Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe: Second Edition Charles G

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Index

Abelard, Peter, 18, 208 Aristotle, 16, 18, 20, 23, 24, 62, 66, 67, 68, Academic scepticism, 208; Cicero as major 70, 123, 198, 204, 213, 217, 218; source, 16, 204, 207, 208; see also Cicero; attacked by anti-rationalists, 208, Pyrrhonism; scepticism 211–15; attacked by Bruno, 212; active life: vs contemplative life, 22–23, 28, attacked by Cardano, 214; attacked by 65, 77 Fracastoro, 213; attacked by humanist Aesticampianus, Johannes, 142 reformers and Protestants, 214; attacked Agricola, Rudolf: admired by Celtis, 117; by Italian ‘philosophers of nature’, biography of Petrarch, 111; education 211–13; attacked by Luther, 141, 143, and career, 110–11; On Dialectical 213; attacked by Paracelsus, 213; Invention, 110, 111, 216 attacked by Ramus, 216–17; attacked by Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Sanches, 211; criticized by Agricola, 111; Cornelius, 219; sceptical ideas in Vanity, diminished role in Wittenberg 209–11, 218; translated into English and curriculum, 142–44; dominates French, 210 university teaching till seventeenth Alberti, Leon Battista, 69, 72, 75, 76, 181; century, 3, 9, 201, 206; first edition in both humanist and artist, 90–91; Greek, 123; humanistic translations, 33, describes rules of linear perspective, 90; 108, 121, 135, 138, 205; Melanchthon writes On the Family, 64–65 restores teaching of his books at Alcalá, University of, 131, 164, 165, 187; Wittenberg, 213; and modern its trilingual college, 143 philosophy, 215; moral doctrines inferior Alciati, Andrea, 176 to Cicero, 23; new science demolishes Alexander of Villedieu, 45, 112; scorns authority, 201; Poetics influences late literary curriculum, 46; see also Renaissance, 202; pseudo-Aristotelian Doctrinale works, 38 Alfonso, king of Naples, 40, 65 ars dictaminis,5,49 Alighieri, Dante, see Dante artists, social status of, 97, 101 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 188 Ascham, Roger, 192, 196 Andrelini, Fausto, 156, 157 ‘Athenians’, Hellenists at Cambridge, Antal, Friedrich, 73 195–96 Antiquity, classical, 1, 5, 9–11, 20, 21; Auberinus, Caius, 125–26, 129 humanists’ difficulty in viewing it Augustine, Saint, 20, 23, 66, 67, 207, 208 critically, 173–74, 222–23; idealized by Aurispa, Giovanni, 37 humanists, 22, 152; loss of faith in, Avicenna, 67 205–06, 217–18, 221–22; medieval dependence on, 16–17, 21; see also Bacon, Sir Francis, 217, 221–22 classical texts Bade, Josse, 120, 155, 161 Antonino, archbishop of Florence, 66 Baer, Ludwig, 166 Aquinas, Thomas, Saint, 15, 17, 18, 204; Barbaro, Ermolao, 43, 74, 122, 174 critics of his rationalism, 205, 208; revival Barbaro, Francesco, 64 of influence, 214–15 Baron, Hans, vii, 14, 30; criticisms of, Argyropoulos, Johannes, 67, 70 32–33 Ariosto, Ludovico, 182 Barzizza, Gasparino, 120 242

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Index 243

Basle, 136; Erasmus’ early visits, 163; Buonarroti, Michelangelo: see Erasmus settles there, 166–67; Peter Michelangelo Luder settles there, 109 Burckhardt, Jakob, ix, 1, 2–4, 5, 21, 30; on Beatus Rhenanus (Beát Bild von Rheinau), Renaissance festivals, 197–98 114 Busche, Hermann von dem, 114, 136, 137; Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal, 108 share in Letters of Obscure Men, 149 Beaufort, Lady Margaret, 126, 127, 195 Cabala/Cabalism: as ancient wisdom, 70, Bebel, Heinrich, 134 74, 75, 148, 211, 217, 218; in Ficino, 70; Béda, Noël, 121, 166, 170 in Giovanni Pico, 74; in Reuchlin, 116 Bekynton, Thomas, 108 Calvin, John, 154, 173, 183, 214 Bellay, Joachim du: see du Bellay, Joachim Cambridge, University of: centre of early Bellini, Giovanni, 93 ‘Erasmian’ Protestantism, 195; Erasmus Bembo, Pietro, 182 teaches at, 162; growth of collegiate Bergen, Hendrik van, bishop of Cambrai, teaching, 126–29, 192; rise in social 155, 156 status of students, 130; role of humanist Bernard of Clairvaux, 223; critic of teachers, 106, 125–29 scholastic rationalism, 208 Campanella, Tommaso, 211–12, 221 Bernini, Gianlorenzo, 95 Capito, Wolfgang Fabricius, 167, 169, 162, Beroaldo, Filippo, 103 172 Bessarion, Joannes, Cardinal, 67 Cardano, Girolamo, 214 Black, Robert, 52–3 Cartagena, Alonso de, 130; criticizes Blount, William, Lord Mountjoy, 156 Bruni’s translation of Aristotle, 108, 135 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 5, 27, 32, 76, 181, Casaubon, Isaac, 43, 222; demonstrates 183; promotes Petrarch’s fame, 26 inauthenticity of Hermetic writings, 175; Bodin, Jean, 177 and ‘French school’ of critics, 175 Boiardo, Matteo, 182 Castellesi, Adriano da Corneto, Cardinal, Bologna, University of, 5, 102, 110 208 Boscán, Juan, 186 Castiglione, Baldassare, 36; and courtly Botticelli, Sandro, 95 humanism, 73, 182, 192; on Platonic Bouwsma, William J., vii love, 181 Bracciolini, Poggio, 11, 77, 78; discovers Catherine of Aragon, queen of England, classical manuscripts, 37; in England, 194 108 Cato, Marcus Porcius (Censor), 23 Bramante, Donato, 96, 101 Cecil, William, 196 Brant, Sebastian, 124, 209 Celtis, Conrad, 117–18, 135–36; founds Brassicanus, Johannes, 138 humanist sodalities in German cities, Brethren / Sisters of the Common Life, 117–18; heads humanistic college at 104–05, 106 Vienna, 118; inaugural lecture at Briçonnet, Guillaume, bishop of Meaux, Ingolstadt, 117; non-religious character, 153 150 Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 191 Cervantes (Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra), Brués, Guy de, 218 187 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 83–85, 88, 90, 92 Chalcondyles, Demetrius, 123 Bruni, Leonardo, of Arezzo, 66, 67, 69, 75, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, king of 77, 107; Cartagena attacks his translation Bohemia, 107 of Aristotle, 108, 135; ‘civic’ humanist, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, king of 32–33; criticizes imperial myth, 32; Spain, 131, 163, 168 republican ideology, 31–33; transforms Charles V, king of France, 107 humanism, 34; translator from Greek, 37 Charles VIII, king of France, 118 Bruno, Giordano, 211–13, 221 Charron, Pierre, 221 Bucer, Martin, 144, 169, 173, 195 Cheke, John, 195–96 Budé, Guillaume, 43, 152, 165; and French Chrysoloras, Manuel, 27, 37, 67 critical tradition, 174; and Roman law, Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero), 18, 20–22, 175–76; secular nature of publications, 23, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 151 52, 53, 60, 62, 66, 67, 108, 111, 115,

