchers had the main features of the web are its openness and Noelle-Neumann contradicts her theory to not mean that people are able to feel it accurate- observed people‘s actual behaviour instead of horizontal and free communication (pp. 54-55). those approaches, which explain human behav- ly. Noelle-Neumann considers isolation from asking how they would behave in a hypothetic These characteristics brought to democratization iour and public opinion from the point of view of dissent groups as the main factor weakening that situation. New meta-analyses conducted in 2017 and globalization of public space and public rationalism and which dominated among aca- ability and causing a phenomenon she calls included the application of the theory on the web opinion, thus bringing public discourse to a demics through the 19th and 20th centuries. These ―pluralistic ignorance‖. The less opinion congru- (Matthes, Knoll, & von Sikorski, 2018). It states transnational level (Iosifidis & Wheeler, p. 21). approaches identified public opinion with ration- ency between representatives from opposite a positive correlation between perceived opinion In parallel, the researchers got the opportunity to ality, which they assumed as a process of know- poles, the stronger polarization is (Noelle-Neu- climate and the willingness to express an opin- study the spiral of silence phenomenon in behav- ledge gaining through intelligence and forming mann, 1996, pp. 222-240). ion, moreover, the spiralling process in digital ioural level instead of using hypothetic situations logical judgments based on it (Childs, 1965; In the process of environmental monitoring, platforms does not decrease. It is notable that the they used to suggest before. Sauerwein, Dafoe, Stern-Rubarth., Haswell Lutz, people‘s evaluation of public opinion climate is research results were the same in Europe, USA Despite early expectations that enhanced Dwight Lasswell, & Wright, 1933; Speier, 1950; shaped through direct and indirect channels. Di- and Asia, which demonstrates that the spiral of technological and communicational opportuni- Young, 1923). Noelle-Neumann states that such rect channels include face to face discussions, silence works both in individualist and collectiv- ties will make the Internet one abstract place or a an approach shows only the hidden function of communication during protests and other actions. ist societies. It is worth to mention that not all global village, where people will be involved in public opinion - opinion formation under democ- The main indirect channel is the media, which surveys confirm the absence of cultural differ- public discussions, researchers still don‘t have a racy. Whereas public opinion also has a latent presents opinion polls results, polls conducted on ences. Some authors, however, claim that atti- clear answer whether the Internet is a public function, neglected by rationalist approaches – the streets, general sentiment of news, etc. (Kim, tudes towards the willingness to express opinion space or a public sphere. According to the con-

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cept‘s author, Jurgen Habermas, the public ―fashionable‖ opinions and tastes (Rasmussen, sphere is an abstract mediation between the state 2014, pp. 1322). However, it is worth to mention and society, a discursive arena where individuals that digital technologies took rise under capital- engaged in rational discussion, deliberation, ism, which drove to their inevitable commercial- agreement and action in order to attain a demo- ization. Like television, online-based platforms cratic consensus and, ultimately, to achieve a became overloaded with advertising, which common good, in an egalitarian and pluralistic brought their commercial functions to the first environment (Malaspina, 2014, pp. 29-32). The plan. At this rate, free platforms with modest re- development of the World Wide Web since its sources for promotion are put in a less beneficial invention has demonstrated that the processes condition. occurring in online-based spaces do not much the Johanna van Dijk also states that commer- mentioned Habermasian definition of the public cialization of online-based platforms affects the sphere. quality of online social interactions. Social media On the web, people‘s involvement in public blurred barriers between private, corporate and discussions has been rapidly growing, but not public spaces and determines the nature of social everyone and not equally got access to them. The actions (van Dijck, 2013, pp. 18-23). The author equality may be injured by technological or net- uses the term ―culture of connectivity‖ to define work limitations and low level of media literacy. these processes. The cultural experience in social Even in the case of equal technology, those with media is shaped by algorithms, protocols and a low level of income and education use the web defaults. As a result, sociality is being modified for different purposes than those with higher in- by coded structures and digital architecture. Us- come and education level (Lupton, 2015, p. 124). ers realize that their data can be used for com- For the latter digital technologies serve as a mercial purposes, and still they continue active, means to improve their own cultural, economic communicative practices, as social media pro- and educational level, whereas those with low vides them with the best platform for the Cas- income and educational level tend to use the web tellsian mass self-communication. The hierarchic mainly for social interactions and virtual games and competitive structure of social media also (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014, pp. 510-511). triggers the users to seek for more popularity and Yochai Benkler has made an attempt