VINEGARVINEGAR MAKINGMAKING

AceticAcetic acidacid VinegarVinegar zzLegallyLegally meansmeans aceticacetic acidacid productproduct mademade fromfrom applesapples (like(like winewine isis fromfrom grapes)grapes) zzToTo bebe legal,legal, vinegarsvinegars inin USUS mustmust containcontain aa minimumminimum ofof 4%4% ofof aceticacetic acidacid DifferentDifferent countriescountries --differentdifferent startingstarting materialsmaterials zz ContinentalContinental EuropeEurope--grapegrape wineswines zz GreatGreat BritainBritain-- maltmalt zz HawaiiHawaii andand FarFar EastEast-- pineapplepineapple zz USAUSA --appleapple Alcoholic Fermentation

Alcohol

O2

VINEGAR IMITATIONIMITATION VINEGARVINEGAR zz InIn latelate 1800s1800s chemistchemist learnedlearned howhow toto makemake aceticacetic acidacid zz ManufacturersManufacturers addedadded waterwater toto reducereduce strengthstrength toto 5%,5%, coloredcolored itit andand soldsold isis asas aa vinegarvinegar zz ImitationImitation vinegarvinegar isis stillstill manufacturedmanufactured andand byby lawlaw thethe labellabel mustmust statestate thatthat isis diluteddiluted aceticacetic acidacid AceticAcetic acidacid (fermentation?)(fermentation?) zz 2CH2CH3CHCH2OHOH ++ OO2 == 2CH2CH3COOHCOOH ++ 2H2H200 zz EthanolEthanol 92g/mol92g/mol zz AceticAcetic acidacid 120120 g/molg/mol zz TheoreticalTheoretical yieldyield (120/96)(120/96) xx 100100 == 130%130% zz PracticalPractical yieldyield ~~ 120%120% AceticAcetic acidacid bacteriabacteria zz obligatoryobligatory aerobicaerobic zz nitrogennitrogen--fixingfixing bacteriabacteria zz knownknown forfor producingproducing acidacid asas aa resultresult ofof metabolicmetabolic processesprocesses zz AcetobacterAcetobacter acetiaceti FERMENTEDFERMENTED VINEGARVINEGAR zz MadeMade fromfrom goodgood alcoholalcohol (wine,(wine, beer)beer) thatthat isis fermentedfermented usingusing aceticacetic bacteriabacteria thatthat convertconvert alcoholalcohol toto aceticacetic acidacid zz ProcessProcess cancan bebe controlledcontrolled byby usingusing greatgreat carecare inin cleanlinesscleanliness andand introducingintroducing chosenchosen yeastyeast (wine)(wine) andand bacteriabacteria (vinegar)(vinegar) toto obtainobtain goodgood qualityquality everyevery timetime MethodsMethods ofof makingmaking vinegarvinegar z SLOWSLOW z RAPIDRAPID z HomeHome makingmaking z TheThe generatorgenerator systemsystem z OrleansOrleans processprocess z SubmergedSubmerged fermentationfermentation systemsystem (bubble(bubble method)method)