244 Index

Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (cont.) d’Etaples, 122, 152; Scaliger establishes 119, 121, 159, 198, 218, 223; becomes true date, 175; source of ancient wisdom, ideal model for Latin prose style, 50, 51, 211; Valla suspects authenticity, 175 52; exemplifies Roman humanistic Disticha Catonis,47 education, 12–13, 15, 201; Petrarch Doctrinale, medieval grammar book, 45, 46, judges moral doctrine superior to 105, 112–13, 121, 134, 137, 138; persists Aristotle’s, 23; source for Academic in use through sixteenth century, 46, 48, scepticism, 15–16, 204, 207–08, 220; 50; see also Villedieu, Alexander of and Stoic philosophy, 204, 206 Dominici, Giovanni, 29 Cimabue, Giovanni, 81 Donado: see Ianua Cisneros: see Ximenes de Cisneros Donatello, 83, 84, 88, 90, 92, 96; creator of classical texts, 16; application of Quattrocento sculptural style, 85; expert philological criticism, 202; changing on ancient sculpture, 91 standards of Latin style, 48–50; Donation of Constantine, forgery of, decreased use in thirteenth-century exposed by Valla, 40–41, 194 schools, 46–47; effect of printing, 61; Donatus, manual of grammar, 45, 48, 121, gradual restoration to schoolrooms, 136, 138 47–48; loss of authority in late Dorat, Jean, 174 Renaissance, 222–23; rediscovery of, Dorp, Martin van, 165 10–11, 22, 26, 36–38; Renaissance Dringenberg, Ludwig, 114 approach to, 17–19, 20, 173–75; du Bellay, Joachim, 184 vernacular translations of, 198–99; see du Cange, Charles, 178 also Antiquity; humanism Dürer, Albrecht, 168, 188 Colet, John, 122–23, 124; hostile to pagan classical literature, 151; relations with Eck, Johannes, 140 Erasmus, 157, 161–62 education: affected by invention of Collège Royal (Royal Readers; Collège de printing, 61–62; fostered by Luther, 179; France), 178; Ramus lectures at, 217 humanistic reforms evaluated, 52, Colonna, Vittoria, 59 200–01; humanistic refoms in northern Complutensian Polyglot Bible, 131, 164, Europe, 54; humanistic ‘revolution’, in 186 Italy, 47–48, 52–54; medieval, in Italy, Constantinople: ruled by Latins, 10 44–45; role of schools in diffusing Contarini, Gasparo, Cardinal, 173 humanism, 105–06, 107, 113–14, Copernicus, Nicolaus, 212 179–81; social utility of humanistic Cousturier, Pierre (Petrus Sutor), 166 studies, 14–16; of women, 55–56; see also Cranach, Lucas (the Elder), 188 schools; universities Cranmer, Thomas, archbishop of Edward IV, king of England, 109 Canterbury, 193 Edward VI, king of England, 195, 196 Cromwell, Thomas, 125, 193–94 Elizabeth I, queen of England, 196 Crotus Rubianus (Johannes Jäger), 140, Elyot, Sir John, 192 149 Epicurus/Epicurean philosophy, 69, 206, 212, 213 Dalberg, Johann von, 111 Erasmus, Desiderius, 21, 43, 119, 120, 124, Dante (Dante Alighieri), 55, 77, 80, 81, 125, 139, 144, 148, 153, 179, 192, 204, 108, 182; praised by Bruni as ideal man, 205, 222, 223; alleged dependence on 32; and medieval culture, 7, 8 Colet, 157, 161; attacked by Noël Béda, Dati, Agostino, 49–50 121, 170; biblical scholarship attacked, della Robbia, Luca, 90 165–66; books placed on Index, 171; and Descartes, René, 4, 204, 217, 221 comma Johanneum, 63; connections in Devotio Moderna: see Modern Devotion England, 156–57, 161–62, 193–96; dictamen: see ars dictaminis criticized by Lefèvre d’Etaples, 165; Dionysius the Areopagite (pseudo-), 67, disapproved by Loyola, 180; early life and 70, 73, 222; Erasmus suspects education, 155–61; edits St Jerome, 162, authenticity, 175; Ficino makes new 164; efforts to heal religious schism, 173; translation, 69; Grocyn questions exploits power of the press, 154–55; authenticity, 123; influence on Lefèvre Henrician reformers translate works,