to in- to be more active. In today‘s attention economy, tegrate Habermas‘s approach with network theo- social media produces such key values as atten- ry. He considers the networked structure of the tion and reputation. Facebook‘s business model web and its topology as key factors affecting the is based on these values, and the user‘s will to spread of information online. It enables enough share data. In this regard, critics of social media saturation for the links and prevents fragmenta- warn about risks regarding privatization of web tion or information flow control by one of the spaces by corporations. Van Dijk (2013) notes network nodes. In the 1990s due to the develop- that in the modern online environment only Wik- ment of information economy, new websites and ipedia, not being co-opted by big business, re- blogs were developed, which were free from ad- mains as ―an uncomfortable reminder of what vertising and sponsorship and published news in the Web could have been‖ (p. 16). non-traditional journalistic approach, free from Christian Fuchs (2014) highlights three

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cept‘s author, Jurgen Habermas, the public ―fashionable‖ opinions and tastes (Rasmussen, main social media antagonisms which hinder the complicated considering the volume and speed sphere is an abstract mediation between the state 2014, pp. 1322). However, it is worth to mention formation of a democratic public sphere in these of its spread. If in the case of television, the and society, a discursive arena where individuals that digital technologies took rise under capital- platforms (p. 78): source of manipulative information is the media engaged in rational discussion, deliberation, ism, which drove to their inevitable commercial-  Economic - Users‘ interest in data protec- itself, on social networking platforms, the users agreement and action in order to attain a demo- ization. Like television, online-based platforms tion and corporate tax accountability on the also become one of its spreading sources. Recent cratic consensus and, ultimately, to achieve a became overloaded with advertising, which one side and corporate tax accountability on research on Twitter has revealed that fake news common good, in an egalitarian and pluralistic brought their commercial functions to the first the one side, and corporations‘ interest in stories are 70% more likely to be retweeted than environment (Malaspina, 2014, pp. 29-32). The plan. At this rate, free platforms with modest re- user data‘s transparency/commodification truthful ones (Vosoughi, Roy, & Aral, 2018). It development of the World Wide Web since its sources for promotion are put in a less beneficial and corporate secrecy on the other side. is worth to mention that the potential of online- invention has demonstrated that the processes condition.  Political - Citizens‘ interest to hold the po- based platforms to shape the public sphere de- occurring in online-based spaces do not much the Johanna van Dijk also states that commer- werful accountable and protect commu- pends not only on technology but also on socie- mentioned Habermasian definition of the public cialization of online-based platforms affects the nications from powerful institutions‘ access ty‘s political culture (McChesney, 1995, pp. 105- sphere. quality of online social interactions. Social media on the one side, and on the other side power 106). Castells states that under political legacy On the web, people‘s involvement in public blurred barriers between private, corporate and holders‘ interest to keep power structures crisis, the web cannot be a solution itself for it. discussions has been rapidly growing, but not public spaces and determines the nature of social secret and to criminalize the leaking and Despite open, free and horizontal communica- everyone and not equally got access to them. The actions (van Dijck, 2013, pp. 18-23). The author making-public of any data about them. tion, barriers between gossips, fake and valuable equality may be injured by technological or net- uses the term ―culture of connectivity‖ to define  Civil society - Networked protest commu- political information get more and more blurred. work limitations and low level of media literacy. these processes. The cultural experience in social nication that creates public political spheres As a result, it gets more difficult for politicians to Even in the case of equal technology, those with media is shaped by algorithms, protocols and online and offline, and the particularistic rely on informational tools (Castells, 2001, pp. a low level of income and education use the web defaults. As a result, sociality is being modified corporate and state control of social media 155-158). for different purposes than those with higher in- by coded structures and digital architecture. Us- that limits feudalizes and colonizes these At the rise of World Wide Web develop- come and education level (Lupton, 2015, p. 124). ers realize that their data can be used for com- public spheres. ment forums and blogs were the main platforms For the latter digital technologies serve as a mercial purposes, and still they continue active, The author assumes that above-mentioned for online discussions. Here the users could reg- means to improve their own cultural, economic communicative practices, as social media pro- antagonisms colonize the public sphere on social ister with anonymous accounts, which provided and educational level, whereas those with low vides them with the best platform for the Cas- media by corporations and state. Therefore, so- optimism for many researchers that the web income and educational level tend to use the web tellsian mass self-communication. The hierarchic cial media, despite its