Better flavor of vinegar WINEWINE VINEGARVINEGAR zz WineWine thatthat usuallyusually containscontains 1111--12%12% alcoholalcohol mustmust bebe diluteddiluted toto 5.55.5--7%7% alcoholalcohol beforebefore usingusing itit toto makemake vinegarvinegar zz VinegarVinegar shouldshould containcontain atat leastleast 5%5% aceticacetic acidacid toto asas requiredrequired forfor preservingpreserving andand picklingpickling MAKINGMAKING WINEWINE VINEGARVINEGAR zz UtensilsUtensils z UseUse glass,glass, stainlessstainless still,still, enamel.enamel. VinegarVinegar leachesleaches moleculesmolecules fromfrom ironiron andand aluminumaluminum zz SanitizeSanitize utensilsutensils z EverythingEverything thatthat willwill touchtouch vinegarvinegar shouldshould bebe sanitized.sanitized. SoakSoak everythingeverything forfor 2020 minutesminutes inin aa solutionsolution ofof 22 tablespoonstablespoons chlorinechlorine laundrylaundry bleachbleach toto 11 gallongallon ofof waterwater MAKINGMAKING VINEGARVINEGAR z DiluteDilute winewine toto 5.55.5--7%7% alcoholalcohol withwith waterwater z FillFill sterilizedsterilized containerscontainers withwith aboutabout 2/32/3 fullfull z AddAdd bacteriabacteria culturescultures z Leaving wine exposed to air may sometimes star the process, but is very risky because some other organisms may grow z It is recommended to order pure cultures of bacteria sometimes called mother of vinegar z They can be purchased in any store that supplies wine making equipment. It usually comes like a clear liquid in the jar MAKINGMAKING VINEGARVINEGAR zz CoverCover thethe containercontainer withwith aa clothcloth toto keepkeep thethe insectsinsects outout whilewhile allowingallowing airair toto freelyfreely reachreach thethe stockstock zz TwoTwo factorsfactors requirerequire specialspecial attentionattention whenwhen makingmaking vinegarvinegar atat home:home: z OxygenOxygen supplysupply z TemperatureTemperature TEMPERATURETEMPERATURE zz BetweenBetween 8080--8585 FF isis idealideal zz LowLow oror fluctuatingfluctuating temperaturestemperatures slowslow thethe processprocess zz HighHigh temperaturestemperatures willwill killkill bacteriabacteria FORMATIONFORMATION OFOF THETHE FILMFILM zz AfterAfter somesome timetime anan aceticacetic acidacid filmfilm calledcalled ““mothermother ““ willwill formform zz ItIt shouldshould notnot bebe disturbeddisturbed zz ItIt oftenoften becomesbecomes heavyheavy enoughenough toto fall,fall, inin suchsuch casecase removeremove itit andand discarddiscard it.it. VINEGARVINEGAR zz LivingLiving bacteriabacteria areare inin thethe liquidliquid zz TheyThey cancan bebe usedused toto startstart thethe newnew batchbatch ofof vinegarvinegar soso itit isis notnot necessarynecessary toto purchasepurchase newnew starterstarter bacteriabacteria zz FullFull fermentationfermentation willwill taketake 33--44 weeksweeks PRESERVINGPRESERVING VINEGARVINEGAR z Filter vinegar through a layer of cheese cloth to remove formed film-mother of vinegar, before pasteurization z Heat vinegar before pouring it into sterilized bottles z Bottle and place in hot water bath z In both cases the temperature of the vinegar must reach at least 140F and should not exceed 160F and should be held at that temperature for at least 30 minutes z Stored vinegar will stay in excellent condition almost indefinitely if it is pasteurized AGINGAGING VINEGARVINEGAR z Vinegar has a strong, sharp bite when it is just made z It becomes mellow when aged z It usually lasts 6 months or longer when stored at cool, steady temperature (50-60 F) z This undisturbed rest also allows suspended solids to fall, making the vinegar clear and bright z Once vinegar is ready it should be kept away from oxygen because acetic acid could be converted into water and carbon dioxide FLAVOREDFLAVORED VINEGARVINEGAR zz FlavoringFlavoring cancan bebe addedadded toto homemadehomemade vinegarvinegar justjust beforebefore bottlingbottling zz SomeSome additivesadditives cancan include:include: garlic,garlic, ginger,ginger, oror anyany combinationcombination ofof drieddried freshfresh herbsherbs zz PlacePlace flavoringflavoring materialmaterial inin aa smallsmall cheeseclothcheesecloth bagbag andand suspendsuspend inin vinegarvinegar untiluntil thethe desireddesired strengthstrength isis reachedreached zz ItIt willwill taketake approximatelyapproximately 44 days,days, exceptexcept forfor garlicgarlic whichwhich takestakes onlyonly 11 dayday OrleansOrleans processprocess z Wine or cider is fermented in wooden barrels or covered vats z There are screened air vents located in the top part of the container. z Vents are screened to prevent Drosophila z A starter culture is put into the container, and the fermentation is continued until the acetification is complete z About 3/4 of the vinegar will be drawn off and replaced with fresh wine or other fermentable liquid. z The process will keep repeating itself as long as quality vinegar can still be produced. z This process is very slow (several weeks) and is usually done in small batches. OrleansOrleans processprocess RapidRapid--generatorgenerator processprocess ((SchutzenbachSchutzenbach)) z Fermentation is done in a container that consists of two chambers. z The larger (upper) chamber is packed with solid materials almost to the top (wood shavings, corncobs etc.) (bacteria attach to it) z The upper chamber is separated from the lower chamber by a screen. z Air is injected & blown upward through the screen and through the solid materials, & the air escapes through the top. z The fermenting liquids are distributed evenly over the top of the material, & allowed to percolate through the material. z The resulting liquid is then pumped back to the top & recirculated until the alcohol content is reduced to 1/2 percent. z The vinegar is drawn off and fresh alcoholic solution is added. FringsFrings acetatoracetator oror generatorgenerator SubmergedSubmerged cultureculture fermentationfermentation (bubbling)(bubbling) zz FirstFirst waswas developeddeveloped duringduring WorldWorld warwar IIII forfor thethe productionproduction ofof penicillinpenicillin zz TinyTiny bubblesbubbles ofof airair areare passpass throughthrough thethe solutionsolution ofof ethanolethanol zz AgitatedAgitated byby propellers,propellers, dispersingdispersing cellscells ofof aceticacetic acidacid bacteriabacteria EssentialsEssentials forfor vinegarvinegar generatorgenerator zz MustMust provideprovide forfor thethe introductionintroduction ofof freshfresh substratesubstrate withoutwithout disturbingdisturbing thethe contentcontent ofof alcoholalcohol oror thethe surfacesurface growthgrowth zz MustMust provideprovide easyeasy samplingsampling forfor titrationtitration zz MustMust protectprotect systemsystem fromfrom contaminationcontamination zz MustMust havehave meansmeans ofof temperaturetemperature controlcontrol RateRate ofof aceticacetic acidacid productionproduction zz TheThe inherentinherent capacitycapacity ofof AcetobacterAcetobacter acetiaceti toto convertconvert alcoholalcohol toto aceticacetic acidacid zz TheThe amountamount ofof ethylethyl alcoholalcohol (6(6--88 %% opt.opt. 12%12% tolerated)tolerated) zz TheThe temperaturetemperature (80F(80F opt,opt, 6868--9696 range)range) zz TheThe amountamount ofof aerationaeration ofof surfacesurface areaarea ofof thethe growthgrowth matherialmatherial LACTICLACTIC ACIDACID FERMENTATIONFERMENTATION RequirementsRequirements