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193–95; programme of humanistic on Italian ‘philosophers of nature’, religious reform (philosophia Christi), 211–12; influence on Lefèvre d’Etaples, 152, 154, 157, 158–67, 163–64, 167, 122; influence on Reuchlin, 116; 172; influence in Spain, 186–87; occultist interests, 70, 71–73, 217; influences Alciati’s legal humanism, 176; philosopher, not humanist, 69, 205; influences Dürer, 168, 188; influences philosophy minimizes need for grace, 73; English Reformation, 193–95; and on Platonic love, 69, 181; translates Protestant Reformation, 167–69; Plato, Hermes, and Neoplatonists, publishes Valla’s Annotations on the New 68–69; uncritical towards sources, 175; Testament, 42, 160–61; pupil of Hegius, vernacular translation of Plato’s 105, 114; questions authenticity of Symposium, 181; see also pseudo-Dionysius, 175; relations with Plato/Platonism/Platonists Luther, 167–70; revered by younger (Neoplatonism/Neoplatonists) German humanists, 139, 162, 164; Filelfo, Francesco, 37 scholarly heir of Valla and Poliziano, 174, Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester, 126, 201; settles in Basle, 166–67; settles in 129, 162, 163, 192, 195, 196 Louvain, 166; teaches at Cambridge, Flemmyng, Robert, 108 162; uses sceptical and rhetorical Florence, 123, 191; and birth of arguments against Luther, 208–09, 216; Renaissance art, 83; centre of early visits Italy, 157–58; see also humanism, humanism, 26–27, 60; cultural Christian hegemony in Quattrocento, 25–28; Erasmus, major works of: Adages, 156, cultural change in Medicean period, 66, 157–58; Book Against the Barbarians, 69, 73–74; culturally backward in Middle 155; Colloquies, 160, 173; edition of Ages, 6; republican ideology did not Greek New Testament,161, 164–65; imply democracy, 33–34; Rome replaces Handbook of a Christian Knight as cultural centre, 60, 95; social matrix (Enchiridion), 159–60, 163, 188; Praise of for humanism, 13–14 Folly, 160, 162, 163, 173, 209–10 Fracastoro, Girolamo, 213 Erfurt, University of, 110, 117, 136, 148; Francis I, king of France, 153, 178, 183, decline after 1521, 140; inaugural lecture 191, 216 of Peter Luder, 109; successes of Frederick III, emperor, 117 humanist reformers, 138–40 Frederick (the Wise), elector of Saxony, Estienne, Henri, 174–75, 207 142, 168 Estienne, Robert, 174 Free, John, 108 evangelicals, French, 154 Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 167 Eyb, Albrecht von, 110 Froben, Johann, 155, 163, 164; Froben Eyck, Jan van: see van Eyck, Jan press, 167 Frulovisi, Tito Livio, 108 family life, humanistic treatises on, 64–65 Fedele, Cassandra, 57–58 Gaguin, Robert, 120, 122, 156, 157; not a Ferdinand I, king of Spain, 131 religious reformer, 151 Ferguson, Wallace K., vii Galen, 213 Ferrara: Este court patronizes Renaissance Galilei, Galileo, 4, 215 culture, 35, 182; school / university as Gardiner, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, centre for humanistic learning, 108–09, 194–96 117, 123 Garin, Eugenio, 76 Ferrara–Florence, Council of, 37, 67 Gellius, Aulus, 12 Fichet, Guillaume, 119–20 Geneva Academy, 173 Ficino, Marsilio, 21, 35, 74, 75, 95, 204, Gentile da Fabriano, 83 205, 208, 212; attacks Aristotelian George, duke of Saxony, 136, 137 materialism and rationalism, 68, 70; Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 83, 85, 90, 91–92; doctrines attractive to Florentine elite, describes linear perspective, 85 73; education as Platonist, 68; on human Gilmore, Myron P.,3 nature, 69, 72; immortality in his Giorgione, 96 philosophy, 68, 70; influence on Celtis, Giotto di Bondone, 80–82, 88 117; influence on Colet, 123; influence Góngora (Luís de Góngora y Argote), 187