potential to become a pub- could become a public sphere. Anonymity was mainly for social interactions and virtual games and competitive structure of social media also lic sphere, actually is not public and free and supposed to reduce negative sanctions towards (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014, pp. 510-511). triggers the users to seek for more popularity and challenges the main postulates of classical liber- the ones expressing the minority opinion, as us- Yochai Benkler has made an attempt to in- to be more active. In today‘s attention economy, alism. This contradicts the Habermasian under- ers were not physically present at the discussion tegrate Habermas‘s approach with network theo- social media produces such key values as atten- standing of public sphere, who considers it not and could hide their real identity. However, fur- ry. He considers the networked structure of the tion and reputation. Facebook‘s business model just as a sphere of political communication, but a ther studies did not completely support this as- web and its topology as key factors affecting the is based on these values, and the user‘s will to sphere free from economic and political power, sumption (Yun & Park, 2011; Porten-Cheé & spread of information online. It enables enough share data. In this regard, critics of social media censorship and ownership (Habermas, 1996, p. Eilders, 2015; Liu & Fahm, 2011). saturation for the links and prevents fragmenta- warn about risks regarding privatization of web 377). At the beginning of 2000s, the rise of the tion or information flow control by one of the spaces by corporations. Van Dijk (2013) notes One of the obstacles for the democratic po- Web 2.0 revitalized the development of social network nodes. In the 1990s due to the develop- that in the modern online environment only Wik- tential of the web is the difficulty to check ma- media providing new opportunities for two-sided ment of information economy, new websites and ipedia, not being co-opted by big business, re- nipulative online information (Holt, 2004, pp. mass communication and digital media based on blogs were developed, which were free from ad- mains as ―an uncomfortable reminder of what 16-20). Of course, this issue is familiar to non- participation and interactivity. Social media sites vertising and sponsorship and published news in the Web could have been‖ (p. 16). digital mediums also, but the problem of fake rapidly grew and became the main online plat- non-traditional journalistic approach, free from Christian Fuchs (2014) highlights three information across digital platforms is more form for opinion expression and public discus-

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sions, outgoing forums and blogs. Social media continues spinning on Facebook, as users‘ net- sites are both public and private platforms, where work on this platform is mainly based on their users can express their opinion through a public offline connections. The will of self-censorship or private status and a message. They combine also has a negative influence on the user‘s deci- interpersonal and mass communication. sion to leave a public comment on a specific top- Van Dijk highlights the following character- ic (Gearhart & Zhang, 2014). istics of social media as a mass communication Some researchers have shown that the inter- medium (van Dijck & Poell, 2013, pp. 5-11): est in politics, level of trust and participation and  Programmability - the ability of a central persistency of political views also contribute to agency to manipulate content in order to online political activism (Hayes, Smock, & Carr, define the audience‘s watching experience 2015). Other studies have revealed that like of- as a continuous flow. fline environment, where a small network may  Popularity - mass media‘s power in terms of stimulate opinion expression, on social media the agenda-setting or pushing certain topics to bigger the network and its member‘s opinion the fore and make their popularity measu- diversity are, the lower an individual‘s willing- rable and quantified. ness to express an opinion is (Brandade, Liders,  Connectivity - the ability of a social plat- & Skjetne, 2010). Moreover, users with large form to connect the content, users activities online network tend to delete their publications and advertisers. more often. Despite the controllability of infor-  Datafication - the ability of networked plat- mation disclosure through changing privacy set- forms to render into data many aspects of tings on social media, even publications availa- the world that have never been quantified ble only for friends may reach bigger audiences, before. than a face to face conversation in train. Such As we shall see further, abovementioned fe- publicity may also decrease the willingness to atures significantly determine the degree the spi- express an opinion. The number of online friends ral of silence theory can be applied to the online and opinion diversity may also cause an infor- setting and on social media platforms in particu- mation overload, which prompts inaccurate per- lar. ceptions of public opinion and pluralistic ignorance. The Factors Affecting Opinion Expression Another basic feature of social media that and Modernization of Spiral of Silence deserves close attention is its unique toolkit dif- Theory in Frames of Digitalization ferent from face to face communication. Here an opinion can be presented as a short comment The rise of social media platforms brought with or without links, which contains more in- new challenges for researchers of the spiral of formation than could be presented under face to silence theory. The research methodology for face communication. Hypertext allows to ac- applications of the theory on social media vary, complish a verbal opinion with audio and visual and the results are mixed. One of the first re- content or present it in non-direct forms, using searches on the topic, conducted by Gearhart and symbols and visual tools. Finally, on social me- Zhang, have revealed that the spiral of silence dia, users can express their opinion simply using