„ StartingStarting fermentablefermentable sugarsugar (( glucose,glucose, lactose)lactose)

„ MicroorganismsMicroorganisms (lactic(lactic acidacid bacteriabacteria oror fungi)fungi) FermentationFermentation MicroorganismsMicroorganisms

„ LacticLactic acidacid fermentationfermentation isis causedcaused byby somesome fungifungi andand bacteria.bacteria. „ TheThe mostmost importantimportant lacticlactic acidacid producingproducing bacteriabacteria isis LactobacillusLactobacillus.. „ OtherOther bacteriabacteria whichwhich produceproduce lacticlactic acidacid include:include: „ leuconostocleuconostoc mesenteroidesmesenteroides,, „ pediococcuspediococcus cerevisiaecerevisiae,, „ streptococcusstreptococcus lactislactis ,, „ bifidobacteriumbifidobacterium bifidusbifidus.. LacticLactic acidacid bacteriabacteria

„ LacticLactic acidacid bacteriabacteria refersrefers toto aa largelarge groupgroup ofof beneficialbeneficial bacteriabacteria thatthat havehave similarsimilar propertiesproperties andand allall produceproduce lacticlactic acidacid asas anan endend productproduct ofof thethe fermentationfermentation process.process. „ TheyThey areare widespreadwidespread inin naturenature andand areare alsoalso foundfound inin ourour digestivedigestive systems.systems. LacticLactic acidacid bacteriabacteria

„ HomolacticHomolactic fermentationfermentation „ TheThe fermentationfermentation ofof 11 molemole ofof glucoseglucose yieldsyields twotwo molesmoles ofof lacticlactic acid;acid; „ HeterolacticHeterolactic fermentationfermentation „ TheThe fermentationfermentation ofof 11 molemole ofof glucoseglucose yieldsyields 11 molemole eacheach ofof lacticlactic acid,acid, ethanolethanol andand carboncarbon dioxide;dioxide; NisinNisin

„ NisinNisin waswas thethe firstfirst bacteriocinbacteriocin derivedderived fromfrom fermentationfermentation ofof aa lacticlactic--acidacid bacteriumbacterium „ ApprovedApproved byby thethe FDAFDA inin AprilApril 19891989 toto preventprevent thethe growthgrowth ofof botulismbotulism sporesspores inin pasteurizedpasteurized processprocess--cheesecheese spreads.spreads. „ DoesDoes notnot inhibitinhibit GramGram--negativenegative organisms,organisms, yeastsyeasts oror fungi,fungi, butbut doesdoes inhibitinhibit mostmost GramGram-- positivepositive organismsorganisms includingincluding sporespore--formersformers suchsuch asas ClostridiaClostridia botulinumbotulinum andand heatheat-- resistantresistant spoilagespoilage organisms.organisms. Homofermenter Facultative Obligate heterofermenter homofermenter Enterococcus faecium Lactobacillus bavaricus Lactobacillus brevis Enterococcus faecalis Lactobacillus casei Lactobacillus buchneri Lactobacillus acidophilus Lactobacillus Lactobacillus cellobiosus coryniformis Lactobacillus lactis Lactobacillus curvatus Lactobacillus confusus Lactobacillus delbrueckii Lactobacillus plantarum Lactobacillus coprophilus Lactobacillusleichmannii Lactobacillus sake Lactobacillus fermentatum Lactobacillus salivarius Lactobacillus sanfrancisco Streptococcus bovis Leuconostoc dextranicum Streptococcus thermophilus Leuconostoc mesenteroides Pediococcus acidilactici Leuconostoc paramesenteroides Pedicoccus damnosus Pediococcus pentocacus ConditionsConditions forfor lacticlactic acidacid fermentationfermentation