246 Index

Gothic art: in late medieval Italy, 81–83; in Hochstraten, Jakob von, 146, 147–48 northern Europe, 188, 191 Hofmann, Crato, 114 Gournay, Marie de, 59 Holbein, Hans (the Younger),191 Grammar (Latin), manuals: see Doctrinale; Hotman, François, 176, 177 Donatus; Ianua (Donado); Perotti Howard, Henry, earl of Surrey, 184 Gratius, Ortwin, 114, 136, 149 human nature: according to Quattrocento Greek language, 114, 123, 124, 127, 132, humanists, 65–66; in Ficino’s 174–75, 178, 180, 205; Cambridge philosophy, 69, 72; in Giovanni Pico’s controversy over pronunciation, 195–96; philosophy, 69, 75–76; influence of moral crucial role in humanist educational philosophy, 204; Machiavelli’s reforms, 37–38; introduced at Florence pessimistic view, 75 by Chrysoloras, 27; mastered by Valla, humanism/humanistic studies, ix, 1, 7, 42; mastered by Poliziano, 43; mastered 102–03; and active life, 64–65, 69; by Erasmus, 157–58; mastered by Budé, adapted to despotism, 35–36, 191–92; 152; salaried professorship at Erfurt, and church reform, 150–51; ‘civic’ 139; salaried professorship at humanism, 14, 30–34, 67, 69, 77–80; Wittenberg, 142 conflict with scholasticism, 20, 62–63, Gregory VII, pope, 223 201–02, 205–06; as culture of elite Grendler, Paul F., 53 groups, 27, 30, 34–35, 36, 42, 53–54, 60, Grey, William, bishop of Ely, 108 180–81, 196–97, 200, 202–03; Grindal, William, archbishop of definition, ix, 1–2, 8–13, 221; diffused by Canterbury, 196 schools and universities, 108, 125–31, Grocyn, William, 123, 124, 157 145; distinct intellectual method, 17–20, Groote, Geert, 104 38–43, 62–63, 173–78, 201, 218, Gropper, Johannes, 173 222–23; as educational programme, Grünewald, Matthias, 188 12–13, 16, 132–35, 172–73, 197; in Guarini, Battista, 110 England, 123–30, 192–95; failure in late Guarini, Guarino, of Verona, 37, 53, 57, 91, Renaissance, 201, 205–06, 217–18; in 108, 109 France, 118–22; in French and Spanish Gunthorpe, John, 109 municipal schools, 178–80 ; generational differences among humanists, 133; in Haneron, Antonius, 111–12 Germany, 107, 109–18, 132–35, 138–44, Haskins, Charles Homer, 3 145; historical consciousness of, 19–21, Hauser, Arnold, 73 32; on human nature, 16, 64–66, 69, 72, Hay, Denys, 3 75–76, 204; as intellectual solvent, Hebrew studies, 74, 116; salaried chair at 205–06, 217–19, 222; Italy as major Wittenberg, 142 source, 104, 106; in Jesuit education, Hegius, Alexander, 105–06, 114, 134, 155 144, 180; as lay culture, 64–65; and legal Henry, king of Navarre (Henry IV, king of education, 175–76; limited scope of, 8–9, France), 219 12–13, 201; medieval studies, Henry II, king of France, 191 contribution to, 176–78; misconstrued as Henry V, king of England, 108 a philosophy, 2–4, 8–9, 12, 20–21, Henry VI, king of England, 108, 109, 127 204–05, 221; and moral philosophy, Henry VII, king of England, 109, 126, 192 15–16, 51–52, 201, 204; and neoclassical Henry VIII, king of England, 123, 125, literary aesthetic, 184, 202; opposition 157, 161 162, 191, 192, 193, 194–95, to, in Florence, 29–30; opposition to, in 196 German universities, 135–38; and origin Hermes Trismegistus/Hermetic literature, of classical philology, 39–41, 174–75, 70–71, 74, 222; Bruno regards as divine 178, 202; permeates European high revelation, 212; influence on Lefèvre culture, 202–03; philosophical d’Etaples, 122; influence on Reuchlin, implications of, 13, 14–16, 20–21, 201, 116; intellectual shoddiness, 218; proved 204–05; and printing, 60–62; and inauthentic by Casaubon, 175; source of Protestant Reformation, 115, 118, 169, ancient wisdom, 68, 70, 211, 217; 170–71, 193–95; as qualification for translated by Ficino, 68 public office, 129–31; relation to ‘liberal Herrera, Fernando de, 186 arts’, 8; relation to Renaissance art,

Index 247

91–92; and religion, 1–2, 63–64, 150; Jonson, Ben, 185 republicanism, affinity to, 13, 14, 25–26, Jouenneaux, Guy, 120 32–34, 66–67, 191, 202–03; and Julius II, Pope, 95, 97, 161 Reuchlin affair, 147–50; rhetoric, connection to, 15, 216; social criticism Kant, Immanuel, 204 in, 202–03, 223; sodalities in Germany, Key, Thomas, 195 118, 145; in Spain, 131, 186–87; textual Kristeller, Paul Oskar, vii, 9, 12, 205 naiveté of early humanists, 38–39, 42; transformed but not destroyed by Labé, Louise, 59 Protestant Reformation, 163, 171, 202; Lachmann, Karl, 174 and university reform, 132–33; use of Lactantius, 61, 66 press in controversies, 133, 145–50; Landino, Cristoforo, 74, 77, 181 usefulness to society, 13, 14–15, 16, 17, Lasco, John, à, 195 197–99; and vernacular cultures, 76–77, Latimer, William, 123–24 181–87, 197–99; see also humanism, Latini, Brunetto, 7, 8 Christian; studia humanitatis Latomus, Jacobus (Jacques Masson), 165 humanism, biblical: see humanism, law, Roman, humanistic reform of (mos Christian gallicus), 175–76 humanism, Christian: blamed for lawyers and early humanistic culture, 5, 6, Protestant Reformation, 169–70; 13 concept of reform in Erasmus, 154, Lazarillo de Tormes (anonymous novel), 186 159–61, 163–64, 167; concept of reform Lee, Edward, 165 in Lefèvre, 152–53; condemned by Lefèvre d’Etaples, Jacques, 140, 161, 170, conservative Catholics, 171; devastated 179, 183; attacked by Béda, 121; by Reformation, 169–70; divisions criticizes Erasmus, 165; early career, caused by Reformation, 172; invented by 121–22; lacks critical acumen, 175; and Lefèvre and Erasmus, 151–70; young reform of Aristotelian philosophy, Erasmians become leaders of 121–22, 152; and reform of diocese of Reformation, 169 Meaux, 153; and religious reform, Hume, David, 204, 210 152–54; turns to biblical and patristic Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 108 studies, 122, 152 Hutten, Ulrich von, 154, 194; involved in Leo X, Pope, 148, 167, 168; accepts Letters of Obscure Men, 149; publishes dedication of Erasmus’ New Testament, Valla’s Donation of Constantine,41 164 León, Luís de, 186 Ianua (Donado), manual of grammar, 45, Leonardo da Vinci, 81, 96–97, 101 47 Lescot, Pierre, 191 Index of Forbidden Books, 171, 173 letrados, role of, in Spanish administration, Innocent III, Pope, 65 130–31 International Gothic style, 82–83, 88 Letters of Obscure Men, 149–50 Isabella, queen of Spain, 131; invites Lily, William, 123–24 Cassandra Fedele to court, 58 Limbourg brothers, 88 Italy: culture dominated by laymen, 4–5; Linacre, Thomas, 123, 124, 151, 157 effects of French and Spanish invasions, Lippi, Fra Filippo, 92, 93 78–80, 95–96, 101, 118; links to Lipsius, Justus, 200, 206 northern European society, 102; main Locher, Jakob, 115 source of northern humanism, 104, logic: Agricola displaces old textbooks, 106–07; medieval cultural backwater, 11, 216; central role of, in universities, 17 112–13, 138–39; domination over theology criticized, 201–02; humanists Jerome, Saint, 152, 159, 162, 164, 208 criticize dominance in university Jesuit order (Society of Jesus): educational curriculum, 132–34; rhetoric as rival to, activities, 144, 179–80, 221 216; search for new logic, 215–17 Jimenez de Cisneros: see Ximenes de Lombard: see Peter Lombard Cisneros López Zúñiga, Diego (Jacobus Stunica), Jonas, Jodocus, 139 165