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sions, outgoing forums and blogs. Social media continues spinning on Facebook, as users‘ net- ―like‖-s and reactions. Many social media users that works to depoliticize public communication‖ sites are both public and private platforms, where work on this platform is mainly based on their actively follow discussions, but don‘t comment (p. 377). On contemporary social media plat- users can express their opinion through a public offline connections. The will of self-censorship or limit their reaction to a ―like‖. As a result, civ- forms, this can be considered as the main ten- or private status and a message. They combine also has a negative influence on the user‘s deci- ic participation also transforms on social media. dency for communication and public discussion interpersonal and mass communication. sion to leave a public comment on a specific top- Digital communicative actions become the main practices. Therefore, the spread of information Van Dijk highlights the following character- ic (Gearhart & Zhang, 2014). indicator of participation, thus digitizing it and and its consumption on social media, despite its istics of social media as a mass communication Some researchers have shown that the inter- limiting actions to a discourse of the issue. technological advances and networked structure, medium (van Dijck & Poell, 2013, pp. 5-11): est in politics, level of trust and participation and Due to mass communication on social me- not always enhances democratic discourse. Basi-  Programmability - the ability of a central persistency of political views also contribute to dia users‘ opinions quickly reach not only their cally, we deal with communication for the sake agency to manipulate content in order to online political activism (Hayes, Smock, & Carr, online friends but also other audiences outside of communication and Mcluhan‘s famous phrase define the audience‘s watching experience 2015). Other studies have revealed that like of- their network. Online media also contributes to ―Medium is the message‖ can be reformulated as as a continuous flow. fline environment, where a small network may this process, often sharing opinions not only by ―Communication is the communication‖ or, as  Popularity - mass media‘s power in terms of stimulate opinion expression, on social media the public figures or politicians but also by ordinary Castells cited: ―Network is the communication‖. agenda-setting or pushing certain topics to bigger the network and its member‘s opinion users. Thus, users‘ opinions on social media are Today‘s news consumption culture is also the fore and make their popularity measu- diversity are, the lower an individual‘s willing- not just shaping public opinion: they become affected by digitalization and new rules of the rable and quantified. ness to express an opinion is (Brandade, Liders, news. Users get informed about public opinion media market. While setting agenda newsmakers  Connectivity - the ability of a social plat- & Skjetne, 2010). Moreover, users with large without the media‘s agency, directly from their are guided by marketing strategies trying to catch form to connect the content, users activities online network tend to delete their publications online friends, friends of friends, etc. Journalists the audience‘s emotional reactions and satisfy and advertisers. more often. Despite the controllability of infor- and media no longer play the role of goalkeepers their preferences. The audience is a busy and dis-  Datafication - the ability of networked plat- mation disclosure through changing privacy set- in the process of news flow. Users are news crea- tracted mass of consumers, which must be satis- forms to render into data many aspects of tings on social media, even publications availa- tors and consumers, and the content they create fied at any price, even trampling on the princi- the world that have never been quantified ble only for friends may reach bigger audiences, serves as news and means of interpersonal com- ples of journalistic professionalism (Coleman & before. than a face to face conversation in train. Such munication at the same time. Blumer, 2009, pp. 42-67). As we shall see further, abovementioned fe- publicity may also decrease the willingness to One of the key factors affecting the shaping The algorithmic logic of social media also atures significantly determine the degree the spi- express an opinion. The number of online friends of public opinion on social media is the news plays a significant role in news consumption and ral of silence theory can be applied to the online and opinion diversity may also cause an infor- consumption culture. Unlike traditional media, public opinion formation. The algorithms decide setting and on social media platforms in particu- mation overload, which prompts inaccurate per- news on social media surrounds people constant- which publications a user can see, based on his lar. ceptions of public opinion and pluralistic igno- ly and everywhere. News is consumed in parallel or her online behaviour. This contains risk of rance. with entertaining content and is often presented polarization, as a user starts seeing homogenous The Factors Affecting Opinion Expression Another basic feature of social media that in an entertaining format, thus boosting info- content, which usually interprets issues from one and Modernization of