„ AdditionAddition ofof aa sufficientsufficient amountamount ofof fermentablefermentable carbohydratescarbohydrates

„ ReducedReduced OO2 duringduring thethe fermentationfermentation processprocess andand storagestorage ofof thethe fermentedfermented product.product. „ RapidRapid multiplicationmultiplication ofof thethe starterstarter cultureculture andand sufficientsufficient productionproduction ofof lacticlactic acid.acid. LacticLactic fermentationfermentation productsproducts

„ Western world: yogurt, sourdough breads, sauerkraut, cucumber pickles and olives „ Fermented meats „ Middle East: pickled vegetables „ Korea: kimchi (fermented mixture of Chinese cabbage, radishes, red pepper, garlic and ginger) „ Russia: kefir „ Egypt: laban rayab and laban zeer (fermented milks), kishk (fermented cereal and milk mixture) „ Nigeria: gari (fermented cassava) „ South Africa : magou (fermented maize porridge) „ Thailand : nham (fermented fresh pork) „ Philippines : balao balao (fermented rice and shrimp mixture) FermentedFermented vegetablesvegetables

„ SauerkrautSauerkraut „ PicklesPickles FermentationFermentation

„ LacticLactic acidacid fermentationsfermentations areare carriedcarried outout underunder threethree basicbasic typestypes ofof condition:condition:–– „ drydry salted,salted, „ brinedbrined andand „ nonnon--salted.salted. „ SaltingSalting providesprovides aa suitablesuitable environmentenvironment forfor lacticlactic acidacid bacteriabacteria toto growgrow whichwhich impartimpart thethe acidacid flavorflavor toto thethe vegetable.vegetable. HowHow doesdoes saltsalt preservespreserves food?food?

„ TheThe chloridechloride ionion isis aa bacterialbacterial poisonpoison „ LimitsLimits moisturemoisture availabilityavailability „ OxygenOxygen solubilitysolubility isis reducedreduced „ DehydratesDehydrates protoplasmprotoplasm causingcausing plasmolysisplasmolysis „ InterferesInterferes withwith enzymeenzyme actionaction

„ GenerallyGenerally yeast,yeast, bacteriabacteria andand moldsmolds dodo notnot growgrow inin saturatedsaturated saltsalt solutionsolution @@ 26.5%26.5% sodiumsodium chloridechloride atat roomroom temperaturetemperature DryDry saltedsalted

„ VegetableVegetable isis treatedtreated withwith drydry saltsalt „ TheThe saltsalt extractsextracts thethe juicejuice fromfrom thethe vegetablevegetable andand createscreates thethe brinebrine „ AsAs soonsoon asas thethe brinebrine isis formed,formed, fermentationfermentation startsstarts andand bubblesbubbles ofof carboncarbon dioxidedioxide beginbegin toto appear.appear. „ FermentationFermentation takestakes betweenbetween oneone andand fourfour weeksweeks dependingdepending onon thethe ambientambient temperaturetemperature SauerkrautSauerkraut

„ sauerkrautsauerkraut literallyliterally translatestranslates asas acidacid cabbagecabbage „ LeuconostocLeuconostoc mesenteroidesmesenteroides „ LactobacillusLactobacillus plantarumplantarum „ Shredded cabbage is placed in a jar and salt is added. „ Mechanical pressure is applied to the cabbage to expel the juice, which contains fermentable sugars and other nutrients suitable for microbial activity. „ The first micro-organisms to start acting are the gas- producing cocci (L. Mesenteroides). These microbes produce acids. „ When the acidity reaches 0.25 to 0.3% (calculated as lactic acid), these bacteria slow down and begin to die off, although their enzymes continue to function. „ The activity initiated by the L. mesenteroides is continued by the lactobacilli (L. plantarum and L. Cucumeris) until an acidity level of 1.5 to 2% is attained. „ The high salt concentration and low temperature inhibit these bacteria to some extent. „ Finally, L. pentoaceticus continues the fermentation, bringing the acidity to 2 to 2.5% thus completing the fermentation. TemperatureTemperature effecteffect