248 Index

Loschi, Antonio, 35 Marsili, Luigi, 26 Louvain university of, 110, 111, 139, 148, Martin, Alfred von, 73 150, 165: Erasmus matriculates in Mary I, queen of England (Mary Tudor), faculty of theology, 159, 166; founding of 195, 196 trilingual college, 143 Masaccio, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 188 Lovati, Lovato dei, 6, 21, 22 Masson, Jacques, see Latomus, Jacobus Loyola, Ignatius de, 64, 180 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 117, Lucian: translated by More and Erasmus, 135, 147; founds humanistic college at 124, 159; translated by Rabelais, 183 Vienna, 118 Lucretius, 212, 213 Mayerne-Turquet, Louis de, 210 Luder, Peter, 109–10, 133, 135, 143, 150; Medici, Cosimo de’, 66, 91–92; interest in aims to restore ‘good letters’, 109 reviving Platonism, 68 Lull, Ramón, 122 Medici, Florentine family, 33–34, 35, 66, Luther, Martin, 139, 148, 150, 158, 160, 68, 73, 78; restored to power, 96; abolish 166, 172, 179, 207; discovers republican constitution and take ducal revolutionary power of press, 145–46; title, 96 early reform proposals interpreted as Medici, Lorenzo de’, 74, 77, 78, 92, 95; Erasmian, 139, 167; Erasmus’ sceptical patron of humanism, 43; vernacular arguments against, 209, 216; hostility to poetry, 77, 181–82 Aristotle, 213; inﬂuence on Dürer, Medici, Piero de’, 34 168–69, 188; initially endorsed by Melanchthon, Philip, 169, 173, 195; leads Christian humanists, 154, 167–69; leads Protestant educational reforms, 142–44, reforms at Wittenberg, 140–44; 173; restores teaching of Aristotle at promotes education for all children, 179; Wittenberg, 213 relation to humanism, 141, 142; relations Mena, Juan de, 107–08, 130 with Erasmus, 167–70; repudiates Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti), scholasticism, 141, 144; Thomas More 81, 96, 97–101; vernacular poetry, 182 writes against, 125; uses books of Lefèvre Middle Ages/medieval age, 1–3, 19–20, d’Etaples and Erasmus, 141, 152 118, 181, 198; lack of historical sense, 41, 167; and origins of French law, Mabillon, Jean, 178 176–77; scorned by Petrarch, 21 McConica, James, 194 Milton, John, 184, 200, 202–03 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 75, 223; active Modern Devotion (Devotio Moderna), 104, political career, 78–79; as civic humanist, 208; alleged role in education, 104–06 34, 78–80; draws radical conclusions modistae (speculative grammarians), 114, from classics, 202–03; moral doctrines, 134 79–80; prefers ‘balanced’ republican Mommsen, Theodor E., vii government, 79; rationality and chance Montaigne, Michel de, 223; accepts Marie in politics, 80; relations with political de Gournay as literary executor, 59; as reformer Soderini, 78–79 neo-Stoic, 206; as sceptical philosopher, magic: in Campanella and Bruno, 211–12; 210, 219–21; uses Sextus Empiricus’ in Ficino, 71–73; role of demons in, sceptical tropes, 221 71–72; see also occultism Montaigu, Collège de, 119, 121, 156 Maneken, Carl (Carolus Virulus), 111 Montemayor, Jorge de, 185, 187 Manetti, Giannozzo, 30, 69, 75, 77; on Montfaucon, Bernard de, 178 human nature, 65–66, 72 Montreuil, Jean de, 107 Mannerism, 96, 101 moral philosophy, linked to humanism, 15, Mantegna, Andrea, 92–93, 188 51–52, 132, 201 Manutius, Aldus (Aldo Manuzio), 125, More, Sir Thomas, 122, 124–25, 157, 192, 155, 157–58 196; secular nature of humanist works, Marguerite, duchess of Angoulême, 153, 151; translates Gianfrancesco Pico’s life 183; as author and patron of humanists, of Giovanni Pico, 124 59 Moryson, Richard, 194 Marlowe, Christopher, 184 Mosellanus, Petrus: see Petrus Mosellanus Marot, Clément, 183 Münster, humanistic school at, 114, 137 Marshall, William, 194 Mussato, Albertino, 6, 21