Spiral of Silence deserves close attention is its unique toolkit dif- tainment. In this regard it is worth to mention point of view. But the algorithms are only one Theory in Frames of Digitalization ferent from face to face communication. Here an Habermas‘s (1996) worries regarding the in- side of the problem, besides human cognitive opinion can be presented as a short comment crease of the role of advertising in the public and psychological factors. People tend to search The rise of social media platforms brought with or without links, which contains more in- sphere, as a result of which economic logic for information confirming their beliefs (Schulz new challenges for researchers of the spiral of formation than could be presented under face to spreads through the media and depoliticizes it: & Roessler, 2012, pp. 357-359). As a result, di- silence theory. The research methodology for face communication. Hypertext allows to ac- ―Reporting facts as human-interest stories, versity of opinions creates an isolated homoge- applications of the theory on social media vary, complish a verbal opinion with audio and visual mixing information with entertainment, arran- nous environment instead of stimulating discus- and the results are mixed. One of the first re- content or present it in non-direct forms, using ging material episodically, and breaking down sions between opposite poles (Wilhelm, 2000, searches on the topic, conducted by Gearhart and symbols and visual tools. Finally, on social me- complex relationships into smaller fragments - pp. 86-104). Such homogenous environments, Zhang, have revealed that the spiral of silence dia, users can express their opinion simply using all of this comes together to form a syndrome called echo chambers, make fake diversity of

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opinions and surround a user with similar views. & Wang, 2016). These processes are another key factor resulting Another important factor affecting the will- pluralistic ignorance: a representative from each ingness to express an opinion on social media is pole surrounded mainly with one point of view the self-presentational concern. Social media has ascribes it to the majority. become one of the main platforms for individu- In 2014-2015 Eytan Bakhshi and other real‘s self-expression and public image presenta- searchers studied publications of 10.1 mln Face- tion. Any published information becomes a part book users, who actively expressed their political of users‘ digital identity and functions as a sym- orientation online (Bakshy, Messing & Adamic, bol for their self-presentation. Although some 2016). Three groups of users based on political researches have revealed a positive correlation orientation have been discovered - liberals (4.1 between self-presentation on Facebook and will- men), moderate users (4.4 mln) and conserva- ingness to express political views, everything tives (4.4 mln). These groups vary not only by depends on the purpose and character of self- political orientation but also topics of shared presentation. If a man is tended to an acquisitive publications and link sources. One of the key self-presentation, which aims to form a long- findings of the research is that in the cascade of term positive public image, he or she is express- ideological filters, besides the network and algo- ing opinion more actively. If an individua‘s self- rithms, the main obstacle to get familiar with dis- presentation is protective and aims to avoid criti- sent views is the user‘s free will: they tend to cism, he or she will avoid speaking under high read publications by like-minded people and dis- opinion diversity (Lia, Raymond, & Xi, 2017). like the ones made by representatives of the op- Some researches have shown that the will- posite pole. The homogenous environment on ingness to express an opinion on social media is social media contributes to the formation of a determined by the observation of public opinion. close circle of like-minded opinions. The risk of It is notable that in some cases, it affects the will- negative feedback also decreases the users‘ willingness to express an opinion and the fear of iso- ingness to express an opinion (Gearhart & lation does not (Xiaodong & Li, 2016). This is Zhang, 2015). Lee and Famm (2011) consider explained by the domination of weak ties on the the latter a key factor triggering the spiral of si- digital environment and the easiness to apply lence process online. They argue that isolated negative sanctions towards those with the oppo- homogenous environment can stimulate opinion site opinion. Nuebaum and Cramer also empha- expression on social media, but at the same time, size the role of situational factors which deter- it contributes pluralistic ignorance. Homogeneity mine an individual‘s fear of isolation (Neubaum of social media refers not only to the content but & Krämer, 2016). They assume that various con- also to the sentiment of opinions. Some research- textual factors, such as familiarity of the audi- ers have demonstrated that political discourse on ence or communication channel, the effect on an social media is mainly irrational, emotional and individual‘s expectations concerning negative aggressive (Malaspina, 2014). In particular, pub- sanctions if he/she represents the minority‘s lications representing the majority‘s opinion on view. Interestingly, the research has demonstrat- Twitter have a higher level of emotionality than ed that people tend to express deviant opinion in those of the minority (Luo, Li, Wang, Xue, Liu, offline environment and for unfamiliar audiences

WISDOM 1(14), 2020 26 26 Digitalization of Communication and the Spiral of Silence Theory