„ TheThe optimumoptimum temperaturetemperature forfor sauerkrautsauerkraut fermentationfermentation isis aroundaround 2121ººC.C. „ AA variationvariation ofof justjust aa fewfew degreesdegrees fromfrom thisthis temperaturetemperature altersalters thethe activityactivity ofof thethe microbialmicrobial processprocess andand affectsaffects thethe qualityquality ofof thethe finalfinal product.product. „ Therefore,Therefore, temperaturetemperature controlcontrol isis oneone ofof thethe mostmost importantimportant factorsfactors inin thethe sauerkrautsauerkraut process.process. „ AA temperaturetemperature ofof 1818ºº toto 2222ºº CC isis mostmost desirabledesirable forfor initiatinginitiating fermentationfermentation sincesince thisthis isis thethe optimumoptimum temperaturetemperature rangerange forfor thethe growthgrowth andand metabolismmetabolism ofof L.L. mesenteroidesmesenteroides.. EffectsEffects ofof saltsalt

„ ImpartsImparts firmnessfirmness „ InhibitsInhibits putrefactiveputrefactive bacteriabacteria formationformation „ WithdrawsWithdraws waterwater fromfrom thethe cabbagecabbage „ AddedAdded toto aa finalfinal concentrationconcentration ofof 2.02.0 toto 2.5%2.5% SpoilageSpoilage

„ AerobicAerobic soilsoil micromicro--organismsorganisms breakbreak downdown thethe proteinprotein andand produceproduce undesirableundesirable flavorflavor andand texturetexture changeschanges „ DarkDark coloredcolored sauerkrautsauerkraut (caused(caused byby spoilagespoilage organisms)organisms) „ PinkPink krautkraut isis aa spoilagespoilage problem.problem. ItIt isis causedcaused byby aa groupgroup ofof yeastsyeasts whichwhich produceproduce anan intenseintense redred pigmentpigment inin thethe juicejuice andand onon thethe surfacesurface ofof thethe cabbagecabbage BrineBrine saltedsalted fermentedfermented vegetablesvegetables

„ For vegetables which inherently contain less moisture. „ A brine solution is prepared by dissolving salt in water (a 15 to 20% salt solution). „ Fermentation takes place well in a brine of about 20 salometer. „ The vegetable is immersed in the brine and allowed to ferment. „ The strong brine solution draws sugar and water out of the vegetable, which decreases the salt concentration. „ It is crucial that the salt concentration does not fall below 12%, otherwise conditions do not allow for fermentation. To achieve this, extra salt is added periodically to the brine mixture. PicklesPickles „ TheThe washedwashed cucumberscucumbers areare placedplaced inin largelarge tankstanks andand saltsalt brinebrine (15(15 toto 20%)20%) isis added.added. „ TheThe cucumberscucumbers areare submergedsubmerged inin thethe brine,brine, ensuringensuring thatthat nonenone floatfloat onon thethe surfacesurface -- thisthis isis essentialessential toto preventprevent spoilage.spoilage. „ TheThe strongstrong brinebrine drawsdraws thethe sugarsugar andand waterwater outout ofof thethe cucumbers,cucumbers, whichwhich simultaneouslysimultaneously reducesreduces thethe salinitysalinity ofof thethe solution.solution. „ InIn orderorder toto maintainmaintain aa saltsalt solutionsolution soso thatthat fermentationfermentation cancan taketake place,place, moremore saltsalt hashas toto bebe addedadded toto thethe brinebrine solution.solution. „ IfIf thethe concentrationconcentration ofof saltsalt fallsfalls belowbelow 12%,12%, itit willwill resultresult inin spoilagespoilage ofof thethe picklespickles throughthrough putrefactionputrefaction andand softening.softening. „ TheThe colorcolor ofof thethe cucumbercucumber surfacesurface changeschanges fromfrom brightbright greengreen toto aa darkdark oliveolive greengreen asas acidsacids interactinteract withwith thethe chlorophyll.chlorophyll. „ TheThe interiorinterior ofof thethe cucumbercucumber changeschanges fromfrom whitewhite toto aa waxywaxy translucenttranslucent shadeshade asas airair isis forcedforced outout ofof thethe cells.cells. „ TheThe specificspecific gravitygravity ofof thethe cucumberscucumbers alsoalso increasesincreases asas aa resultresult ofof thethe gradualgradual absorptionabsorption ofof saltsalt andand theythey beginbegin toto sinksink inin thethe brinebrine ratherrather thanthan floatingfloating onon thethe surface.surface.