Index 249

Mutianus Rufus (Konrad Mut), 114, 138, Parlement of Paris, 153, 170, 177 148; never an active reformer, 154 Parr, Catherine, 195 Pasquier, Etienne, 177 Nanni di Banco, 85 Patrizi, Francesco, 211–13 Nebrija, Antonio de, 130–31, 187 Paul II, Pope, 60 Neoplatonism/Neoplatonists: see Pellikan, Conrad, 169 Plato/Platonism/Platonists Perger, Bernhard, 113, 135 Neumarkt, Johannes von, 107 Perotti, Niccolò, 46, 48, 49, 53, 113, 121, Newton, Sir Isaac, 221 134 Niccoli, Niccolò de’, 30, 32, 66, 91, 107; perspective, aerial, 88; linear (single-point, and search for classical texts, 36–37 vanishing point): in Brunelleschi and Nicholas of Cusa, Cardinal, 194, 204, Donatello, 85, 88; described in Ghiberti’s 209 Commentarii, 85; discovered by Nicholas V, Pope, 38, 60, 95 Brunelleschi, 88, 90; in Masaccio, 88; Nogarola, Ginevra: educational career ends method explained by Alberti, 90; not upon marriage, 56–57 found in Giotto, 82 Nogarola, Isotta: adopts pious and reclusive Perugino, Pietro, 101 lifestyle, 57; falsely accused of moral Peter Lombard, bishop of Paris, 18, turpitude, 57; famous humanist belittles 144 her efforts, 57; gains classical education, Peter of Ravenna (Petrus Tommai), 57 146–47, 149 notaries: professional identity of Salutati, Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), 7, 9, 16, 20, 26–27; role of, in early humanism, 5, 6, 21, 22, 27, 32, 34, 36, 39, 43, 47, 49, 53, 13 55, 61, 65, 67, 76, 77, 81, 106, 107, 119, 124, 153, 181, 182, 183, 184, 203, 204, occultism: in Ficino, 71–73; in Giovanni 223; Agricola’s biography of, 111; Pico, 74–75; in Reuchlin, 116–17; conception of history, 19–21, 22; conflict reflects intellectual confusion of age, of active and contemplative ideals, 217–18; see also magic 22–23; criticism of scholastic method, Ockham, William of, 205, 218 18, 205; early education in France, 11; Oecolampadius, Johannes, 169, 195 on human nature, 75; idea of ‘Dark Oresme, Nicolas, 107 Ages’, 3, 19; influences educational Orpheus: in G. Pico’s works, 74; source of reformers, 13, 15, 24, 25, 44; seeks a ancient wisdom, 211 ‘Renaissance’, 5, 21 Overfield, James, 147 Petrus Hispanus (Peter of Spain), 121, 142, Oxford, University of, 106, 123, 124, 157; 216 and humanism, 125–29; rise of collegiate Petrus Mosellanus (Petrus Schade), 165 teaching, 126–29, 192; rise in social Peuerbach, Georg, 110 status of students, 130 Pfefferkorn, Johannes, 147–49 Philip II, king of Spain, 131 Pace, Richard, 192 ‘philosophers of nature’, Italian, 211–12 Padua, university of, 5, 6, 74, 102, 108, philosophy: collapse of traditional 109, 110, 123; see also ‘pre-humanism’ authorities, 217–18; no major Palencia, Alfonso, de, 130 philosopher during Renaissance, 204; Palmieri, Matteo, 65, 69, 75, 77, 181 translators from Greek recover little- Pannartz, Arnold, 60 known philosophical authors, 206; see papacy: becomes major patron of also Epicurus/Epicurean philosophy; Renaissance art, 96; as employer of humanism, misconstrued as a humanists, 37–38, 60; securely restored philosophy; humanism, philosophical to Rome, 95 implications of; Paracelsus (Theophrast Bombast von Plato/Platonism/Platonists; scepticism; Hohenheim), 213–14 scholasticism; Stoicism Paris, University of, 74, 102, 119, 148, 150, Pico della Mirandola, Gianfrancesco, 124, 156, 166, 183; faculty condemns Lefèvre 211, 218, 219; fideist outlook, 208, 217; and Erasmus, 170; has humanist publishes Examen vanitatis, 208; writes lecturers from early date, 119 biography of Giovanni Pico, 124