opinions and surround a user with similar views. & Wang, 2016). more often than they do on Facebook. Authors  Brain‘s cognitive processes prompt the us- These processes are another key factor resulting Another important factor affecting the will- explain this with negative sanctions and the easi- ers to seek and share information and opin- pluralistic ignorance: a representative from each ingness to express an opinion on social media is ness to apply them on online-based platforms. ions confirming their existing beliefs. pole surrounded mainly with one point of view the self-presentational concern. Social media has Other studies have shown another factor affect-  The polarized and homogenous environ- ascribes it to the majority. become one of the main platforms for individu- ing the willingness to express an opinion on so- ment is raising new forms of pluralistic ig- In 2014-2015 Eytan Bakhshi and other real‘s self-expression and public image presenta- cial media - opinion congruency (Hampton, norance. searchers studied publications of 10.1 mln Face- tion. Any published information becomes a part Rainie, Lu, Dwyer, Shin, & Purcell, 2014). Peo-  Open and horizontal communication and book users, who actively expressed their political of users‘ digital identity and functions as a sym- ple avoid speaking out when they notice that easy-to-use online tools and platforms stim- orientation online (Bakshy, Messing & Adamic, bol for their self-presentation. Although some their opinion differs from the one among their ulate the opinion expression, but, at the 2016). Three groups of users based on political researches have revealed a positive correlation online network or general public opinion (Du- same time, make the fear of being criticized orientation have been discovered - liberals (4.1 between self-presentation on Facebook and will- bois & Szwarc, 2018). one of the key factors prompting the spiral men), moderate users (4.4 mln) and conserva- ingness to express political views, everything of silence. tives (4.4 mln). These groups vary not only by depends on the purpose and character of self- Conclusion The researches have not provided a com- political orientation but also topics of shared presentation. If a man is tended to an acquisitive prehensive answer to the question – whether the publications and link sources. One of the key self-presentation, which aims to form a long- Analyses of the Internet as a public sphere spiral of silence spins on social media. However, findings of the research is that in the cascade of term positive public image, he or she is express- shows that applications of the spiral of silence in contradictory conclusions provide a stimulus for ideological filters, besides the network and algo- ing opinion more actively. If an individua‘s self- this multilevel and complicated environment are new research, especially considering the value of rithms, the main obstacle to get familiar with dis- presentation is protective and aims to avoid criti- specific and contradictory. On the one hand, it the question in the context of the web as a public sent views is the user‘s free will: they tend to cism, he or she will avoid speaking under high offers new technological and communicative sphere. Basically, the spiral of silence on social read publications by like-minded people and dis- opinion diversity (Lia, Raymond, & Xi, 2017). features for discussion and opinion expression, media affects the web‘s democratic potential and like the ones made by representatives of the op- Some researches have shown that the will- which differ from face to face communication; its further research can shed light to another key posite pole. The homogenous environment on ingness to express an opinion on social media is on the other hand, it maintains some characteris- question – will the web ever transform into a social media contributes to the formation of a determined by the observation of public opinion. tics of offline sociality. public sphere from a public space? These ques- close circle of like-minded opinions. The risk of It is notable that in some cases, it affects the will- As a result of the analyses, the following tions are important from the philosophical point negative feedback also decreases the users‘ willingness to express an opinion and the fear of iso- factors determining applications of the spiral of of view as well, as they will provide a new em- ingness to express an opinion (Gearhart & lation does not (Xiaodong & Li, 2016). This is silence on the online-based environment can be pirical basis for further understanding of the in- Zhang, 2015). Lee and Famm (2011) consider explained by the domination of weak ties on the highlighted: dividual-society relationship and the role of pub- the latter a key factor triggering the spiral of si- digital environment and the easiness to apply  Social media platforms, due to their logic lic opinion in it. lence process online. They argue that isolated negative sanctions towards those with the oppo- based on connectivity and popularity, have homogenous environment can stimulate opinion site opinion. Nuebaum and Cramer also empha- become the main space, where people ex- REFERENCES expression on social media, but at the same time, size the role of situational factors which deter- press their opinion. it contributes pluralistic ignorance. Homogeneity mine an individual‘s fear of isolation (Neubaum  Social media platforms are owned by cor- Athanesyan, A. V., & Ter-Harutyunyan, A. S. of social media refers not only to the content but & Krämer, 2016). They assume that various con- porations with business models aimed to get (2017). Sovremennye kriticheskye teorii also to the sentiment of opinions. Some research- textual factors, such as familiarity of the audi- profit. 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