250 Index

Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni: debate Pollaiuolo, Antonio del, 92 with Barbaro on philosophy vs rhetoric, Pomponius Laetus, 117 74; early life and studies, 74–75; human Post, R. R., 105 nature, treatise on, 69, 74–76; influence ‘pre-humanism’, at Padua, 6–7, 21–22 on Italian ‘philosophers of nature’, 211; printing: crucial to Erasmus’ career, influence on Lefèvre d’Etaples, 122; 154–55; impact of, on humanistic influence on Reuchlin, 116; occultist scholarship, 61–62; introduced in Italy, interests, 74–75; Platonic philosopher, 60–61; introduced at Paris, 119, 120; not humanist, 69, 76, 205; religious origin in Germany, 60; role of, in universalism, 75; studies Hebrew diffusion of humanism, 38, 61–62, language and Cabala, 74 198–99; shops as centres for humanist Piero della Francesca, 92–95, 188 careers, 145; use in polemics, 145–50 Pirckheimer, Willibald, 103 Protestant Reformation, 141, 150, 167; Pistoris, Maternus, 139 allegedly caused by humanism, 169–70; Pithou, Pierre, 177 efforts to end religious schism, 173; Plato/Platonism/Platonists endangers Erasmus’ reform programme, (Neoplatonism/Neoplatonists), 9, 35, 66, 166, 168–69; reformers regard 67, 74, 76, 123, 175, 187, 198, 212, 218; humanism as a means, not an end, 171; affinity to despotic regimes, 73–74; relations to humanism, 115, 118, 150, appeals to small elite, 70; Council of 169, 170–71; stimulates sceptical Ferrara–Florence stimulates, 67; Ficino’s thought, 206–7; young Erasmian Platonic Academy, 68, 70; and humanists become its leaders, 169; see Florentine culture; 69, 73–74; influence also Christian humanism; humanism; on Colet, 123; influence on Italian Luther, Martin ‘philosophers of nature’, 211–12; Pulci, Luigi, 74, 182 influence on Lefèvre d’Etaples, 122, 152; Pyrrhonism: cited by Agrippa, 210; cited by influence on Reuchlin, 116; and magic, Rabelais, 210; influenced Montaigne, 71–73; influenced by late Byzantine 219–21; little interest in, during Middle culture, 67–68; medieval familiarity with, Ages, 207; spreads in late Renaissance, 67; and modern philosophy, 215; 218; see also scepticism; Sextus opinions on human nature, 72, 75–76; Empiricus Platonic love, 69, 181; popularized in Pythagoras, 70, 211, 218 vernacular translations and literature, 77, 181, 185; and Renaissance art, 95, 97; Quattrocento art, 83–95 result of Greek revival, 37–38; source for Quintilian, 38, 40, 111; Institutes More’s Utopia, 124; universities did not rediscovered, 37; as textbook of rhetoric, teach, 206; works of Plato and major 142, 216 Neoplatonists translated by Ficino, 68–69; see also Ficino, Marsilio; Pico Rabelais, François, 183, 205, 210–11 della Mirandola, Giovanni Ramus, Peter (Pierre de la Ramée), Pléiade, the (French poets), 183–84, 216–17, 218 219 Raphael (Raffaele Sanzio), 81, 96, 101 Pletho, Georgios Gemistos, 67–68 Raulin, Jean, 119 Pliny the Elder (Caius Plinius Secundus), Ravenna, Peter of: see Peter of Ravenna 38, 92, 198; Natural History replaces relativism, cultural: in late Renaissance, Aristotle at Wittenberg, 142, 213 222; in Montaigne, 220 Plotinus, translated by Ficino, 69, 71 Renaissance, ix, 1–2; criticisms of term, Poets and Mathematicians, College of: see 2–3; defined as change in mentality, Vienna College of Poets and 10–11; in Middle Ages, 2–4; influence on Mathematicians vernacular literatures, 181; misogynistic Poggio: see Bracciolini, Poggio tradition continues, 54; role of classical Pole, Reginald, 123, 194 revival in, 10–11, 16–19; seeks rebirth of Poliziano, Angelo, 35, 51, 74, 77, 123, 174, Antiquity, 19; see also Petrarch, 181, 186; and critical evaluation of conception of history manuscripts, 42–43; influence on legal Renaissance art: High-Renaissance humanism, 175–76 style, 96–101; in Italy, 80–101;

Index 251

Mannerist style, 96, 101; in northern Scaliger, Josephus Justus, 43, 175, 222; Europe, 187–91; Quattrocento style, proves late date of Dionysius the 83–95 Areopagite, 175 republics: foster growth of humanism, 14, scepticism: ancient sources of, 208; in 25–26, 30–34 Agrippa, 209; in Castellesi, 208; Erasmus Reuchlin, Johann, 142, 154; controversy uses against Luther, 209; in over Jewish books, 147–50; early career, Gianfrancesco Pico, 208; in Montaigne, 116–17; learns Greek at Paris, 119; most 219–21; reflects failure of humanist humanists stay neutral, 148; Platonic and aspirations, 217–18; in religious occultist interests, 116–17; studies polemics, 218; stimulated by Hebrew and Cabala, 116 Reformation, 206–07; in Suares, 219; see rhetoric: Barbaro defends against Pico, 74; also Academic scepticism; Pyrrhonism devalued by Florentine Platonists, Schade, Petrus: see Petrus Mosellanus 69–70; relation to humanism, 14–15; scholasticism, 17–18, 127, 211; compatible rival to rationalist logic, 201, 204, with occultist beliefs, 217; criticized by 215–16; seeks probable conclusions, 16 humanists, 16. 18, 24, 153, 201, 205–06, Richard II, king of England, 129 215; criticized for reliance on Aristotelian Richard III, king of England, 109 logic, 215; disdained by Italian Rienzo, Cola di, 107 ‘philosophers of nature’, 212; as an Rinuccini, Cino, 29 intellectual method, 17–19, 20; Rojas, Fernando de, 130, 186 intellectualism, 14–15, 215–16; Luther’s Rome, 109, 123; Erasmus views as centre determination to destroy it, 142–43, 213; of corruption, 164–65; replaces Florence neo-scholastic revival in sixteenth as cultural leader in sixteenth century, century, 214–15; partial survival in 95 Wittenberg curriculum, 143–44, 213; Ronsard, Pierre de, 184 remains dominant in university Rossi, Roberto de’, 30 curriculum, 4, 9, 201–02; repudiated by Rubianus, Crotus: see Crotus Rubianus Geert Groote, 104 theologians attack Erasmus, 165–66; theologians condemn St Lebwin’s School, Deventer, 105–06, Lefèvre and Erasmus, 170 114, 155 Schongauer, Martin, 188 St Maur, Congregation of, 178 schools: and diffusion of humanism, 76, St Paul’s School, London, 123–24; 105–06, 107, 113–14, 115, 179–81; in Erasmus’ role in foundation, 157, France and Spain, 179–80; in late 161–62; Colet’s original curriculum medieval Italy, 44–54; Latin and abbaco hostile to pagan classics, 151 types in Italy, 44–45; Jesuits and, 180; St Peter’s basilica, 95, 101 textbooks used, 44–48 Salutati, Coluccio, 21, 31, 35, 36, 43, 49, Scotus, John Duns, 205 61, 64, 65, 66, 77; career, public and Sélestat, humanistic school at, 114 literary, 26–30; exemplar of active life, Sextus Empiricus: cited by critics of 28; introduces study of Greek, 27; Aristotelian rationalism, 208; criticizes promotes Petrarch’s reputation, 26–27; sensory knowledge, 207; early influence rejects scholastic intellectualism, 116; of, 208; influence on Montaigne, retains use of medieval dictamen style in 219–21; publication of works, 207, 210, official documents, 49; transforms 218; see also Montaigne, scepticism humanism, 34 Shakespeare, William, 184–86, 200 Sanches, Francisco, 219 Sibylline oracles, 211 Sandford, James, 210 Sidney, Sir Philip, 185 Sannazaro, Jacopo, 185, 186, 187 Smith, Thomas, 195–96 Santillana, marquis of (Iñigo López de Socrates, 223 Mendoza), 107, 130 Soderini, Piero, 78, 79 Sanzio, Raffaele: see Raphael Sohier, Hector, 191 Savonarola, Girolamo, 64, 77, 78 Spalatin, Georg, 140, 141 Saxony, duke of: see George, duke of Spenser, Edmund, 185 Saxony Standonck, Jean, 119, 151 Scala, Alessandra, 58 Starkey, Thomas, 194

252 Index

Stoicism, 9, 200, 204, 206; in Montaigne Annotations on New Testament, 42, and Lipsius, 206, 219; rejected by 160–61; Elegances, 40; Emendationes Manetti, 65–66; rejected by Valla, 65 Livianae, 40; exposes Donation of studia humanitatis, 8, 9, 11, 201, 204; Constantine as forgery, 40–41, 194; classical origins, 12–13; philosophical favours Quintilian over Cicero, 40; implications, 13; see also humanism favours rhetoric over dialectic, 216; on Stunica, Jacobus: see López Zúñiga, Diego historical development of language, Surigone, Stefano, 125 39–42; On Pleasure, 65; pioneer of textual Surrey, earl of: see Howard, Henry criticism, 38–42, 174, 194, 201; Sutor, Petrus: see Cousturier, Pierre questions authenticity of pseudo- Sweynheym, Conrad, 60 Dionysius, 175; translates Greek authors, Synthen, Johannes, 105 42 van Bergen, Hendrik: see Bergen, Hendrik Talon,Omer, 218 van, bishop of Cambrai Tartaret, Guillaume, 142 van Dorp, Martin: see Dorp, Martin van Tasso, Torquato, 182, 187 van Eyck, Hubert and Jan, 88, 188 Taverner, Richard, 193 Vasari, Giorgio, 80–81 Telesio, Bernardino: Epicurean materialism Vega, Garcilaso de, 186 of, 212; one of Italian ‘philosophers of Vega, Lope de, 187 nature’, 211–13; works known to Francis Veneziano, Domenico, 92 Bacon, 221 Venice: preserves independence, 101; as Terence,50, 125–26, 129 printing centre, 61, 123, 157–58; slow to Thomas à Kempis, 104, 208 accept humanism, 35–36; Venetian style Tifernate, Gregorio, 119 in art, 92–93 Tiptoft, John, 108 Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro), 50, 53, Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), 96 115, 182, 183, 184, 186 Tottel’s Miscellany, 184 vernacular culture: humanist influence on, Toussain,Jacques, 174 181–87; in England, 184–86; in France, Traversagni, Lorenzo, 125 183–84; in Italy, 181–82; in Spain, Trent, Council of, 171, 180, 203 186–87 trilingual colleges, 143 Verocchio, Andrea, 96 ‘Trojans’, Cambridge conservatives, Vienna College of Poets and 195 Mathematicians, 118, 135–36 Villani, Filippo, 82 Uccello, Paolo, 92 Villedieu, Alexander of, 45; see also Udall, Nicholas, 195 Doctrinale universalism, religious, 74–75 Vinsauf, Geoffrey of, 49 universities: centres for diffusion of Virulus, Carolus: see Maneken, Carl humanism, 107; early humanist masters Visconti, Giangaleazzo, duke of Milan, 28, hold subordinate positions, 112–13; 30 English, 125–29; German, conflict over Vitelli, Cornelio, 125 reforms, 134, 135–38; humanistic reform Vitrier, Jean, 159 demands, 132–34; Italian organizational Vittorino da Feltre (Vittorino Rambaldoni model differs from northern, 44; Luther da Feltre), 39 as reformer of curriculum, 140–44; medieval arts curriculum emphasizes Wakefield, Richard, 193 dialectic/logic, 106, 112; successes by Warham, William, archbishop of German humanist academic reformers, Canterbury, 163 138–44; traditional scholasticism Watt, Joachim von: see Vadian remains dominant, 4, 9 Waynflete, William, bishop of Winchester, Urbino, court of, 36, 73, 182 126 Wilson, Thomas, 192 Vadian (Joachim von Watt), 169 Wimpheling, Jakob, 114, 115–16 Valdés, Juan de, 187 Windesheim, Congregation of, 104 Valla, Lorenzo, 21, 43, 51, 63, 66, 70, 113, Wittenberg, University of, 136, 138; Luther 119, 120, 127, 174, 204, 206, 222, 223; leads curricular reforms, 140–44;

Index 253

survival of parts of scholastic curriculum, Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 184 143–44; as trilingual college, 143 Wykeham, William of, bishop of women: and humanistic learning, ix, x; Winchester, 126 eﬀects of exclusion from Latin schools, Wyle, Niclas von, 110 55–56; exceptional educated women face social discrimination, 56; lack of Ximenes de Cisneros, Francisco, Cardinal, educational opportunities, 55–56; 131 marriage as impediment to intellectual aspirations, 56–57; misogyny and social Zoroaster, as source of ancient wisdom, 74, restrictions, 54–56; printing and 211 vernacular translations mitigate Zwingli, Huldrych, 169 exclusion, 55